Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Attra Ip336
Attra Ip336
S
cated organic agriculture practice. To
weet corn Sweet corn does best with a pH of 6.0 to assist growers with technical details on
does best 6.5 and needs moderate to high levels of crop manipulation through foliar feed-
with a pH of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Rate ing, ATTRA has compiled the publication
6.0 to 6.5 and needs of application should be determined by Foliar Fertilization.
moderate to high soil testing. Rock phosphate, potassium
sulfate (mined, untreated source), sulfate While corn is relatively drought tolerant,
levels of phosphorus
of potash-magnesia (commercially available irrigation increases yields, especially when
and potassium. K-Mag) and a limited number of other applied during silking and when ears are
rock powders may be used in certified fi lling. If irrigation is not an option and
organic programs. weed management is good, plants might be
seeded farther apart to reduce interplant
One problem with rock phosphate is that competition.
phosphorus is very slowly available. In cold
soils, phosphorus deficiencies indicated
by purple-tinged leaves may be apparent.
Crop rotations, cover crops
Thus, some growers drill a quickly avail- and weed control
able source of phosphorus, such as bone An ideal rotation plan for organic sweet
meal, at planting to insure readily avail- corn might look something like this:
able phosphorus and a healthy crop stand.
Other growers simply delay seeding until • Two years clover or legume pasture
the weather and the soil warm up. • One year sweet corn
Growers can apply and incorporate rock • Two years other vegetables
mineral fertilizers, manures and bulk com- • One year small-grain nurse crop
posts during field preparation and bedding mixed with clover
operations. Growers often make applications Corn typically follows pasture, hay or a
in the fall before planting the cover crop. legume-based cover crop to take advantage
Banding to the side of the row at planting
of the nitrogen fi xed by forage legumes.
is another option, primarily in combination
This is because carry-over weed problems
with organic fertilizers or pelletized and for-
are more easily managed with a row crop
tified composts.
like corn than with more narrowly spaced
The late eco-farming adviser Don Schriefer vegetable crops. Many farmers see an
advocated foliar feeding, used in combina- increase in corn yields of 5 to 7 percent
tion with a chlorophyll meter, as a yield- following soybeans, and 10 to 15 percent
enhancing corn production practice. To following hay (Michalak, 2002). Local organic
Page 4 ATTRA Sweet Corn: Organic Production
growers can provide advice on rotations and relay intercropping. ATTRA’s Overview
adapted to each region. of Cover Crops and Green Manures is recom-
mended for a review of the benefits and uses
One efficient way to shift from vegetables to
of cover crops and to gain access to impor-
the small grain and clover mix is to plant
tant cover crop resources such as Managing
a spring or summer vegetable crop in the
Cover Crops Profitably, Sustainable Agricul-
last year of the vegetable rotation. After
ture Network Handbook No. 3 and the UC-
the vegetables are harvested, the field is
SAREP Cover Crops Database.
seeded down to a cereal grain and clover
mix. This usually occurs in early to mid Weed control in organic sweet corn is based
autumn. When the cereal grain such as on a good rotation and timely mechanical
rye, wheat or oats is harvested the follow- cultivation. Two rotary hoeings followed by
ing spring, the clover is already well estab- two or three cultivations with sweeps and
lished. Broadcasting cool-season cereal hillers are common means of non-chemi-
grains and legumes into standing vegetable cal weed control. Flame weeding and living
crops is another way to establish these win- mulches are complementary non-chemical
ter cover crops. weed suppression techniques used in com-
mercial production, usually as an adjunct to
Long rotations like this are desirable mechanical tillage practices.
because grass and legume sod crops are
soil builders, whereas row crops are soil Crow Miller, a Midwestern organic vegeta-
depleters. In addition to improving soil tilth, ble grower, explained his weed control tech-
complex rotations greatly enhance the non- nique like this:
chemical approach to weed control. Accord- “We typically rotary hoe seven days and 14
ing to Eliot Coleman, author of The New days after planting corn, before weeds have
Organic Grower, a well-thought-out rotation emerged. We cultivate anywhere from 20 to
is worth 75 percent of everything else that 34 days after planting, when corn is 6 to 12
inches tall. Second cultivation is 35 to 50
might be done, including fertilization, till- days after planting, when corn is 18 to 20
age and pest control (Davis, 2005). inches tall” (2001).
