LL a NS re Biology: a concise revision course for CSEC calcium carbonate to harden i, and is held together at Pty membranes ey © Endoskeleton, hard skeleton lies Inside the body, surroyn, eg vertebrates, The skeleton is made from bone and carte’ by tothe at ons By tough east ligaments. Bone sco ABE argh cells surrounded by non-living mineral Sts, mainly cam S58 af hy collagen protein fibres. Cartlage 1s composed of living eS" Sar inrl ses ard moe cole fies than bone ma elastic moe “ty i ‘STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETON. ‘The skeleton is divided into two main parts, the axial skeleton appendicular skeleton (sce Fig. 93, P. 49) 29d the 1 The axial skeleton ‘This consists ofthe skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum ‘The skulls made up of the fused erantum and upper Jaw, and the hich articulates with the upper jaw to allow chewing. The cranjus O° composed of several fattened, ght intrtocing. immovable bene® 2 round ase to enclose and protect the brain. Paited sense caps hi the eyes, middle and inner ears and nasal cavities. ls bron The vertebral column is composed of 33 vertebrae in Man, 46 ina ny vertebrae have the same basic structure. ba Neural sie - proces corsa, or rmosce an garment atathment Newel ac Newel cone HOUSE and protec spina cor Tansee process - procs ‘or macle and igamen stant” Posterior face | Arteuate wth oot of Anter facet f adjacent venatrae semiting t Slight movement Centum - venta ender of bone, Mesasonemme Sheehan } vertebra ‘separate cena of adjacent venebrae Fig. 9.5 Human vertebraeMovement and support Neu spre ot ~ mel otacinent New na fe ‘Anterior facet — Kl Tansee paces > Aretorvew ofa rests thorace vertebra showing Centon fort ation sxicuston Whar * Nast pce vat Sern ey attachment of lage ccm Aetrex Tees poss Gena vetncoont severe Scorn we bende ng © Sormaces Srerssngon Fig. 9.5 Continued © Anterior view ofa lumbar vertebra Tans poets soratcos cons scasing ce ever a - Soc ane 6 ater view of ro neta et ott Tintervetere shoving row ty arcuate Noe Rie 2 The appendicular skeleton ‘This consists of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, forelimbs and hindlimbs. Girdles «© Form an almost rigid connection between the axial skeleton and the limbs providing support for the body. «s Due to the width of the girdles, the limbs are separated which contributes to the stability of the animal. They have areas modified for attachment of muscles which move the limbs. Limbs: both forelimbs and hindlimbs are built on the same basic plan, the pentadactyl limb. «¢ Joints between all limb bones allow easy locomotion Long limb bones provide a large surface area for attachment of muscles which move the limbs. ‘= Long limb bones provide support. 51—” SSE Biology: a concise revision course for CSEC nang Pete a _— Pee — pret oe S$ ba ang eta fees Fem vanes ne eg Tea ous eva hk Sing jr Twas ert, ——(S, are toes Seectees = Naver F5B8— ‘eer Pratnge- Pralonges— — {Fos 5 ae frager bores i y eran rub itt FUNCTIONS OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETON 1 Support of soft body parts: vertebral column, girdles, limbs. 2 Movement: vertebral column, limbs. 3 Protection: shll protects the brain and sense organs of the head; vena | column protects the spinal cord; ribs protect the lungs and hear 4 Manufacture of red and white blood cells: in red bone marrow of he Pelvis, scapula, ribs, stemum, vertebrae, skull. Locomotion —sovement is brought about by muscles working across joins, Muses ets in Man __ Pull when they contract, but cannot push when they relax; two muscles at therefore needed to produce movement at a joint, an antagonistic pale. flexor muscle bends the joint, the extensor muscle straightens the jot. Joints are formed where two bones meet. There are three types of joint 1 Immovable joints (sutures): bones are fused allowing no movement. 