Unit 1 1

IAL Information Technology - Unit 1
IAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY – UNIT 1 NOTES

Contents
1 - Digital Devices .............................................................................................................................. 2
Hardware ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Multifunctional devices and convergence ...................................................................................... 6
Technologies used by digital devices .............................................................................................. 9
Binary .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Software ...................................................................................................................................... 19
Software Licensing .................................................................................................................. 21
2 – Networks ................................................................................................................................... 26
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) ........................................................... 36
7-layer open systems interconnection (OSI) Model. ..................................................................... 39
IP Addressing ............................................................................................................................... 52
DHCP: The Networking Protocol That the Gives You an IP Address............................................... 54
Network security ......................................................................................................................... 56
Network Diagram ........................................................................................................................ 61
3 – The Online Environment ............................................................................................................ 62
The Internet ................................................................................................................................ 62
Static and dynamic web pages ..................................................................................................... 63
Operating Online ......................................................................................................................... 65
Monetization opportunities provided by online communities: ..................................................... 69
Cloud Storage .............................................................................................................................. 72
4 – IT Systems.................................................................................................................................. 73
Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) ........................................................................................................... 75
Systems Flow charts .................................................................................................................... 77
Evaluation ................................................................................................................................... 80
5 - Data and Information ................................................................................................................. 81
Primary and foreign keys ............................................................................................................. 85
SQL (Structured Query Language) ................................................................................................ 90
6 – Wider issues ............................................................................................................................ 102
Carbon footprint ........................................................................................................................ 103
Smart City .................................................................................................................................. 105
Ethics and morals ...................................................................................................................... 107
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1 - Digital Devices
Digital devices are pieces of hardware that use computers or microcontrollers and they are
found everywhere in our digital world. A digital device is an electronic device that can receive,
store, process or send digital information.
Hardware
The physical parts of computing devices – those that you can actually touch – are referred to
as hardware. Contemporary (present day/modern) digital devices include:
• Computers including laptops, notebook, etc.

• Embedded Systems
• Peripheral devices
o Input devices, such as keyboards, mice, and scanners
o Output devices such as printers and speakers.
• mobile phones
• storage devices, such as flash drives
Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a computer system, made from a combination of hardware and

software that is used to perform a specific task.
It may or not be programmable, depending on the application. Examples of embedded

systems include washing machines, automobiles, cameras, industrial machines and more.
In case you’re wondering, mobile phones too could be categorised under embedded systems.
For clarity purposes and as specified by the syllabus let’s consider mobile phones as a separate
category of hardware devices.
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Characteristics of embedded systems:
• Embedded systems are task specific. They may be part of a refrigerator that lets you
tweet, but no matter how smart it may seem, it’s still a refrigerator.
• A lot of embedded systems are created with time constraints in mind; for example, if
the embedded system in a car’s braking system doesn’t strictly adhere to time, it may
result in an accident.
• Embedded systems come with either no User Interface (UI) or just a minimal UI.
• Embedded systems are usually feedback oriented or reactive.
• They are built with efficiency and cost effectiveness in mind..
• Embedded systems should be highly reliable and stable. Unlike usual computers,
embedded systems use different underlying software that cannot be modified by
consumers. Since they will be used for long periods of time and cannot be
programmed easily, they’re expected to run without any problems. In the case of
some applications like undersea communication cables, navigation beacons or
automobile components, maintenance is extremely difficult, if not highly improbable,
so reliability is paramount.
Here’s some applications:
• Consumer electronics – Videogame consoles, Blu-Ray players, home entertainment

systems, televisions, digital cameras, music players
• Household appliances – Washing machines, microwave ovens, refrigerators,
dishwashers, air conditioners
• Medical equipment – CT Scanners, Electrocardiogram (ECG), MRI Scanners, blood
pressure monitors, heartbeat monitors
• Automobiles – Electronic fuel injection systems, anti-lock braking systems, in-vehicle
entertainment systems, air-conditioner controls
• Industrial applications – Assembly lines, multiple parameter monitoring systems,
feedback systems, data collection systems
• Aerospace – Navigation systems, guidance systems, GPS
• Communications – Routers, network hubs, satellite phones
Besides these more traditional computer hardware devices, many items that were once not
considered digital devices are now becoming computerized themselves. Digital technologies
are now being integrated into many everyday objects, so the days of a device being labeled
categorically as computer hardware may be ending. Examples of these types of digital devices
include automobiles, refrigerators, and even soft-drink dispensers.
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Mobile Phones
Mobile phones use a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) to connect to a mobile

phone network. The traditional mobile phone came into use in the early 90s. It
was followed by feature phones.
A feature phone a mobile phone that incorporates features such as the ability to
access the Internet and store and play music but lacks the advanced functionality
of a smartphone.
Smartphones are a class of mobile phones and of multi-purpose mobile

Figure 1 A feature
computing devices. They are distinguished from feature phones by their phone
stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems, which
facilitate wider software, internet, and multimedia functionality (including music, video, cameras,
and gaming), alongside core phone functions such as voice calls and text messaging.
Smartphones typically include various sensors that can be leveraged by their software, such as a
magnetometer, proximity sensors, barometer, gyroscope and accelerometer, and support wireless
communications protocols such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and satellite navigation.
Specialist phones
Some mobile phones have specialist features to provide users with functions
that meet particular user needs. The Dialog Suraksha phone is one such
example. Its features are:
• Outgoing and Incoming calls are restricted to 4 parent approved numbers.