On the other hand, short rotations and On larger farms, specialized weeding equip-
annual vegetable cropping are the norm for ment may be an affordable option. State-of-
growers in many parts of the country. This the-art cultivating implements include rolling
is one of the reasons annual cover crops are cultivators, finger tine weeders, finger weed-
used so prominently in organic farming. ers, basket weeders, spyders, torsion weeders
A typical cover crop system for organic sweet and spring hoe weeders. Steel in the Field, a
corn is fall establishment of a winter annual handbook from the Sustainable Agriculture
legume or cereal grain and legume mix. Network, provides illustrations, descriptions
Pure stands of vetch or combinations of rye and practical examples of 37 specialized
and hairy vetch or wheat and crimson clo- tools used to control weeds. It features pro-
ver are common. The cereal grains provide files of farmers using reduced- or non-chem-
a fast soil cover and a significant amount of ical weed control strategies and contains a
root biomass. The legumes fix nitrogen. list of equipment manufacturers and distrib-
utors (Bowman, 1997). Updated information
The cover crop is then plowed down a couple on equipment suppliers can usually be easily
weeks in advance of the next season’s crop, obtained through an Internet search. ATTRA
usually in mid to late spring, thus providing can help with specific requests about finding
a green manure. The cost of the cover crop appropriate equipment.
seed and a legume inoculant may be viewed
as an organic fertilizer cost. Research and field experience in
Cover crop and tillage systems adapted to weed control and cover crops
sweet corn crops include clean-till, low-till, A New York study showed improved produc-
no-till, mulch-till, strip-till, living mulches tion in sweet corn fields intercropped with
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5
white clover as a living mulch (Grubinger crops (hairy vetch, crimson clover and field
and Minoti, 1990). White clover was mul- peas) mixed with oats as a nurse crop.
tivated or rototilled with the middle tines Researchers winter-killed peas, leaving
removed, leaving strips of live clover grow- inadequate mulch cover. Vetch was the eas-
ing between the corn rows. This procedure iest cover crop to sow into, while crimson
is called partial rototilling. To suppress clover was the only cover crop that reseeded
excessive regrowth of the living mulch, itself. Yields were highest with hairy vetch,
researchers partially rototilled white clover at 2.6-plus tons fresh weight per acre
two weeks after corn emergence. Waiting (DeGregorio et al., 1991).
until the fourth or sixth week after sweet Mechanical roller-crimpers and rolling
corn emergence to perform partial rototill- stalk-choppers are gaining increased atten-
ing was less effective. tion as effective kill methods. These are
Several Massachusetts farmers used pro- heavy-duty drum rollers similar to a culti-
pane fl ame weeders to control weeds in packer with horizontal, welded, blunt-steel
organic sweet corn. The farmers created strips. When pulled through the field, these
a stale seedbed by preparing the soil and drum rollers crush and crimp the cover
M
ow-down then letting it sit for a couple of weeks to crop and leave residue lying flat on the soil
encourage weeds to sprout. The objective of surface, discouraging regrowth. By having
and roll- the roller-crimper placed on the front of the
the stale seedbed strategy is to kill these
down
emerging weeds without further soil distur- tractor, a seeder can be pulled at the same
methods can knock bance to avoid bringing new weed seeds to time, allowing for only one pass through
down cover crops the surface. After the weeds emerge, farm- the field. This not only reduces soil com-
and provide a no-till ers fl amed and immediately planted the paction, but also reduces energy and labor
field. Flaming may be repeated prior to costs. Research in Alabama showed that
mulch in vegetable
crop emergence (Hazzard, 1994). rolling down cereal grains like rye, wheat
production. and black oats was most effective after flow-
The University of Illinois developed a fact ering, or anthesis, and prior to soft dough,
sheet with economic thresholds for weeds in or grain formation (Ashford et al., 2000).
corn and soybeans. The fact sheet contains
a chart that shows percentage of corn yield Overseeding cover crops into standing sweet
reduction in relation to number of weeds corn, a technique known as relay intercrop-
such as pigweed, lambsquarters and John- ping, is one way to achieve cover crop estab-
songrass per 100 feet of row (Pike). lishment, usually with a goal to increase
nutrient cycling as a catch crop, suppress
Growers commonly use herbicides in associa- weeds as a living mulch or to enhance crop-
tion with no-till production to chemically kill ping system diversity.