2 bones of the cranium and pelvic girdle, They provide strength, support = protection, Partially movable Joints: bones are separated by cartilage pads © Gliding joint: bones side over each other allowing a wide range of Movements, e.g. between carpals and tarsals. * PWvot join: between atlas and aris permitting twisting of head‘Movement and support 3 Movabl Carers gts (synovial joints): articulating surfaces ofthe bones are Tee nine speed ty pei * Hinge joint: allows me fenton: alows movenent in one plane andi capable of bearing 0 Be aOR. £8 elbow, knee, ger joints socket joint allows movement in all planes, ., shoulder, hip ioins Fel (o pector grte ecu pale -comgosed of aN ‘ligaments, holes bones togetner Sova nena - arcing Soe: we feces cin fe tenveen toes Seton ashok Soper Femur rarer Fig, 98 Section through a ’ ; al and socket join Hinge jot (tom it Una Bins ae ramront af 6 ‘When the biceps muscle (fexc) relates andthe triceps muscle ‘oaee ORES aso (extensor contracts, the lower forelimb is extended. ‘THE IMPORTANCE OF LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS ‘Animals must move to search for food. Plants make their own food and their foots must be anchored in the soil to obtain water and mineral salts. rr“He Biology: a concise revision course for CSEC mals must move to search for a mate to ensure sperms fetlise ova ‘Myon exerel ape wd ond animals. 0 cay pollen 0 ores oy fertilisation. Animals also move to: + Escape predation « Distrbuce offspring ‘Prevent overcrowding * Avoid danger. ‘© Avoid waste products.| Sensitivity and co-ordination Some « stimulus. a change in the environment, * Response: charge in definitions * Response: » change in an cram or pa oan ens, bout abut © Receptor: part of an ‘oFganism which detects the stimulus: sen: «imal, tps of rots and shoots in plants Renmeeag ctor: part of an organism which responds to the stimulus: muscles and glands in animals, 1 and glands in ainas, gon ist behind the tip tote a shoo Responses Of invertebrates. eg milipedes, eanhwoxs, woodlice, fk it invertebrates whole body tovards or away tom el ge uel aie | | (taxes) Stimulus | Response MiG asia it Tove anay fom igitinto dark | Vader tobe sen by predators arose Wosure | Move avay fom ary ares ito | Prevents cesicoton, most areas especialy of reais without a waterpton outer covering Rough suraces | Wore avoy for smooth | Easierto mov on oud Suraces ont rough sureces | sufeces can escape pedstrs ror randy Thamicas fom | Move tovars chemicals Gren | Foods essential or sun food off by food Touch ove avay orca up when | Ads ecape from predators touches Tow ito cack and erevees | Harder o be seen and reached ‘Sal spaces fees a Bavemesoftmperature affect, pratur ‘Move away from extremes of ‘Table 10.4 Invertebrate Tospersiee ‘temperature ‘enzyme activity responses 55 = —<$$——————ay logy: Biok concise revision Cot contains taste buds com, face of the (or cect chemicals dissolved feo! s wurse for CSEC JuMAN The upper SU" jhich Hi runs of sensory cele Wt Caste bud sensitive to four qifen St rout ki ; receptors Fou. Tere ae Ot A Tpese are concentrated in ciferen ete” — the tongue noe oro, on . Tey swotegon Upper satay tongue Fig. 20.4 & taste bud The nose — the root of the nasal passage contains olfactory organs composed of sensory cells which detect chemicals in the air entering the nose. The sene ‘of smell is rapidly fatigued. N.B, Sensation of flavour is @ combination of both smell and taste. The eye the eye decects light reflected from objects and converts it to nerve Impus which are transmitted to the brain where a precise image of the object is perceived PROTECTION OF THE EYE {Sts sockets inthe sll which protect the back three-quaes a . close to protect the eye a avg! Byes: dos eye against dust and bright lh + Eyelashes: trap dust near the ¢ * ¥e. 5 Gonlumetiva: protects the delicate comea from scratching Tei Sands (above eyeball produce tears which keep the conjunc iu ash away dust particles and contain an enzyme which dese bacteria. Te 8 the eyeg oa St” away via the lachrymal duets in the inner comBiology: a concise revision course for CSEC censitve to colour and function in high light intensities. Most are located ‘composed entirely of cones. errs and Ble pas ofthe Spectum Wie pu -ereases sree are three types of cones which detect thy ‘crestor ‘rount of Cr aon ‘muscles contact aca musces arom pai = ee Fig. 10.4 The iis/puril regues amount response to contol the aca orien eneree ‘amount of light entering rut