• No SMS/Internet access for the child Figure 2 Specialist phone
• SOS Emergency Button
• Possibility of tracking child’s location
• Automatic notifications to parent when battery level reaches (below 10%) and
credit level is low
• The child cannot switch off the device by him/herself
Other phones meet users’ accessibility needs. Accessibility is a measure of how easy
something is to use, especially by people with disabilities. The Alto 2 ‘talking phone’
is a specialist mobile phone for blind and partially sighted people. It
Figure 3 The Alto 2
The Alto 2 provides exceptional readability (big screen, high contrasts), ‘Talking Phone’
clear sound and a voice guide to help the user when accessing mobile
phone functionalities. The internal keyboard has been tailored for readability and accessibility
(bigger keys). An easy access alarm can automatically launch a call to
close relatives or care givers.
Tablets - Tablet devices are bigger than smartphones but have similar
features. A tablet has a touch screen, apps and Wi-Fi connectivity.
Some tablet devices have SIM card slots to allow internet connectivity
using the mobile phone network, so that they can be online when
they are not within range of a Wi-Fi signal.
Figure 4 A tablet device
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Home entertainment systems
Home entertainment devices include products and systems used in domestic or personal context.
The home entertainment market includes several consumer electronic products such as television
sets, video players & recorders, audio equipment, and gaming devices.
Smart TVs, much like smartphones and smart home devices

offer internet connectivity and support for a range of apps. This
opens up a world of new entertainment options, from
streaming video on Netflix to playing games, checking social
media, and controlling a whole house full of connected gadgets,
including devices that work with Alexa and Google Home-
compatible products.
Figure 5 A Smart TV
Game consoles enable
users to play video games on a television screen. Games could
be downloaded or provided on disks. Controllers are used to
control the characters, vehicles or objects in the game. Some
consoles use motion sensors to allow the player to control the
game with gestures and body movements.
Home Automation and Smart Assistants
A smart home is a residence that uses internet-

connected devices to enable the remote monitoring and
management of appliances and systems, such as lighting
and heating.
Amazon Alexa is a virtual assistant capable of voice

interaction, music playback, making to-do lists, setting
alarms, streaming podcasts, playing audiobooks, and providing weather,
traffic, sports, and other real-time information, such as news. Alexa can
also control several smart devices using itself as a home automation system.
Navigation Aids
Navigation Aids such as Sat-Nav can calculate the best route between two or more locations. They
are used in cards, delivery vans and ships. They provide visual prompts and alerts to held drivers
take the correct route. Navigation aids use information from GPS satellites to determine the exact
location of the device on earth. They also use orientation sensors to know which way the device is
currently pointing. GPS does not need internet connectivity to work. However, navigation aids need
internet connectivity in order to update map data. Smartphones are
now replacing specialist in-car navigation aids. There any many
navigation apps for smartphones which have a range of features.
Figure 6 Sat Nav example (TomTom)
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Multifunctional devices and convergence

A smart phone is a type of mobile phone, which means
that its primary function is to make phone calls. It can
also be used to take photographs or to function as a
navigation aid, fitness tracker, music player or handheld
games console. It is an example of a multifunctional
device – that can perform a range of different functions.
Devices such as smartphones often adopt technologies

and features from other types of device. This is called convergence.
Examples of convergence include:
• Newer smartphones getting bigger to look more like tablets – phablets.

• Tablet devices can connect to mobile phone networks
• Digital cameras have Wi-Fi and mobile phone network connectivity.
• Incorporation of items such as cameras, music players, voice recorders, internet browsers,
into mobile phones.
• Development of games consoles from dedicated games machines into multi-functional;
home entertainment systems.
Types of user interfaces
In Command Line Interface (CLI), user enter text instructions and the
system will provide the results. Commands have to be typed precisely
because the interface only recognizes certain commands.
In a Menu-Driven Interface, a list of options is displayed as a menu. Selecting one of these options
will trigger a command. Menu-driven interfaces are easier to use than CLI, but
can take more time as you have to go through the menu structure each time
you want to carry out a command. ATMs, televisions and older mobile phones
use this type of interface.
A Graphical User Interface (GUI) is controlled by a pointer on the screen and

uses a screen made up of windows, icons and menus. This is the easiest type of
interface to use, but it takes more memory and storage than a CLI or menu-
driven interface
Voice Interface allows the user to give spoken commands to a device the device
has voice recognition software which matches the spoken words against a library
of words to find a match. Voice interface facilitates hands-free
operations which promotes its use in vehicles in order to improve
road safety. Sometimes the software cannot find a match and
returns an incorrect match.
Gesture interface allows the user to control the device by swiping

their finger(s) across the screen, or by pinching their fingers
together to zoom in or out. This type of interface is commonly found on devices with touch screens.
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Features of digital devices