cover crops. A series of research reports and
farm trials show that mow-down and roll-down Researchers in New Mexico broadcasted for-
methods can knock down cover crops and pro- age brassicas, rape and turnips into sweet
vide a no-till mulch in vegetable production. corn at last cultivation, known as early
intersowing, and blister stage of the sweet
Flail mowers are an ideal piece of mow- corn crop, known as late intersowing. Inter-
down equipment, but small-scale farmers cropping did not depress sweet corn yields.
also employ rotary mowers (brush hogs) Researchers harvested sweet corn ears and
and even string weeders (weed eaters) to stover in early September and brassicas in
chop down cover crops. Timing is impor- November (Guldan et al., 1998).
tant. Hairy vetch should be mowed when
the legume is already flowering. Delay mow- Insect pest management
ing of rye until flowering, when the anthers
A large number of insect pests can attack
are shedding pollen.
sweet corn. The American Phytopathological
Researchers in Connecticut direct-seeded Society’s 1999 Handbook of Corn Insects is
sweet corn into flail-mowed legume cover the standard reference (Steffey et al., 1999).
Page 6 ATTRA Sweet Corn: Organic Production
Among the most widespread and damaging
are corn earworm, European corn borer,
corn rootworm and cutworm.
Corn earworm
The corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) is the
larval stage of a moth that lays eggs in the
corn silk. Corn earworm is also known as
tomato fruitworm, cotton bollworm and soy-
bean podworm. In most of the country, the
corn earworm is the most destructive pest
of sweet corn. Corn earworm is particularly
difficult to control because it is protected by
the husk while feeding. Organic pest con-
Corn earworm. Photo by R.L. Croissant, Bugwood.org.
trol strategies focus on variety selection and
planting dates, cultural practices to incre-
ase natural biological control such as para- some growing regions, such as south Texas
sitism and predation, and the use of micro- and Mexico.
bial pesticides.
Naturally occurring biological control agents
Management options begin with resistant that prey on corn earworm eggs and larvae
varieties. Sweet corn varieties that mature include lady beetles, lacewings, syrphid fly
early, possess long, tight husks extending larvae, big-eyed bug, parasitic wasps and
beyond the tips of the ears or contain natu- parasitic tachinid fl ies (Straub and Emmett,
rally occurring earworm-repelling chemi- 1992). Farmscaping by developing insect
cals in the silks show the most resistance to refugia through establishment of flowering
earworm attack (Davidson and Lyon, 1987 plants grown in strips and field borders
and Williams and Williams, 1994). Table 3 may encourage these beneficial insects to
lists sweet corn varieties known to possess stay on the farm.
some level of resistance to corn earworm.
One farmscaping strategy entails the esta-
Northern growers can reduce the time blishment of sweet alyssum (Lobularia mari-
sweet corn ears are exposed to corn ear- tima), a short-lived flowering annual, in
worm by using a short-season variety and occasional pest habitat strips or field bor-
planting early in the season (Wiseman and ders (Grossman and Quarles, 1993). This
Isenhour, 1994). Early seeding is more flower is particularly attractive to parasitic
effective as a cultural practice in nor- wasps that prey on corn earworm, as well
thern states where the corn earworm moth as caterpillar pests of cabbage-family vege-
is migratory. The moth overwinters in table crops. See ATTRA’s Farmscaping to
M
cies for specific regions. Johnny’s Selected Seeds. See the Sweet
ost larval
corn integrated pest management portion
feeding Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt (trade names of the Resources section for purchasing
is done include Javelin, Dipel, Condor and Lepi- information.
nox), is a well-known microbial pesticide
underneath the husk Two other microbial pest control strategies
commonly used to control lepidopterous
where foliar sprays pests. However, aerial sprays of Bt are usu- that show promise for corn earworm control
do not reach. ally only somewhat effective against corn include parasitic nematodes in the genera
earworm. This is because Bt must be inge- Steinernema and Heterorhabditis and the
sted to be effective and most larval feeding entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassi-
is done underneath the husk where foliar ana. Trade names include Mycotrol, Natura-
sprays do not reach. lis and BotaniGard. In 2007 the University
of Maryland’s annual IPM Activities Report
In contrast, direct application of Bt mixed stated that use of B. bassiana had become
with vegetable oil to individual corn ears, commonplace in certified organic vegetable
applied two to three days after silks extend production. The report, available at www.