conact| ty, roveting damage oretna the ve 2 aim gnt nigh ent (omen bends it ys Lig ys focus on fren Cary muscle lowes — crcurfrence increases Sespenscry laments Dalles ven cian, must Lge rays tom distant ORE ieee Lens pled hn ‘Trinlene bend eta slg foes on etna ‘2 Focusing ona dlstant object Lana fous on Core bends ent ye Soe of rete Clary muscle contacts croumforence decreases ‘Suspensory ligaments secon igi ap fem row object Lens ic alowod to span into. bulged shave Thick ona bends Ret ays ‘lott focus on etna 'b Focusing ona near object Fig. 10.5 Accommodation - the mechanism by which the shape of the lens is changed to focus light coming fom diferent distances a eaeememeeiaiiibiieemeneFig. 10.8 The cause of short sight and its conection Fig. 10.7 The cause of long sight and its corection Sensitivity and co-ordination SIGHT DEFECTS AND THEIR CORRECTIONS ‘Short sight (myopia) Light from near ot Pear Objects is focused on the retina; light from distant objects is focused in front of th nt of the retina. Ca op Sigh fc to back, or the lens being tag eGo» the evebal being too long rom front irda a8 from, aay ‘Focus of right rays from distant toy etre crerton = fet ee i etree vert om bends pt ys Foci fg 9s fom outa tere exo ‘an jer at eon Long sight (hypermetropia) Light from distant objects is focused on the retina: light from near objects is. focused behind the retina. Caused by the eyeball being too short from front to back, or the lens being too fla, gi rays rom Feu of at a from near otect bore conection ~benind rena Comers ins bends gn ye Foes of it ra rom near object Irwords bore entenng re oe afer coneeton on retna ‘Astigmatism Light rays in one plane focus on the retina those in other planes do not focus ‘on the retina, Caused by the surface ofthe lens and/or cornea being curved irregularly. Correction isto wear regulary curved lenses which compensate for the iregular curvature inthe eye Cataract Caused when the lens becomes opaque so that light cannot pass through ‘Treatment is to remove the lens and wear strong spectacles or contact lenses, replace the lens with an artificial lens, or clear the lens with laser treatment. elBiology: a concise revision course for CSEC Old sight ‘The lens loses elasticity andthe cilary muscle becomes weaker with age: the lens niefore less able to curve and the person becomes progressively more long Sighted. Correction Is to wear converging lenses. Short sight improves with age Glaucoma Caused by an inctease in pressure within the eye due to a blockage in the flow Gf aqueous humour Symptoms include a painful inflamed, tender eye and a halovaround objects in the visual field. Treatment is to use eye drops or oral medication to reduce pressure, of surgery to open drainage canals. The ear* the ear has wo functions 1 Detection of sound waves: the ear converts sound waves to nerve impulses which ate transmitted to the brain where they produce the sensation of hearing 2 Detection of position and movement of the head relative to gravity; balance. Pra ~calects and cect Three semi-ceulrcanal in send woes io at panes at 90" to each ater — Kec aets—entings Pesymon Eran seus | Ear ses — function sootune J inbence Autor rene ~ cates mous rm er eat brain val window) nemranes oer ound window } Shoes ns ee Bone of a ' ' uetachian tube — Ne ane! leads fp of troat tt tt ear Fa es are ates 1 lea Tf es Fig. 10.8 The human oor 60F108 The mechanism of nearing ‘Sensitivity and co-ordination @ Longitudinal secton through the eochiea ~ urwound Endoimah of mgs can Pesigmph of, ‘pper cana ty a Sensory ha eos = (1g ot cor ee embed in jy pate Basle membrone rach et audtoy neve tench ot Ber cara ' Transverse socton through the cochlea @ Sound waves, drecod ino outer er cana by pinna, cause ane Membrane over oval window vérates. @ Poriymph of uoper canal vats. © Vibrations are varsmited though endolymph cf middle canal o perilymph of tower canal, causing basilar membrane to vbate Sensory hair cols on basa membrane ‘are pushed and puled against jelly plate causing nerve pulses tobe tensed ‘long auditor nerve to ban © Remaining vibrations pass away trou round window. FUNCTION OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE ‘The Eustachian tube keeps the pressure on either side of the ear drum constant, preventing the drum from bursting. fa Ifthe pressure in the outer ear increases, eg. descencing in an aircraft. the ‘ear drum bulges inwards, Swallowing forces air up the Eustachian tube into the middle ear and pushes the drum back to Its orginal position b Ifthe pressure in the outer ear decreases, eg. ascending in an aircraft. the ear drum bulges outwards. The Eustachian tube opens releasing the Eneees pressure from the middle ear and the drum returns to Its original position, The skin tors (neve endings) which detect touch, pressure, The skin has rece! .d hal movement. temperature, pain an‘ 61 el_— Biology: a concise revision cours Table 10.2 Woy in which ‘the human shin eps to raintan a constant body vemperate e for CSEC dination co. ome coro! ne inMan % vo =< = ¥ ‘ ser ; on SR 2 conto by he ble 3 nd noone ene carat IME SKIN AND TEMPERATURE REGULATION | Peeve woe boy epee changes i he + ober cure, 0 ln STEN A ce The human Srna eres Ey reronaar oy eaRHONT PEIN yeyyOUS system Toe ar fect ena ac _ tempera fc re cape of mataing a conetan bay Homeothoms Oe ernment emesis Maral ad seperate 37°C the TAM fr Me i th ers ener an amo of omental ee. cay mpm fen above 31-6 | oth temperature rope etow 37 | oatng accu wapntin of sve | Sweating HOPE: Po Sweat Foe reroves est te romove Peat vroaiatan: conarsin dems | Vanoconetction: copes of ems i hea sot fom Boe noe het ost fom Boe ‘eat retained in ood vessel deoe into Tia eecor masses elspa le | Halt erctor museles contract: hrs s ran erring yer of arf created | stand up, ayer of air is trapped net 1 Chie sone ows Shin wich ets a Inston hay Me! tmarnas; cases ‘goose BUTS it we mane om tm P aes © Avene Fe. 10.11 NeSiders oe sy em sed crate tp teins dae sae ih ie in MAM cocoate ths moments efecor cone hen fpr bout by the nervous a prdination co-ordination ‘Organisms chance of sunival, Co-ordination Is broughe a ind endocrine systems, Mego are Vina’ repay ‘Messages ae cared to room ec rales Messages are cared to more armies | emerarirey re nalzs have an Immediate eect on | wessages hav a sow eect on He 40.3 Cont by the ge romans ort [Mampi age egos on ea ‘ystems compared the boy ee es with the awertebrates. The AUMAN ‘he nervous system is composed of neurones (nerve cell) and is divided int: asextremes of | wepyls SYSEEIM 1 The central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord. 2 The peripheral nervous system (PNS): paired eranlal and spinal nerves. rnmals and ‘st enzyme NEURONES 5 (see p. 85) ‘Neurones transmit electrical impulses. There are three types: 1 Sensory neurones: conduct impulses from receptors to CNS. 2 Motor neurones: conduct impulses from CNS to effectors 3 Intermediate (relay) neurones: conduct impulses throughout the CNS, Tinking sensory and motor neurones. ‘SYNAPSES “Synapses are small gaps between dendrites of adjacent neurones. They allow a large number of neurones to interconnect and ensure that impulses travel in cone direction only. $ Node of Ranier cel or sense oan ‘Myein sheath - fatty sheath to insite nee cet boty fires and speed up wansmission of mpuises ‘non — nen fire conducting Teese pulses away from cel boy ewe impulse (continued)Biology: a concise revision course for CSEC Eten Dengnes- oe tres ome 7 May eae on 8 } N } \ Nene eras eof Rarer cat oay 1 Amotornezore Fig. 10.11 (continues) Intermodste rmypin sheath **Fig, 10.12 Connection between receptor and i efector ‘Bouraayof NS THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) ‘The brain and spinal cord are both divided into two regions, grey matter composed mainly of cell bodies, and white matter composed mainly of nerve fibres. Intermediate neurones, running throughout the grey matter, connect the brain and spinal cord. In the brain, the grey matter is on the outside and the white matter is on the inside. The brain is protected by the cranium, two membranes called ‘meninges and fluid in the cavity between the meninges, In the spinal cord, the white matter is on the outside and the grey matter is Cn the inside (see Fig. 10.15, p. 66). The spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae of the vertebral column THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) ‘This consists of nerves which are composed of bundles of nerve fibres. Nerwes may contain motor fibres, sensory fibres or both motor and sensory fibres, There are two types of nerves, * Cranial nerves: 12 pairs connected to the brain. Most supply receptors and effectors of the head, * Spinal nerves: pairs of nerves connected to the spinal cord. They arise eal Sores vertebrae and supply receptors and effectors of the rest of the 64‘Sensitivity and co-ordination Motor ren tani / va motor ren eon kn on mma | He me Serr sess ache mutes ton Sige seeres Cereetum —contosblance by co-o mruseusr acy” oe Me eae coer tein ms ons, ear bea, beating, Swatovne pera, hos pressure ‘Spinal cod ‘0 ‘jestanuran THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM This is part of the PNS. It is composed of cranial and spinal nerves containing motor fibres only which connect the CNS to effectors, The system controls involuntary actions, e.g, heart beat, breathing, peristalsis, sweating, and can be divided into two further systems. These two systems are ‘antagonistic in their effects, eg. one system speeds up heart beat or breathing rate whilst the other slows them down. Control of involuntary actions by the autonomic system is an example of homeostasis (see p. 85) Sensor receptors of head Tar tector of head uy msc eat at bate Sensory receters of body T~ tector of boy > ietemesate neurones 65Biology: a concise revision course for CSEC Reflex actions Ta Fle. 10.15 The hnee jerk reflec a simple spinal reiex [reflex action is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus by a muscle or and which does not require conscious contol, eg. knee jerk, coughing, Sreezing, blinking, withdrawal, pupil reflexes. Reflex actions ald survival. The rere pathway between receptor and effector is called a reflex are. SIMPLE REFLEX ACTIONS Simple reflexes are unlearned 1 Cranial reflexes: impulses pass through the brain, e.¢. the pupil reflex; 2 bright light shines on the eye, the cells of the retina are stimulated Iinpulses travel along a sensory neurone to the brain where they pass into the grey matter, through an intermediate neurone and into @ motor neurone. The motor neurone then carries impulses to the clrcular muscles of the ris causing them to contract. 2 Spinal reflexes: impulses pass through the spinal cord, e.g the knee jerk reflex. Sensory nauene — Dorsal ot gangion inepinal neve coms oa ‘tensor musce bots of senso oral root ofepinal Gey ater — rene composed ot airy cel bodies Spinal fone ~ poe sormgosed of sensory ‘and eto ces @ sums ap us doo ne cap @ sine rin eons Imps el bck aor sensory neurone ro sal co a deren @ impulses vr! back dong motor neurone veh ees sal sre wena ot ttnaor mune efector contact cause ler ego te, "NB An intamedat neurone ns see 18 oer hs serra ets neuone in mast pal oesSensitivity and co-ordination CONDITIONED REFLEXES Conditioned reflexes occur when the Cored of condloing ose PEM of Sine et changed by 2 An example is Paviov's og. A dog produces sal simple refen, but not when a bell sung a bel ones (8 given food, after several days the dog produces sala at he creer none only. The dog has become conditioned to associate the bel with food, Most learning is by conditioning, eg using a knife an ‘This learning needs to be reinforced Pena, a Fok ang able gat pe A GARNET aaa A STE MAN The endocrine stem consists of endocrine glands which sec ‘phe hui ae directly into the blood ee endoc lem syst Pay dr ses np Senco San Tl gerd - in ft of cen in eck o rea gan - est sto ry Wet oftngstare in ganceas op pa 2 nconom Oy - at nd ofan ube ema) ‘4.10.6 Tre position of Sern human endoctne exis —n sat) ‘wands [nt Wormane Funetion/effect on body ee say by eausng protein sythess Putay gand | Pituitary growth hormone | Stimulates growth, mainly ‘raver gana) » promoting bone growth. Foo much causes gigantism; to te causes dwar ra becomes 100 concentvated. Stimulates Secreted when plas Antidrete hormone (ADH) | Secreted Tore water ftom fitat® nds. Others, e.g, FSH (folicle | Control acthity of kos endocrine stimulating hormone), LH | FSH and LH ome (teinsing hormone), TSH | TSH: thyroid Ba (thyroid stimulating J Be hormone) (continued) 44 Te man endocrine glands and ther hormones 67Biology; a concise revision course for CSEC Gland Hormone Function/effect on body Thyrod gland | Thyroxne Le Ee sre oie os a a ne ‘mental development. Too tie in adults: ow metabolic rate, slugwshness, obesity, Too much in adults: high metabolic rate, weIghtlOsS, overactivy, fast heart beat ‘Adrenal glands | Adrenalin (ight, fight or | Released in large fight hormone) ‘amounts when frigitened, exited, anxious, ‘Speeds up metabolism, maint respiration, by increasing blood ‘sugar level, heartbeat, breathing rate, blood Supply to musces, Gves feeling of fear ‘sets of ‘nun Langerhans in Released when blood sugar level rises. Stimulates Iner and muse cells to convert gucose to glycogen. Stimulates body cals to ‘adsorb glucose for respiration. oo lite causes diabetes (see Table 14.4, p. 95) Testes Testosterone Controls Gevelopment of male reproductive organs and male secondary sexual characteristics: deep voice, facial and pubic hag, muscles Controls development of female reproductive organs and secardayy serual characteristic: pubic hai, mammary gands, broad pets, Controls ovation. Stimulates thickening of uterus lining. Contos menstruation Progesterone (Gecreted by | Secreted after owlaton to maintain @ thickened uteris lining corpus luteum) Placenta Progesterone ‘Secreted curing pregnancy to maintain a thickened uterus lining and stimulate growth of mammary glands Table 10.4 Continved Responses in plants Plants respond to stimuli by making part movements or growth movements. 1 Part movements (nastic movements) Part movements are brought about by changes in turgidity of cells: ‘+ Folding of leaves in response to touch or shock. e.g. Minus (the sense plant) ‘ ‘Sleep’ movements of leaves and petals in response to changing light Intensities, eg. flamboyant folds its leaves at night, hibiscus closes its petals at night, night flowering cactus clases its petals in the morning ‘+ ‘Feeding’ movements of insectiverous plants in response to prey, €6, the snapping closed of a Venus fly trap, ‘+ Mechanical movements of dehiscent fruits in response to drying out €€ the curing end spliting of pigeon pea pods 2 Growth movements (tropisms) Plants make growth movements in response to certain unilateral stimull These responses ald survival ‘= Shoots grow and bend towards urilateral light; light Is essential for photosynthesis. When illuminated evenly or in darkness, shoots g°o¥ ‘upwards against gravity to get the maximum amount of light or to seatfor light. Growi pollination, ( NB. shoots gro | spindly stems a * Roots grow and Ng upwards also, fuits and seeds { day darkness become etlolated: tall and white with and small, yel Sensitivity and co-ordination ensures that flowers are held in the air for (or dispersal llow leaves. They eventually die bend downwards with the pul of gravity; they enter the salto anchor the pant and obtain water ea CO-ORDINATION OF GROWTH MOVEMENTS IN PLANTS Growth movements are co-ordi called auxin. Auxin is made in to the region behind the tip shoots are the receptors, the © In shoots: auxin stimulates stimulating cell elongation, ‘* In roots: high concentration: inated by plant growth substances; one kind is the tips of roots and shoots and diffuses back ‘where it controls growth. Tips of roots and region behind the tip is the effector. ‘trowth of the region behind the tip by Sof auxin Inhibit growth, low concentrations stimulate growth of the region behind the tip. ‘Shoots ~ aun stimuates goth ofthe eon behind the Up by stmulsting ce elorgsion 4 shoot placed vertical in anes ot evn lumiation aves ‘au produced n ‘pasos back Suaight ‘eons due ocveny disirbuted | Gravy Cases ‘usin sup0¥ | more an fo ‘rom up| gather loner Se ‘conto of the response of shoots to gt and avy 2 Shoot paces nora in 8 Snoo taceevertcalyn untae! ligt Le gt fom one director. Genty re I Sree Love sie gows [Lug cases mee Sct | moeaanto Som corgon | aren sere Ssimatedy | Faced one noe rae ein the op mn rete gro, on concentrations stimulate growth of the eons Roots - higy concentrations ofan retarsgrowth, 4 