• For a device to be portable, it needs to be easy to carry and move around. Portability is directly
related to its size and weight.
• A faster processor will result in high performance of a device. A processor is one or more
Central Processing Units (CPUs) that carry our software instructions. Instructions are loaded
into the process from RAM (Random Access Memory), which means more RAM will allow the
system to have more programs running at the same time. Performance of digital devices can
be assessed based on
▪ Speed,
▪ Capacity,
▪ Portability,
▪ Bandwidth
▪ Power efficiency.
• More available storage allows users to store more files and programs. Storage speed also
affects performance.
• PCs allow users to install additional components such as RAM and hard disks. Smartphones
and tablets have expansion slots. Expansion is also possible by using ports such as USB port.
• Devices needs to have security features to protect private and valuable data. This is achieved
by preventing unauthorised access to data and devices.
• Digital devices require electricity to work. One benefit of lower energy consumption in mobile
devices is a longer battery life. Manufacturers strive to produce low energy consumption
devices to save customers’ money and reduce environmental damage.
• Users give commands to a device through the user interface.
• Devices can share data by connecting to each other using wired or wireless connectivity.
Connectivity can be used to update software, back up files or play media from one device on
another. Wired connectivity is usually faster and more reliable, but introduces additional cost,
mess and safety risks such as tripping.
Security features (Software & Hardware)
• User needs to enter a password or PIN (Personal Identification Number) before the
device can be used.
• Locking the screen or keyboard if the device has not been used for a specified period.
• The Lost Mode feature in Apple phones for instance can be used to remotely
wipe/erase personal data, lock the device and turn on location tracking.
• Some devices use biometric scanners to provide authorized users access to data.
• A special type of lock, called the ‘Kensington lock’ is used to
Furtherlock an attached
examples device
of digital (mostly
devices laptops) to a piece of
include:
furniture.
• Smart home devices such as TVs, light bulbs, locks, climate control.
• Autonomous devices such as robot vacuum cleaners, self-driving vehicles, auto-pilots.
• Medical / fitness devices such as treadmills, heart and respiration monitors, step counters.
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Features explained….
Connectivity
• Short-range connectivity protocols such as
o Bluetooth,
o Wi-Fi,
o and Near Field Communications (NFC) have emerged as the preeminent means
for mobile devices to share data, WWAN (Wireless WAN) connectivity (mobile
hotspot) and functionality between themselves and supporting accessories
Bluetooth is used for wireless connections over a short range; up to 10 m.
❖ It does not use much power and it uses radio waves.

❖ It is unlicensed; anyone can setup connection
❖ The rate of data transfer is low (between one and three Mbps).
❖ It is typically used to connect battery-powered devices
❖ E.g. ear-pieces, mobile phones or MP3 players, with computers.
• Energy consumption
Major appliances aside, most digital devices do not use 240-volt power, which is the
standard voltage of a home outlet. They actually use a lot less. So, trying to plug your
brand new smartphone directly into an outlet is going to lead to a fried device and lots
of tears from someone. This is why low-voltage devices come with a power adapter.
These “wall warts” as some term them, take the 240-volt electricity and convert it to
say, five volts. Unfortunately, most folks leave their adapters plugged in to make
recharging easier. The problem with this approach is that the seemingly innocuous
wall wart uses power even when it isn’t charging a device.
This invisible energy consumption is often called “vampire load/phantom load.”

Studies show that 5 to 10 percent of the average home’s energy use is from vampire
loads. The only way to stop this is to unplug the power adapter when it is not in use
or employ smart power strips. These look like the
typical power strip but with a twist––only one
socket gets power all the time. When the device or
appliance connected to it turns on and starts using
power, the remaining sockets receive power too.
This is perfect for entertainment systems, computer
set ups and a variety of other situations.
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Technologies used by digital devices

• Global Positioning System (GPS) • miniaturisation
• biometrics • processors
• touchscreen • radio-frequency identification
• sensor (RFID)
• memory • near-field communication (NFC)
• storage • quick response (QR) code
• battery power • Connectivity
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to
a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites.
GPS satellites (approx. 24) circle the Earth twice a day in a precise orbit. ... To calculate your 2-D
position (latitude and longitude) and track movement, a GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal
of at least 3 satellites. The GPS itself does not require an internet connection. You need a Maps App
that can download the maps beforehand, so they can be used without an internet connection. If the
phone has a GPS chip, then it should give you an option to "Turn Locate on or off".
Google Maps Navigation is a mobile application developed by Google for the Android and iOS
operating systems that was later integrated into the Google Maps mobile app. The application uses
an Internet connection to a GPS navigation system to provide turn-by-turn voice-guided instructions
on how to arrive at a given destination. The application requires connection to Internet data (e.g. 3G,
4G, Wi-Fi, etc.) and normally uses a GPS satellite connection to determine its location. A user can enter
a destination into the application, which will plot a path to it. The app displays the user's progress
along the route and issues instructions for each turn.
A popular example of GPS devices are TomToms used in Europe. The company produces include
traffic, navigation and mapping products, action cameras, GPS sport watches, fleet management
systems, and location-based products.
Biometrics
The word “Biometrics” means “life measurement” which is usually related to the use of distinctive
physiological characteristics to identify an individual. A biometric system is a pattern recognition
system which makes a personal identification by determining the authenticity of a specific
physiological or behavioural characteristic possessed by the user.
A number of biometric technologies have developed and are used to authenticate the person’s
identity. Common examples are Fingerprint scanning, Retinal scanning, Facial recognition and Voice
analysis.
Touch Screen
A touch screen is a computer display screen that is also an input device. The screens are sensitive to
pressure; a user interacts with the computer by touching pictures or words on the screen
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Memory & Storage
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or permanently.
For example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is a volatile memory that stores information on an
integrated circuit used by the operating system,
It is more appropriate to refer to RAM as "memory" or "primary memory" and a hard drive, SD Card,
etc. as "storage" or "secondary storage.". Storage devices are non-volatile (permanent).
Miniaturisation
Miniaturization is the trend to manufacture ever smaller mechanical, optical and electronic products
and devices. Examples include miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine
downsizing.
Much like the mobile phone, data storage has experienced major improvements with miniaturization.
Movies used to be stored on film and in relatively large VHS and Beta tapes. Now, physical copies of
movies are stored digitally on DVD and Blu-ray discs, which in turn are being supplanted by streaming
services. Data storage for PC’s and other devices has followed a similar path, to USB flash drives and
SD cards.
Battery technology has also paved the way for miniaturization. Through the development of new
chemistries, manufacturers have been able to pack more power into a fixed space. This allows for
either a longer battery life in the same footprint or reduction in the size of the battery while retaining
the same life as the original. Additional flexibility in battery geometry also permits the design of
smaller products
Sometimes miniaturisation could be taken too far. Cell phones could be shrunk to the point where
keypads and displays would be difficult to use. Many electronic devices have already reached a near
optimal form factor. Future miniaturization will focus more and more on increasing a product's
sophistication, performance, and market penetration.
Connectivity
Short-range connectivity protocols such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Near Field Communications (NFC)
have emerged as the preeminent means for mobile devices to share data, WWAN connectivity and
functionality between themselves and supporting accessories.
Despite what may appear to be similar functionality and addressable markets, these connectivity
standards are continually found to co-exist on a device based upon individual application strengths.
RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification)
RFID and refers to a technology whereby digital data encoded in RFID tags or smart labels (defined
below) are captured by a reader via radio waves. RFID is similar to barcoding in that data from a tag
or label are captured by a device that stores the data in a database. RFID, however, has several
advantages over systems that use barcode asset tracking software. The most notable is that RFID tag
data can be read outside the line-of-sight, whereas barcodes must be aligned with an optical scanner
RFID belongs to a group of technologies referred to as Automatic Identification and Data Capture
(AIDC). AIDC methods automatically identify objects, collect data about them, and enter those data
directly into computer systems with little or no human intervention.
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At a simple level, RFID systems consist of three components:
• An RFID tag or smart label (transponder)

