Waves

Explain the formation of stationary waves in stretched strings and hence deduce the laws of
1
transverse waves in stretched strings.
Answer
1. When a stretched string fixed at both ends plucked perpendicular to its length, transverse pulses are produced travel either
way along the length of the string end get reflected at the fixed ends.
2. These waves, travelling in opposite directions with the same amplitude and frequency overlap along the length of the string
produces a resultant wave containing loops. The resultant wave is known as stationary wave.
3. The equations of progressive waves travelling in opposite directions along a stretched string is given by 𝒚𝟏 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 −
𝝎𝒕) positive direction, 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 + 𝝎𝒕) negative direction.
4. According to principle of superposition of waves, the displacement of resultant wave is given by
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 + 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 + 𝝎𝒕)
∴ 𝒚 = 𝟐𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 → (𝟏)
Equation (1) represents stationary wave.
The resultant amplitude of wave is 𝑨𝑹 = 𝟐𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒙
It is not constant, it depends on the value of 𝒌𝒙.
We know, 𝒌 = 𝟐𝝅/𝝀
𝟐𝝅
∴ 𝑨𝑹 = 𝟐𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝝀
 Waves
Explain the formation of stationary waves in stretched strings and hence deduce the laws of
1
transverse waves in stretched strings.
Answer
Case 1:
𝝀 𝟐𝝀 𝟑𝝀
When 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝟐 , , … 𝒆𝒕𝒄, the amplitude is zero. These positions of zero amplitude are known as nodes.
𝟐 𝟐
Case 2:
𝝀 𝟑𝝀 𝟓𝝀
When 𝒙 = 𝟒 , 𝟒 , 𝟒 … 𝒆𝒕𝒄, the amplitude becomes 𝟐𝑨 (maximum)
These positions of maximum amplitude are known as antinodes.

Equation for frequency of transverse vibrations

𝑻
i) Velocity of transverse vibration in stretched wire 𝒗 = where T is tension in the wire and 𝝁 is linear density.
𝝁
ii) When a stretched wire is vibrating in fundamental mode i.e. with two nodes and one antinode.
 Waves
Explain the formation of stationary waves in stretched strings and hence deduce the laws of
1
transverse waves in stretched strings.
Answer
𝝀
Length of wire 𝒍 = 𝟐
Frequency of vibration, 𝒏 = 𝑽/𝝀
𝟏 𝑻
𝒏 = 𝟐𝒍 𝝁
𝑷 𝑻
If wire is vibrating with P loops then frequency of vibration 𝒏𝒑 = 𝟐𝒍 𝝁

First law (or) law of length:

If the tension T and linear density (𝝁) remains constant, the fundamental frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional
to the length of the string.
𝟏
𝒏 ∝ 𝒍 when T and 𝝁 are constant.
Second law (or) law of tension:
If the length of the vibrating segment and linear density remain constant, the fundamental frequency of the stretched string is
directly proportional to the square root of the tension in the string.
𝒏 ∝ 𝑻, when l and 𝝁 are constant.
 Waves
Explain the formation of stationary waves in stretched strings and hence deduce the laws of
1
transverse waves in stretched strings.
Answer
Third law (or) law of masses:
If the length of the vibrating segment and tension in the string remain constant, the fundamental frequency of the stretched
string is inversely proportional to the square root od the linear density 𝝁 of the string.

𝟏
𝒏∝ when 𝒍 and 𝑻 are constant
𝒖
 Waves
2 Explain the formation of stationary waves in an air column enclosed in open pipe. Derive the equation
for the frequencies of the harmonics produced.
Answer

An organ pipe is a cylindrical tube having an air column. If both ends are open, it is known as an open organ pipe. Let us
consider a glass tube with both ends open.
Case 1:
1. At open ends, as pressure changes are very small, particle displacement is maximum.
2. Therefore antinodes are formed at open ends.
3. For an open pipe, the air column should have two antinodes with one node in between them.
4. Then the length of the air column is equal to 𝝀𝟏 /𝟐
5. Therefore, the wavelength 𝝀𝟏 = 𝟐𝒍
6. Then the frequency of the air column is known as fundamental
frequency.
𝑽
𝝀
7. The fundamental frequency, 𝒏𝟏 = /𝟐𝒍
𝑽
 Waves
2 Explain the formation of stationary waves in an air column enclosed in open pipe. Derive the equation
for the frequencies of the harmonics produced.
Answer

Case 2:
1. If two nodes and three antinodes are formed in the open pipe, second harmonic is produced.
=𝟐𝝀𝟐 𝟐𝒍
2. Then the length of air column, , and wavelength 𝝀𝟐 = =𝒍
𝟐 𝟐
𝑽 𝑽
3. Therefore second harmonic, 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒍 = 𝟐 𝟐𝒍 = 𝟐𝒏𝟏