to their maximum length, or full brush, mdipm.umd.edu/reports/index.cfm, said:
works exceptionally well as an organic
approach to corn earworm control. Howe- There are specific formulations developed
for the organic market that have carriers …
ver, direct application means application acceptable to OMRI. Beauveria bassiana (Bb)
by hand and this is time-consuming. Use of has been very effective for us in controlling
a machinery oiling can to inject the mine- whitefl ies and green peach aphid. We found
ral oil increases the efficiency of this pro- it could suppress thrips if you started [appli-
cedure. According to Mineral-Oil Treatment cations] early…. We have worked with brand
name BontaniGard, which is one of the more
of Sweet Corn for Earworm Control, a USDA popular formulations of Bb. In most cases,
circular published in 1942, one worker is it is best to apply Beauveria bassiana using
capable of treating one acre, or 12,000 a high-volume sprayer and penetrate the
ears, in an eight-hour day using one of these plant canopy to make contact with the pest
mineral oil injectors (Barber). ... Unfortunately, in our field tests with grow-
ers we found that the available formulations
Although mineral oil treatment for corn of Bb tended to clog commercial low-volume
earworm originated in the 1940s, on-farm sprayers and we could not get even spore
research trials in the 1990s in both Okla- distribution [in greenhouse use] (Maryland
Cooperative Extension, 2007).
homa (Kuepper et al., 1991), and New
England (Hazzard and Westgate, 2001), The Insect Parasitic Nematodes Web site, a
verified the utility of this approach, with SARE-funded project hosted by The Ohio
Corn rootworm
The corn rootworm (Diabrotica) is a bee-
tle that feeds on corn leaves and clips
corn silks, thus inhibiting pollination. The
females lay eggs in late summer. These
eggs hatch the following May or June. The
larvae attack corn roots, reducing yield
and causing stalks to blow over easily in
high winds.
There are three common species of corn root-
worm: the Northern, Western and Southern
rootworms. Under most circumstances, crop
Corn rootworm. Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA Agricultural Research Service, rotation is one of the most effective means
Bugwood.org of controlling the Northern and Western
Page 10 ATTRA Sweet Corn: Organic Production
species. In the late 1980s there were
reports in several upper Midwestern states
of Northern corn rootworm emergence in
cornfields that followed soybeans in rota-
tion. This was the result of extended dia-
pause in which eggs spent two years in the
soil before hatching, rather than the usual
one year. This delayed hatch defeated com-
mon corn-soybean-corn rotations (Swoboda,
1988). Geo-referenced grid samples for
Northern corn rootworm, taken from 1995
to 2000 from two study sites in eastern
South Dakota, show increased incidence of
extended diapause in Northern corn root-
worm (Ellsbury et al., 2002).
Cutworm. Photo courtesy of Clemson University - USDA Cooperative Extension
The Western corn rootworm also devel- Slide Series, Bugwood.org.
oped means to overcome this simple rota-
tion scheme. A new strain of the species, Cultural measures are the traditional means
which some scientists are calling the East- of cutworm control. Fall plowing of sod,
ern phenotype, thrives in soybean fields as early spring plowing with delayed plant-
well as in the pest’s traditional host, corn. ing, control of adjacent vegetation and crop
One factor seems to be the presence of rotation are commonly recommended. Land
kept clean-tilled during the late summer is
early-maturing corn varieties that the adult
rarely infested.
Western corn rootworm finds less attractive
than still-succulent soybean plants (Holm- Under conditions where infestations may
berg, 1996). As a result, longer rotations occur, monitoring is encouraged to deter-
featuring greater crop diversity are becom- mine if additional control is advisable.
ing necessary to control these pests. Among the organic options for cutworm
control are parasitic nematodes and Bt. Bt
The Southern corn rootworm, also known is more effective when mixed with bran and
as the spotted cucumber beetle, is con- molasses and applied as a bait. Another
trolled by late planting and by fall and option is placing baits of corn meal or bran
early spring plowing. Populations of all meal around the plant. When consumed,
three species are suppressed by predatory corn meal and bran meal swell inside the
ground beetles, tachinid fl ies and benefi- worm and kill it. Similarly, a molasses
cial nematodes. See the ATTRA publica- bait can be made from hardwood sawdust,
tion Cucumber Beetles: Organic and Biora- bran, molasses and water. Once ingested,
tional IPM for more information. the molasses hardens and renders the pest
helpless. Organically acceptable sprays of
Cutworm pyrethrum or rotenone can also be used if
Cutworms cut seedling corn stems at or applied late in the evening. Because these
near the soil surface. Cutworms feed at pesticides have short residual activity,
night and spend the day hidden in the several applications may be necessary.