• an RFID reader
• An antenna.
RFID tags contain an integrated circuit and an antenna,

which are used to transmit data to the RFID reader (also
called an interrogator). The reader then converts the
radio waves to a more usable form of data. Information collected from the tags is then transferred
through a communications interface to a host computer system, where the data can be stored in a
database and analyzed at a later time
As stated above, an RFID tag consists of an integrated circuit and an

antenna. The tag is also composed of a protective material that
holds the pieces together and shields them from various
environmental conditions. The protective material depends on the
application. For example, employee ID badges containing RFID tags
are typically made from durable plastic, and the tag is embedded
between the layers of plastic. RFID tags come in a variety of shapes
and sizes and are either passive or active. Passive tags are the most
widely used, as they are smaller and less expensive to implement.
Passive tags must be “powered up” by the RFID reader before they
can transmit data. Unlike passive tags, active RFID tags have an on-board power supply (e.g., a
battery), thereby enabling them to transmit data at all time.
RFID Applications:
❖ Inventory management
❖ Asset tracking
❖ Personnel tracking
❖ Controlling access to restricted
areas
❖ ID badging
❖ Supply chain management
❖ Counterfeit prevention (e.g. in the pharmaceutical industry)
Although RFID technology has been in use since World War II, the demand for RFID equipment has
increased rapidly only now. For example Wal-Mart requires their suppliers to enable products to be
traceable by RFID.
Applications that currently use barcode technology are good candidates for upgrading to a system
that uses RFID or some combination of the two. RFID offers many advantages over the barcode,
particularly the fact that an RFID tag can hold much more data about an item than a barcode can. In
addition, RFID tags are not susceptible to the damages that may be incurred by barcode labels, like
ripping and smearing
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NFC (Near-Field Communication)
Have you ever wondered what

makes tap-and-go services like
Apple Pay and Android Pay work?
Simply put, it's a method of
wireless data transfer called NFC
that detects and then enables
technology in close proximity to
communicate without the need for
an internet connection.
NFC evolved from radio frequency

identification (RFID) tech, an NFC
chip operates as one part of a
wireless link. Once it's activated by another chip, small amounts of data between the two devices can
be transferred when held a few centimeters from each other
NFC standard has three modes of operation:

• the peer-to-peer mode that lets two smartphones swap data,
• a read/write mode in which one active device picks up info from a
passive one,
• and card emulation, in which an NFC device such as a smartphone can
be used like a contactless credit card.
NFC's data-transmission frequency is 13.56MHz. NFC can transmit data at either 106, 212 or 424
Kbps (kilobits per second)
Near Field Communication versus Bluetooth

• Bluetooth and near field communication are both forms of wireless communication between
devices over short distances.
• NFC is limited to a distance of approximately four centimeters while Bluetooth can reach over
thirty feet (10 meters).
• NFC technology consumes little power when compared to standard Bluetooth technology. Only
when NFC has to power a passive, unpowered source such as an NFC tag does it require more
power than a Bluetooth transmission.
• The close proximity that devices connected using NFC must be to each other actually proves useful
in crowded locations to prevent interference caused when other devices are present and trying
to communicate.
• Bluetooth may have trouble dealing with interference when trying to send signals between two
devices, especially when several other devices are in close proximity.
• Another benefit of NFC technology comes in its ease of use. Bluetooth requires users to manually
set up connections between smartphones and takes several seconds. NFC connects automatically
in a fraction of a second, so fast it seems instantaneous.
• Though the users must be close to one another to use NFC technology, it is faster and easier to
set up than a Bluetooth connection.
• Bluetooth does still offer a longer signal range for connecting during data communication and
transfers. NFC technology has taken advantage of this and can connect two devices quickly, then
turn the signal over to Bluetooth so the owners can move further away without severing the
connection.
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Quick response (QR) code

A QR code (quick response code) is a type of 2D bar code that is used to provide easy access to
information through a smartphone. In this process, known as mobile tagging, the
smartphone's owner points the phone at a QR code and opens a barcode reader
app which works in conjunction with the phone's camera.
The QR code, similar to a barcode, is an example of an information matrix. However,

a significant difference in the two is that while a barcode only holds information nicely in the horizontal
direction, a QR can do so vertically as well. This is why QR codes are referred to as two-dimensional,
because they carry information both vertically and horizontally. Another direct result to this is greater
potential to carry information in a smaller space. Compared to a barcode, it’s no competition at all.
What are some of the advantages?