Root paced verily Gravy | svaign gon ove Seven dered ‘in sop from tp ‘Asin produced in ‘in ates back | conto of responses of roots 10 Baty | 610.17 Coordination of gowth movements in plants bes 2 Root paced horzntay races a, cs =, = ore, See ouca eee aseeasors oo poent increase in the size of an organism. Growth in sony a 100) and the manuf imtoais (se Fig. 15:1. . manufacture gf Connective sue Development is a change in form and complexty of an organism ally bvohes eell specialisation (differentiation), Develo Growth Fig. 11.1 A ypica signois gout cure METHODS OF MEASURING GROWTH ‘The methods involve measuring changes in: Length, eg, stems, roots. Height. eg. small plants, humans. Wet mass, eg. animals. Dry mass. eg. germinating seeds. Surface area, eg leaves Number of leaves, e. from seedling to fruiting plant. Circumference, e.g. stems. Number of individuals, e.g. populations. ‘The parameter measured is then plotted against time to obtain a growth cune Individual organs, organisms and populations all display similar growth patens represented by a sigmoid or S-shaped curve.° | Growth and development Lag phase: itv om 1 Log phase: or Ia sopon tr eoM 9K! on pap; gow pe & Develorating phase: growth sons ‘ae anne rapid ‘ded at he same ate o pig. 14 Contioved Fate exceeaing bith GROWTH IN LENGTH OF SHOOTS AND Roots Growth in length occurs in Seth regions called apical meristems at the tips of = =—— Fg. 11.2 Longtudinal ner ‘section trough root rete oot GROWTH IN WIDTH OF STEMS Cell division occurs in the cambium of stems, adding phloem to the outside ‘and xylem to the inside (see Fig. 5.12, p. 33). Xylem is added in rings: each ring represents a season's growth. These rings may be used to determine the age of ‘a woody stem, Development DEVELOPMENT OF SEEDS TO SEEDLINGS: GERMINATION ‘Seeds require three conditions for germination: 1 Water to activate enzymes. 2. Oxygen for aerobic respiration 3 Suitable temperature, 5-40°C, to activate enaymes. The water is absorbed through the micropyle of the seed and activates enzymes to breakdown stored food: proteins into amino acids, starches into sugars, lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. The soluble products are then translocated to the embryo where: The amino acids are used for growth. The glucose is used for respiration and to make cellulose cell walls at the tips of the embryonic root and shoot. 's The fatty acids and glycerol are used for respiration. 7 rere TEBiology: a concise revision course for CSEC Pune - enn sho cop base ot hare seth tin ee eaeet oh, ‘Nenaliiedntens ad ‘Testa - tough outer coat ‘hole in testa be toad edhe ataes © be Reins ct Wo evs - ee ng cee ete » unr scton Fig. 12.3 Structure ofa bean seed a dcotyedon Frit wl ad test fe Endospem ~ tee food ne caiecn Pune rane Rade Poot of axacinent plot Fig. 12.4 Longtucinal section of a mate fut; 2 monocotyedon ‘scle groms owner to ot Fig. 12.5 Stages in the germination of a rea bean an example of epigel germination tase. Fara apes ut ‘Prats plese seat ae oes ‘cage oes copiers wre Fig, 42.6 Stages inthe germination fa gang pea (gnon peal; an example of typogealgeminaion 72 Necn of ru corsa Growth and development 5 Decrease cy mass ‘store wes epee Oy mass Prat eg eaves devon © moras in mas fr me fest age Tie DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN MAN: PUBERTY Puberty i the period of fe when senual maturity is reached In males sperm production begins, pubic and facial hair breaks and muscles develop facial hair develop, the voice In females ovulation and menstruation be *gin, pubic hair der 9s, Mammar glands develop and pelvic girdle broadens, E are mane Control of growth and development In plants, plant growth substances, ¢ auxin, control gronth of roots and shoots (see Fg, 10.17, p. 69) ln animals, hormones control growth and development; these include the Pituitary growth hormone, thyroxine, oestrogen. progesterone and testosterone (see Table 10.4, pp. 67-68) NB. Growth and development may aso be affected by: + Genotype (see p. 104) + Temperature in plants and poikilotherms ~ temperature affects enzymes ‘© Light in plants ~ light affects the rate of photosynthesis, «Diet in animals.