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    © All Rights Reserved
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    12 views17 pages

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    Uploaded by

    Krishan Pal Singh

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 17
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Castl RHR OCIS 9 dine ‘ q Le o(n) prroeesors, os] MS e118] 8 Ne i | [2/4 a z, 4 2 z 4 B ‘4 e eH lea pu jo HL poral t | Recursive coubly 0 Pree govt c Ae numbces of £ an ol 2oqn) sown sima.t tn) 2K Pin) pout garocessons fo C (or}isyo) use Con suede due amd shi) Aches qinve us an © oN \ dedi or arcae Clammendy Logn Sabana, J seems yteluig she gpsefert Compe u packaack’ irs eee ane myer Corn peo Compute UU “tat parcted use why Que roo ee 540% Pp Sub coving “ae ai BEBE Se ihr ale RSID ae . chk Ise job a Pol alan “pce ‘ol do que, pos caltet aac problem 6. In computer science and operations research, approximation algorithms are algorithms used to find approximate solutions to optimization problems. Approximation algorithms are often associated with NP-hard problems; since it is unlikely that there can ever be efficient polynomial time exact algorithms solving NP-hard problems, one settles for polynomial time sub-optimal solutions. Unlike heuristics, which usually only find reasonably good solutions reasonably fast, one wants provable solution quality and provable run time bounds. Ideally, the approximation is optimal up to a small constant factor (for instance within 5% of the optimal solution). Approximation algorithms are increasingly being used for problems where exact polynomial-time algorithms are known but are too expensive due to the input size. A typical example for an approximation algorithm is the one for vertex cover in graphs: find an uncovered edge and add both endpoints to the vertex cover, until none remain. It is clear that the resulting cover is at most twice as large as the optimal one. This is a constant factor approximation algorithm with a factor of 2. NP-hard problems vary greatly in their approximability; some, such as the bin packing problem, can be approximated within any factor greater than 1 (such a family of approximation algorithms is often called a polynomial time approximation scheme or PTAS). Others are impossible to approximate within any constant, or even polynomial factor unless P = NP, such as the maximum clique problem. NP-hard problems can often be expressed as integer programs (IP) and solved exactly in exponential time. Many approximation algorithms emerge from the linear programming relaxation of the integer program, Not all approximation algorithms are suitable for all practical applications. They often use IP/LP/Semidefinite solvers, complex data structures or sophisticated algorithmic techniques which lead to difficult implementation problems. Also, some approximation algorithms have impractical running times even though they are polynomial time, for example O(n"), Yet the study of even very expensive algorithms is not a completely theoretical pursuit as they can yield valuable insights. A classic example is the initial PTAS for Euclidean TSP due to Sanjeev Arora which had prohibitive running time, yet within a year, Arora refined the ideas into a linear time algorithm. Such algorithms are also worthwhile in some applications where the running times and cost can be justified eg. computational biology, financial engineering, transportation planning, and inventory management. In such scenarios, they must compete with the corresponding direct IP formulations, Another limitation of the approach is that it applies only to optimization problems and not to "pure" decision problems like satisfiability, although it is often possible to conceive optimization versions of such problems, such as the maximum satisfiability problem. Inapproximability has been a fruitful area of research in computational complexity theory since the 1990 result of Feige, Goldwasser, Lovasz, Safa and Szegedy on the inapproximability of Independent Set, After Arora et af. proved the PCP theorem a year 4 later, it has now been shown that Johnson's 1974 approximation algorithms for Max SAT, Set Cover, Independent Set and Coloring all achieve the optimal approximation ratio, assuming P != NP. Optimization problem In mathematics and computer science, an optimization problem is the problem of finding the best solution from all feasible solutions. More formally, an optimization problem A is a quadruple (J,f,m,g), where + Tis set of instances; + given an instance x is element of I, f(x) is the set of feasible solutions; ‘+ given an instance x and a feasible solution y of x, 7(x,)) denotes the measure of Y, which is usually a positive real + gis the goal function, and is either min or max, Heuristic algorithm In computer science, a heuristic algorithm, or simply a heuristic, is an algorithm that is able to produce an acceptable solution to a problem in many practical scenarios, in the fashion of a general heuristic, but for which there is no formal proof of its correctness. Alternatively, it may be correct, but may not be proven to produce an optimal solution, or to use reasonable resources. Heuristics are typically used when there is no known method to find an optimal solution, under the given constraints (of time, space efc.) or at all. Two fundamental goals in computer science are finding algorithms with provably good run times and with provably good or optimal solution quality. A heuristic is an algorithm that abandons one or both of these goals; for example, it usually finds pretty good solutions, but there is no proof the solutions could not get arbitrarily bad; or it usually runs reasonably quickly, but there is no argument that this will always be the case. For instance, say you are packing odd-shaped items into a box. Finding a perfect solution is a hard problem: there is no known way to do it that is significantly faster than trying every possible way of packing them. What most people do, then, is "put the largest items in first, then fit the smaller items into the spaces left around them." This will not necessarily be perfect packing, but it will usually give a packing that is pretty good. It is an example of a heuristic solution. Several heuristic methods are used by antivirus software to detect viruses and other malware. Judea Pearl computer problem solving, using several altemative approaches | states that heuristic methods are based upon intelligent search strategies for Often, one can find specially crafted problem instances where the heuristic will in fact produce very bad results or run very slowly; however, such pathological instances might never occur in practice because of their special structure. Therefore, the use of heuristics is very common in real world implementations. For many practical problems, a heuristic algorithm may be the only way to get good solutions in a reasonable amount of time. There is a class of general heuristic strategies called metaheuristics, which often use randomized search for example. They can be applied to a wide range of problems, but ‘good performance is never guaranteed. 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