• A QR code can carry up to some hundred times the amount of information a conventional barcode
is capable of.
• When comparing the display of both: a conventional barcode can take up to ten times the amount
of printing space as a QR code carrying the same amount of information.
• A QR code is capable of being read in 360 degrees, from any direction, thus eliminating any
interference and negative effects from backgrounds.
• Also, the algorithm which is used to create QR codes will allow for an error margin (approx. 7-
30%). “So what?” you ask? Well, this doesn’t just help with scanning purposes in case the item or
code in question is dirty or damaged. Knowing this feature, you can alter the QR code symbol to
include a logo, keyword, picture, etc. This could help extraordinarily in the aesthetic appeal of the
code, and thus customer/consumer response. Or it could just help cater to your creative/fun side,
if you wanted to make a QR code of your own.
Applications include product tracking, item identification, time tracking, document management, and
general marketing.
Sensors (1.1.2)
Smartphones today come with a wealth of sensors to facilitate a better user experience, provide
apps with enhanced information about the world around the phone and provide robust and
increased battery life.
• Proximity Sensor - Detects when an object is near to the phone. Most commonly used to
sense when a phone is held up to the users ear to turn off the display. This saves both battery
life and prevents accidental screen touches.
• Accelerometer and gyroscope - Accelerometers in mobile phones are used to detect the
orientation of the phone. The gyroscope, or gyro for short, adds an additional dimension to
the information supplied by the accelerometer by tracking rotation or twist.
An accelerometer measures linear acceleration of movement, while a gyro on the other hand
measures the angular rotational velocity. Both sensors measure rate of change; they just
measure the rate of change for different things. Accelerometers are also used to provide
'steps' information for a vendors 'health' application.
• Digital compass - The digital compass that's usually based on a sensor called the
magnetometer and provides mobile phones with a simple orientation in relation to the
Earth's magnetic field. As a result, your phone always knows which way is North so it can
auto rotate your digital maps depending on your physical orientation.
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• Barometer - The barometer assists the GPS chip inside the device to get a faster lock by
instantly delivering altitude data. Additionally, the barometer can be utilized to provide
'floors climbed' information to a phones 'health' app. With the advent of more accurate
indoor navigation, the barometer can assist in determine what floor a user is on within an
airport for example.
• Biometrics - Biometric related sensors provide levels of enhanced security by capturing and
validating human related metrics. Including Fingerprint recognition, IRIS (eye) scanning and
full facial recognition.
Biometric sensors provide a more secure but more convenient way to unlock phones and pay
for purchases. Additionally, biometric sensors can be used to collect a user’s heart rate and
SpO2 (the estimate of arterial oxygen saturation) for use within a vendors 'health'
application.
• Augmented & Virtual Reality - The highly accurate sensors detailed above, when combined
with the powerful CPU & GPU's of modern smart phones, allow very realist and responsive
Virtual Reality applications to be created. When the sensors are combined with a
smartphones camera they facilitate Augmented Reality applications.
Firmware
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions
programmed on a hardware device. It provides the necessary
instructions for how the device communicates with the other
computer hardware.
How can software be programmed onto hardware? Firmware is typically stored in the flash
ROM of a hardware device. While ROM is "read-only memory," flash ROM can be erased and
rewritten because it is actually a type of flash memory.
Flash memory - a kind of memory that retains data in the absence of a power supply. It is an
electronic non-volatile computer storage medium that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed
Firmware can be thought of as "semi-permanent" since it remains the same unless it is
updated by a firmware updater.
You may need to update the firmware of certain devices, such as hard drives and video cards
in order for them to work with a new operating system. CD and DVD drive manufacturers
often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster media.
Sometimes manufacturers release firmware updates that simply make their devices work
more efficiently. You can usually find firmware updates by going to the "Support" or
"Downloads" area of a manufacturer's website. Keeping your firmware up-to-date is often
not necessary, but it is still a good idea. Make sure that once you start a firmware updater,
you let the update finish, because most devices will not function if their firmware is not
recognized.
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Factors used to assess the performance of digital devices.
• speed
• capacity
• portability
• bandwidth
• Power efficiency.
Bandwidth - When referring to a data connection, bandwidth, communication speed, or connection

speed is the total maximum transfer rate of a network cable or device. Essentially, it is a measurement
of how fast data can be sent over a wired or wireless connection, usually measure in bits per second.
Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.
Power Efficiency
We rely heavily on mobile devices for a wide range of our needs, from serving as our primary method
of communication to being a flashlight or alarm clock. The last thing any user wants is a dead battery.
To extend battery life and improve efficiency, designers are focused on the power efficiency of the
radio, particularly for modern communication standards such as LTE and 802.11ac.
The key power-using component in both base stations and smartphones is the power amplifier (PA).
While conventional PAs can achieve high levels of efficiency, the problem is that they can only do this
at one power level. Advanced wireless standards such as LTE achieve high data rates in part by
requiring the PAs to change their output power level over a range exceeding 10:1.
The fundamental reason why smartphone battery life continues to decrease is that the demands of
modern data bandwidth have outstripped advancements in PA architectures. The result is a situation
where a lot more power is used than is actually needed for the radio signal. Research is ongoing to
produce power efficient devices. Benefits of power efficient solutions:
• Significantly reduces carbon footprint.