soil. Normally considered a minor pest,
cutworms can be a significant problem in Insect pest monitoring
sweet corn following sod, in no-till cul- Commercial pheromone traps and other
ture and in fields adjacent to grassy areas. monitoring devices such as black lights
There are several species of cutworms that strategically placed in sweet corn fields and
may become pests in corn, but the black border areas provide an excellent means to
cutworm is perhaps the most common. determine the time of arrival and the level
T
pheromone traps, field monitoring, pest ling this problem. Sulfur and copper fun-
he Internet
action thresholds and pesticide application gicides can also be used. Growers should
revolution- remove and destroy infected plants.
for sweet corn pests in the Northeast.
ized the way
agricultural Also recommended is the Northeast Sweet Rust
information is Corn Production and Integrated Pest Man-
agement Manual, a regional integrated Rust is another fungal disease. Infected
distributed and
pest management publication produced by plants have orange-brown raised spots on
obtained, and quite the leaves, which gradually enlarge and
the University of Connecticut. Filled with
turn black before dying. Use rust-tolerant
a few integrated handy tables, color photos and illustrations,
cultivars.
pest management it includes helpful sections on cultural prac-
materials are tices, cover crops, sidedress nitrogen rec-
ommendations, sweet corn pests, integrated Stewart’s bacterial wilt
available online.
pest management monitoring and action Stewart’s bacterial wilt is a disease caused
thresholds. See the Sweet corn integrated by a bacterium that affects sweet corn, espe-
pest management portion of the Resources cially early-maturing varieties. This disease
section for ordering information. Also, see can reduce yields and stunt or kill entire
the University of Connecticut Web site at plantings. Some plants are killed in the
www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm for updated sweet seedling stage while others may not show
corn integrated pest management topics for symptoms until tasseling or later. Leaves
the Northeast. develop long whitish streaks and bacte-
rial slime oozes from any cut plant part.
For additional background on trapping, Infected plants should be destroyed and
scouting and similar integrated pest man- populations of flea beetles — the vector for
agement methodologies, request ATTRA’s this disease — should be kept low. Some
Biointensive Integrated Pest Management. hybrid varieties are resistant.
The Internet revolutionized the way agricul-
tural information is distributed and obtained, Maize Dwarf Mosaic
and quite a few integrated pest management Mosaic is a viral disease that typically
materials are available online. Many of the attacks late-planted corn. It is best con-
Cooperative Extension Service fact sheets trolled by resistant varieties. If suscep-
and integrated pest management newsletters tible varieties are planted, it is important
are now available only in electronic format. to remove Johnsongrass, an alternate host,
A selection of Internet resources is provided from adjacent areas and keep aphids, the
at the end of this publication. vectoring agent, in check.
ATTRA has a number of marketing pub- Table 4 was developed from budget informa-
lications that can be of particular use to tion on California organic production in 1994
sweet corn growers. These include Direct (Klonsky et al., 1994). It shows the influence
Marketing, Farmers’ Markets and Entertain- of yield and market price on net returns. The
ment Farming and Agri-Tourism. range of yields and prices shown are realis-
tic for that state. It should be noted that even
Marketability is no guarantee of profitabil- with high yields and an optimal market,
ity, however. While sweet corn sells read- per-acre profitability is less than $2,500.
ily, it does not have a reputation as a money Growers with limited acreage would be wise
maker among small producers, though to consider alternative crops that have higher
many use it to attract customers. potential net returns per acre.
A 1999 production budget for organic be noted that the Maryland produc-
sweet corn in Maryland produced a simi- tion budget used to create Table 5 found
lar but more modest projection of profitabil- total variable and fi xed costs per acre of
ity (Anon., 1999). The data is presented in $1,229.40. A 1996 budget for organic
Table 5. sweet corn in nearby New Jersey found
Organic production budgets for many total variable and fi xed costs of $1,901.13
specialty crops can vary widely. It should (Anon., 1996).
Variable expenses
Soil amendments
Pest Management
Seed/A ____________
Fuel/A ____________
Repairs ____________
Irrigation ____________
or
Fixed expenses
Page 24 ATTRA