Case 3:
1. If three nodes and four antinodes are formed in the open pipe, third harmonic is produced.
𝟑𝝀𝟐 𝟐𝒍
2. Then the length of the air column, 𝒍 = 𝟐
, wavelength 𝝀𝟑 = 𝟑
𝒗 𝒗
3. Therefore third harmonic 𝒏𝟑 = =𝟑 = 𝟑𝒏𝟏
𝝀𝟏 𝟐𝒍
4. Hence harmonics are in the ratio 1:2:3…
 Waves
3 How are stationary waves formed in closed pipes? Explain the various modes of vibrations and obtain
relations between their frequencies.
Answer

An organ pipe is a cylindrical tube having an air column. If one end is closed and the other is open, it is known as a closed
organ pipe. When a compressional wave (sound wave) is sent through an organ pipe, the wave gets reflected at the ends of
the pipe. These incident and reflected waves which are of the same frequency, travelling in the opposite directions are
superimposed along the length of the pipe and form longitudinal stationary waves.

Harmonics in Closed Pipes:

Case 1:
The first of the harmonic in a closed pipe should have a node at the closed end
and an antinode at the open end, the length of pipe (𝒍) vibrating in one fourth of
𝝀𝟏
the wavelength i.e, 𝒍 = 𝟒
⇒ 𝝀𝟏 = 𝟒𝒍
𝒗 𝒗
The fundamental frequency 𝒏𝟏 = 𝝀 = 𝟒𝒍
𝟏
 Waves
3 How are stationary waves formed in closed pipes? Explain the various modes of vibrations and obtain
relations between their frequencies.
Answer

Case 2:
The next possible harmonic with two nodes and two antinodes it is the third harmonic, the length of the pipe becomes
𝟑 𝒕𝒉 𝟑𝝀𝟑
equal to of the wavelength 𝝀𝟑 , 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒍 =
𝟒 𝟒
𝟒𝒍
Where 𝝀𝟑 is the wavelength of the third harmonic. 𝝀 + 𝟑 = 𝟑
𝒗 𝟑𝒗
The frequency of the third harmonic or first overtone is given by 𝒏𝟑 = 𝝀 = 𝟒𝒍
= 𝟑𝒏𝟏 − (𝟐)
𝟑
 Waves
3 How are stationary waves formed in closed pipes? Explain the various modes of vibrations and obtain
relations between their frequencies.
Answer

Case 3:
Similarly the next overtone in the closed pipe is only the fifth harmonic. It will have three nodes and three antinodes
between the closed end and the open end of the pipe.
𝟓 𝟓
The length 𝒍 of the pipe adjucts itself to of the wavelength 𝝀𝟓 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒍𝟓 = 𝝀𝟓
𝟒 𝟒
𝒗 𝟓𝒗
And the frequency of this second overtone is 𝒏𝟓 = 𝝀 = = 𝟓𝒏𝟏 → (𝟑)
𝟓 𝟒𝒍
The frequencies of the higher harmonics can be derived in the same way.
It can be observed that in the case of closed organ pipes only odd harmonics are
possible.
Conclusion: 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏𝟓 … = 𝟏: 𝟑: 𝟓 …
 Waves
4 What are beats? Obtain an expression for the beat frequency. Where and how are beats made use of?

Answer
Two progressive waves of nearly equal frequencies are travelling in the same direction and superimpose with each other
then they produce regular waxing and wanning. This phenomenon is known as beats.
The number of beats produced per second = difference in their frequency (𝒏𝟏 ~𝒏𝟐 )

Expression for beat frequency: Let us consider two harmonic sound waves of small difference in their frequencies.
Let the angular frequencies of the waves are 𝝎𝟏 and 𝝎𝟐 (𝝎𝟏 > 𝝎𝟐 ) and waves were represented by 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝟏 𝒕 and
𝒔𝟐 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝟐 𝒕
If these two waves superimpose, the resultant displacement is,
𝝎𝟏 − 𝝎𝟐 𝝎 + 𝝎𝟐
𝑺 = 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝟐 𝒕 = [𝟐𝒂𝒙𝒐𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
In the resultant wave, the amplitude is not constant, it changes with time
𝝎𝟏 −𝝎𝟐
and represented by 𝑨 = 𝟐𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐
𝒕 . We know, intensity 𝑰 ∝ 𝑨𝟐
 Waves
4 What are beats? Obtain an expression for the beat frequency. Where and how are beats made use of?

Answer
Case 1: For waxing
𝝎 −𝝎 𝝎 −𝝎
When 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒌𝝅, then 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟏
Hence intensity of the resultant vibration is maximum.
𝝎𝟏 −𝝎𝟐
If 𝟐
𝒕 = 𝒌𝝅 where 𝒌 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … the intensity of sound is maximum (waxing)
𝟐𝒌𝝅 𝟐𝒌𝝅 𝒌
At 𝒕= = =
𝝎𝟏 −𝝎𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝟏 −𝟐𝝅𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐

Case 2: For wanning

𝝎 −𝝎 𝝅 𝝎 −𝝎
When 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏 𝟐 , then 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎
Hence the intensity of the resultant vibration is zero.
𝟐𝒌+𝟏 𝝅 𝟐𝒌+𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒕= 𝝎𝟏 −𝝎𝟐
= 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐
= 𝒌+𝟐 𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐
where 𝒌 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐 then sound intensity is minimum (wanning)
Hence one maximum and one minimum of sound intensity occurs at an interval of 𝟏/(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 ) seconds.
 Waves
4 What are beats? Obtain an expression for the beat frequency. Where and how are beats made use of?