• Shift from toxic and rare earth materials to non-toxic silicon
• Increased battery life of digital devices
• Significant power savings.
Binary
A digital device processes electronic signals that represent either a one (“on”) or a zero
(“off”). The on state is represented by the presence of an electronic signal; the off state is
represented by the absence of an electronic signal. Each one or zero is referred to as
a bit (binary digit); a group of eight bits is a byte. The first personal computers could process
8 bits of data at once; modern PCs can now process 64 bits of data at a time, which is where
the term 64-bit processor comes from.
Prefixes were applied to the word byte to represent different orders of magnitude. Since
these are digital specifications, the prefixes were originally meant to represent multiples of
1024 (which is 210), but we also have rounded them to mean multiples of 1000.
© Razmi Zahir 15
UNDERSTANDING BINARY
The system of numbering we are most familiar with is base-ten numbering. In
base-ten numbering, each column in the number represents a power of ten, with
the far-right column representing 10^0 (ones), the next column from the right
representing 10^1 (tens), then 10^2 (hundreds), then 10^3 (thousands), etc. For
example, the number 1010 in decimal represents: (1 x 1000) + (0 x 100) + (1 x
10) + (0 x 1).
Computers use the base-two numbering system, also known as binary. In this
system, each column in the number represents a power of two, with the far-right
column representing 2^0 (ones), the next column from the right representing 2^1
(tens), then 2^2 (fours), then 2^3 (eights), etc.
© Razmi Zahir 16
Data Transfer Rate

Data transfer rate is the rate that a certain amount of data is transferred over a
given period in time. An example would be when you download something online.
While downloading you see the progress bar and the Data Transfer rate (i.e.
Kilobytes per second KB/s).
Data Transfer Rate = Amount of Data / Time

Example 1:
How long will it take to transfer a 1.2-MB file using a modem link working at 52,000
bits/sec?
• Time = Amount of Data / Data Transfer Rate.
• Since transfer rate is given in bits, you need to convert the 1.2 MB to bits
• 1 MB = 1024 KB, 1KB = 1024 Bytes, 1 Byte = 8 bits
First, convert bytes to bits:

1.2 x 1024 * 1024 bytes x 8 bits = 10,066,258,329.6 bits
Time = 10,066,258,329.6 / 52,000
= 193.583 seconds = 193.583/60 minutes = 3.22 minutes
Example 2:
How long does it take to back up a 7.8-GB database using a 1.536-Mb/s connection?
First convert GB to bits: 7.8 x 230 bytes x 8 (bits/byte) = 7.8 x 233 bits
Convert 1.536Mb/s to bits per second = 1.536 x 2 20 bits per second
Time Taken = Amount/Rate = 7.8 x 233 /1.536 x 220
= 41,600 seconds = 693 minutes = 11.55 hours
1024 = 210
You could use 210 instead of 1024 in calculations
© Razmi Zahir 17
What Is “Sample Rate”?

Sample rate is literally how fast samples are taken. Picture an analog audio track. A “sample” is a
measurement — a snapshot, if you will — at one specific timea in that audio track, described in the
binary language of 1s and 0s. Repeat that measurement tens of thousands of times each second; how
often that snapshot is taken represents the sample rate or sampling frequency.
It’s measured in “samples per second” and is usually expressed in kiloHertz (kHz), a unit meaning 1,000
times per second. Audio CDs, for example, have a sample rate of 44.1kHz, which means that the analog
signal is sampled 44,100 times per second
What Does Sample Rate Do? It only does one thing: measure frequency. That’s it.
Why 44.1kHz?
So how did we end up with 44.1kHz as the “standard” sample rate for so many digital formats? In
the early days of digital audio, 48kHz was the “pro” standard, and manufacturers wanted to use a
different rate for “consumer” devices to prevent direct digital copying. It’s not easy mathematically
to convert digital audio from a sample rate of 48,000 to 44,100; so this sample rate was chosen for
consumer gear for its incompatibility with pro gear.
If 44.1kHz Captures More than We Can Hear, Why Use Higher Sample Rates?
There are a couple of reasons that higher sampling rates can be advantageous; the first is that while
44.1kHz is the standard for audio CDs, 48kHz is the standard for audio for video. Studios who
regularly work in film and television may use 48kHz as their in-house standard
Can You Hear the Unhearable?
There are those who feel that frequencies in an audio source or signal above the 20kHz human-
hearing limit can still be perceived or have an effect on the audio that is perceived. In this case, using
a higher sample rate captures any higher harmonics or frequencies in the ultra-high range. Can you
really hear those frequencies? Maybe, maybe not. In my opinion, it’s worth capturing the fullest
signal bandwidth you can, just for safety’s sake.
A decibel (or dB) measures ratios of power or intensity. ... An increase of three decibels is
approximately a doubling of power. Decibels are often used in measuring telecommunication signals.
With electric audio signals, there are several decibel units, relative to several bases.
0 dB → Threshold of Hearing
20 dB → Whispering
60 dB → Normal Conversation
80 dB → Vacuum Cleaner
110 dB → Front Row at Rock Concert
130 dB → Threshold of Pain
160 dB → Bursting Eardrums
© Razmi Zahir 18
Software
The term 'software' refers to the set of electronic program instructions or data a computer
processor reads in order to perform a task or operation. In contrast, the term 'hardware'
refers to the physical components that you can see and touch, software is intangible. There
are two main types of software: systems software and application software.
❖ Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated
to managing the computer itself, such as the operating
system, file management utilities, anti-virus and disk
cleaners.
❖ The operating system manages the computer hardware
resources in addition to applications and data.
❖ Application software, or simply applications, are used to
complete tasks such as creating documents, spreadsheets,
sending email, running businesses, and even playing games!
Operating System
The Operating System controls the basic functions of the computer. Other than embedded
systems, all computers use an operating system (OS). This is a complex program with
millions of software instructions that controls the operation of the computer. It handles the:
• Device Controlling - Input, such as data from the keyboard and movements of the
mouse, Output to the screen/printer
• Disk Management - Management of files and transfer of data to and from the hard
disk
• Memory Management - Control of and allocation of resources to memory
• Process Management - Multitasking and the order in which jobs are processed
• Maintenance of system security, for example allowing the administrator full control
but other users only access to running a file, not changing or deleting it.
• Booting: Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system starts the
computer to work. ...
• Loading and Execution.
• Printing controlling.
In addition, the operating system provides a standard interface for the applications software
and a friendly, easy-to-use interface for users (known as the human-computer
interface).Different types of computer may have different operating systems because they
require different functions to be performed by the operating system.
© Razmi Zahir 19
Examples of operating systems are:
• Microsoft Windows 8/7/XP - used on desktop PCs in homes, school and businesses.
• Mac OS - Only runs on Apple computers and is well-known for being easy to use.
• Linux - An 'open source' os, found on mainframes and at homes too.
• Microsoft Windows Server 2008 - A network operating system that can handle additional
issues such as security, access and routing.
• Palm OS, Android OS - run on mobile devices such as smart phones and palmtops/PDAs.
If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system software is the interface
between the hardware and user applications. The operating system (OS) is the best-
known example of system software. The OS manages all the other programs in a computer.
System software is computer software designed to provide a platform to other software. Examples of system
software include operating systems, computational science software, game engines, industrial automation,
and software as a service applications.
System software includes:
• Operating systems.
• Device drivers.
• Utility software - Utility software helps to manage, maintain and control computer resources
Examples of utility programs are antivirus software, backup software and disk tools.
• Shells and windowing systems. In computing, a shell is a user interface for access to
an operating system's services.
Application software
There are four categories of application software: business, graphics and multimedia,
home/personal/education, and communications. Probably the most well-known
business application is Microsoft Office, which includes word processing (Word), spreadsheet
(Excel), Database (Access) and Presentation graphics (PowerPoint).
• Word processing software. ... • Communication Software. ...
• Spreadsheet Software. ... • Presentation Software. ...
• Desktop Publishing Software. ... • Internet Browsers. ...
• Database Software. ... • Email Programs.
Examples
Application Software Type
Word processing software MS Word, WordPad and Notepad
Database software Oracle, MS Access, My SQL
Spreadsheet software Apple Numbers, Microsoft Excel
Multimedia software Real Player, Media Player
© Razmi Zahir 20
Software Licensing
Copying computer software, or software piracy, is a criminal offence. In the UK, the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988 covers stealing software, using illegally-copied software and
manuals, and running purchased software on two or more machines at the same time without
a suitable license.
Organizations purchase software licenses to cover the number of workstations on their

network but sometimes they neglect to purchase additional licensees as they buy more
workstations. When you buy software, for example, copyright law forbids you from:
• Giving a copy to a friend/family for free
• Making a copy and then selling it
• Using the software on a network (unless the license allows it)
There are exceptions. Some copyright owners allow their work to be copied and distributed
for educational use or for non-profitable use. This includes freeware, shareware and open
source software.
Images returned by search engines do not belong to the search engine and are not free to
use! The search engine has included them from a number of websites. All of the major search
engines provide a link to the website that the original image is from. If you want to use an
image you have found using a search engine, always check to whom it belongs to
The legal penalties for breaking the copyright law may include unlimited fines and
imprisonment
Why Software Licensing Is Important? Businesses must be savvy in the licenses they
purchase to ensure firstly they are using software legally and secondly, they aren't paying
for licenses that aren't being used
Proprietary License
Some software has source code that only the person, team, or organization who created it—
and maintains exclusive control over it—can modify. People call this kind of software
"proprietary" or "closed source" software.
Only the original authors of proprietary software can legally copy, inspect, and alter that
software. And in order to use proprietary software, computer users must agree (usually by
signing a license displayed the first time they run this software) that they will not do anything
with the software that the software's authors have not expressly permitted. Microsoft Office
and Adobe Photoshop are examples of proprietary software.
© Razmi Zahir 21
Open Source
The term "open source" refers to something people can modify and share
because its design is publicly accessible. Open source software is software
with source code that anyone can inspect, modify, and enhance.
"Source code" is the part of software that most computer users don't ever
see; it's the code computer programmers can manipulate to change how a
piece of software—a "program" or "application"—works. Programmers who have access to a
computer program's source code can improve that program by adding features to it or fixing
parts that don't always work correctly.
LibreOffice and the GNU Image Manipulation Program are examples of open source software.
As they do with proprietary software, users must accept the terms of a license when they use
open source software—but the legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from
those of proprietary licenses.
Open source licenses affect the way people can use, study, modify, and distribute software.
In general, open source licenses grant computer users permission to use open source
software for any purpose they wish. Some open source licenses—what some people call
"copy left" licenses—stipulate that anyone who releases a modified open source program
must also release the source code for that program alongside it.
By design, open source software licenses promote collaboration and sharing because they
permit other people to make modifications to source code and incorporate those changes
into their own project
Doesn't "open source" just mean something is free of charge?
No. This is a common misconception about what "open source" implies, and the concept's
implications are not only economic.
Open source software programmers can charge money for the open source software they
create or to which they contribute. But in some cases, because an open source license might
require them to release their source code when they sell software to others, some
programmers find that charging users money for software services and support (rather than
for the software itself) is more lucrative. This way, their software remains free of charge, and
they make money helping others install, use, and troubleshoot it.
Open source technology and open source thinking both benefit programmers and non-
programmers. Because early inventors built much of the Internet itself on open source
technologies—like the Linux operating system and the Apache Web server application—
anyone using the Internet today benefits from open source software
© Razmi Zahir 22
Creative Commons (CC) license

A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that
enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used
when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that they
have created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only
non-commercial uses of their own work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an
author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions
that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work.
Free software License