Answer
Therefore in one second (𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 ) times waxing and wanning of sound takes place. This frequency is known as beat
frequency.
∴ The no. of beat produced per second = beat frequency = 𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
Human ear can absorb 10 beats per second.

Uses:
1. Beats can be used to determine the frequency of the tuning fork.
2. Beats are used in cinematography.
3. Beats are used in detecting dangerous gases in mines.
4. Beats are used in tuning musical instruments.
 Waves
5 What is Doppler effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound heard when the source is in
motion with respect to an observer at rest.
Answer
Doppler effect:

Due to relative motion between the source and the observer, the frequency received by the observer is different from
that of the source. This phenomenon is known as Doppler effect.

Example:

1. The whistle of the approaching train towards an observer at rest appears to be higher than original frequency.
2. The frequency of the school bell appears to be higher than the original frequency of the bell to the student
approaching the school.
 Waves
5 What is Doppler effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound heard when the source is in
motion with respect to an observer at rest.
Answer
Source is in motion – Listener at rest:
1. Let us consider a source S producing a sound note of frequency n. Let
the velocity of sound in air be v.
∴ 𝒗 = 𝒏𝝀
2. Let the source S move with a velocity 𝒗𝒔 towards the listener.
3. Then the distance travelled by the source in a time period T is equal
to 𝒗𝒔 𝑻

4. Therefore the successive compressions and rarefactions are draws closer as shown in figure by this distance 𝒗𝒔 𝑻
𝒗
∴ The apparent wavelength of the note, 𝝀′ = 𝝀 − 𝒗𝒔 𝑻 or 𝝀′ = 𝝀 − 𝒏𝒔 → (𝟐)
𝒗 𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
The apparent frequency, 𝒏′ = ′ = 𝒗𝒔 = 𝒗 𝒗𝒔 ⇒ 𝒏 =
′
𝒏
𝝀 𝝀− − 𝒗−𝒗𝒔
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
 Waves
5 What is Doppler effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound heard when the source is in
motion with respect to an observer at rest.
Answer
Thus the apparent frequency (𝒏′ ) is greater than the actual frequency i.e. 𝒏′ > 𝒏
Similarly when the source is moving away from the listener with a speed 𝒗𝒔 , the successive compressions and
𝒗
rarefactions are draws apart as shown in figure by a distance 𝒏𝒔 during every time period.
𝒗𝒔
The apparent wavelength = 𝝀" = 𝝀 +
𝒏
𝒗 𝒗
∴ The apparent frequency is given by, 𝒏" = 𝝀" = (𝒗+𝒗
𝒔 )/𝒏
𝒗
∴ 𝒏′′ = 𝒏
𝒗 + 𝒗𝒔
This the apparent frequency in this case is less than the
actual frequency.
i.e., n”<n
 Waves
6 What is Doppler shift? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound heard when the
observer is in motion with respect to a source at rest.
Answer
Doppler shift: The difference between apparent frequency heard by the observer and actual frequency produced by the
source is called Doppler shift.

Listener in motion – Source at rest:

1. Let the listener be moving towards the source with a
velocity 𝒗𝒐 as shown in the fig.
2. He will receive more number of waves each second as
he is approaching the source. The distance travelled by
him in on seconds is 𝒗𝒐 .

3. The relative velocity 𝒗′ = 𝒗 + 𝒗𝒐 . Here wavelength does not change.

𝒗′ 𝒗+𝒗𝒐 𝒗+𝒗𝒐 𝒗+𝒗𝒐
4. Therefore the apparent frequency is, 𝒏′ = = = 𝒗 ⇒ 𝒏′ = 𝒏
𝝀 𝝀 𝒗
𝒏
 Waves
6 What is Doppler shift? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound heard when the
observer is in motion with respect to a source at rest.
Answer
𝒗 + 𝒗𝒐
𝒏′ = 𝒏
𝒗

The apparent frequency is greater than the actual frequency (n’>n)

Similarly, when the listener is moving away from the source at rest with a velocity 𝒗𝒐 ,
the relative velocity is 𝒗′ = 𝒗 − 𝒗𝒐
𝒗′ 𝒗−𝒗𝒐 𝒗−𝒗𝒐
∴ The apparent frequency 𝒏′′ = = = 𝒗
𝝀 𝝀
𝒏

𝒗 − 𝒗𝒐
⇒ 𝒏′′ = 𝒏
𝒗
∴ The apparent frequency is less than the actual frequency (n’’<n)