A free software license is a notice that grants the recipient of a piece of software extensive
rights to modify and redistribute that software. These actions are usually prohibited by
copyright law, but the rights-holder (usually the author) of a piece of software can remove
these restrictions by accompanying the software with a software license which grants the
recipient these rights.
Software using such a license is free software (or free and open-source software) as conferred
by the copyright holder. Free software licenses are applied to software in source code as also
binary object code form, as the copyright law recognizes both forms.
Software licenses in context of copyright. From left to right less rights for a licensee/user of a
software and more rights retained by the owner. First three license categories from left are
considered being part of the "free software" ecosystem, also including public domain like
licenses (such as CC0).
© Razmi Zahir 23
Licensing options
Stand-alone licenses
INCLUDED IN SUBSCRIPTIONS WITH SINGLE-USER ACCESS
A subscription with single-user access is a good choice for organizations that need one or
more stand-alone licenses. Stand-alone licenses are then assigned to individual users. These
subscriptions cost less than subscriptions with multi-user access
Network licenses
INCLUDED IN SUBSCRIPTIONS WITH MULTI-USER ACCESS
A subscription with multi-user access is a good choice for teams of users, allowing the use of
products up to a maximum number of users, or seats, connected to a server network.
Network licenses are shared, so individuals do not need to be assigned access.
The products can be installed on as many devices as you want, but you can use the product
simultaneously only on the number of purchased seats. For example, if you have 6
subscription seats and 8 users, all users have access, but only 6 can use the product at any
one time. Because you can install the products on more systems than the number of seats
purchased, you get true floating licenses across your organization.
Multiple user - A software license that allows more than one person to use the software. For
example Virus Guards come with 3 user licenses – you could install to three devices only.
A Fixed Term License is for a definite time specified. Fixed Term Licenses include Software
Subscription and Support ensuring your access to product upgrades and Technical Support
for as long as the FTL is in effect. For Example Office 365 subscription. Virus Guards usually
come with a one year subscription from the date of set up with access to updates during the
valid period.
Indefinite license - means that you may use it as long as you can. For example if you have
purchased a software in 2010 you could still use it as long as the present hardware/software
supports it.
Educational institutes such as school and colleges could get institution license. The institute
must declare in writing that the sole application of the license is educational and that the
software will not be used for commercial purposes
© Razmi Zahir 24
Software Updates
A software update, which is sometimes called a software patch, is a free download for an application,
operating system, or software suite that provides fixes for features that aren't working as intended or
adds minor software enhancements and compatibility.
Why should I update my software?
• Updates protect against new-found security risks.

• They introduce new features in your software.
• Software updates can improve battery depletion rate or performance speed.
• They extend your equipment's useable life by allowing its maximum productivity.
• Updates fix bugs in the software and improve functionality.
Software Upgrade
An upgrade is the act of replacing your product with a newer, and often more superior, version or
similar product. Therefore, an update modifies your current product while an upgrade totally
replaces it. When it comes to the frequency, upgrades happen a lot less often compared to updates.
A software upgrade is a new version of the software that offers a significant change or major
improvement over your current version. In many cases, a software upgrade requires the purchase of
the new version of the software, sometimes at a discounted price if you own an older version of the
software.
A software patch or fix is a quick-repair job for a piece of programming designed to resolve
functionality issues, improve security and add new features. Throughout its lifetime, software will run
into problems called bugs. A patch is the immediate fix to those problems. IT or end users can often
download a patch from the software maker's website. The patch is not necessarily the best fix for the
problem, and the product's developers often find a more thorough option when they package the
software for its next release.
You could run the update manually or set it to run automatically. You can choose to install them at
night whilst asleep when your device is plugged in or set your mobile or tablet to automatically
update them when you are connected to Wi-Fi.
You can turn off automatic updates but it is not advisable. Many of them will be minor tweaks and
fixes for problems that probably won't affect you but in amongst the routine updates there are usually
important or critical security patches
Mobile devices like the iPhone and Android phones frequently receive updates to keep them running
smoothly, and the applications quite often release updates to keep up with the changes.
Compatibility is the capacity for two systems to work together without having to be altered to do so.
Compatible software applications use the same data formats. For example, if word processor
applications are compatible, the user should be able to open their document files in either product.
For example in Android development, you'll probably encounter the term "compatibility" in various
situations. There are two types of compatibility: device compatibility and app compatibility.
Because Android is an open source project, any hardware manufacturer can build a device that runs
the Android operating system.
© Razmi Zahir 25
2 – Networks
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be considered a
computer network.
The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet
cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like
access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others.
There are different networking models for how to connect computers over a network.
Computers that request information are called clients and computers that provide
information are servers. But the client and server relationship can be organized in different
ways.
The most widely used models are client-server or peer-to-peer (P2P).
Client-server
The client-server model is the relationship
between two computers in which one, the
client, makes a service request from
another, the server. The key point about a
client-server model is that the client is
dependent on the server to provide and
manage the information.
For example, websites are stored on web

servers. A web browser is the client which
makes a request to the server, and the
server sends the website to the browser.
Popular websites need powerful servers to serve thousands or millions of clients, all making
requests at the same time. The client side of a web application is often referred to as the
front end. The server side is referred to as the back end.
© Razmi Zahir 26
Peer-to-peer (P2P)
In a P2P network, no single provider is responsible for being the server. Each computer stores
files and acts as a server. Each computer has equal responsibility for providing data.
In the client-server model, many users trying to

access a large file, such as a film, would put strain on
one server. In the peer-to-peer model, many users on
the network could store the same file. Each computer
can then send sections of the file, sharing the
workload. Each client can download and share files
with other users.
P2P is ideal for sharing files. P2P would be unsuitable
for a service such as booking tickets, as one server
needs to keep track of how many tickets are left. Also,
on P2P networks no single computer is responsible
for storing a file - anyone can delete files as they wish.
Differences between client-server and P2P networks
Client-server P2P
Security The server controls security of the network. No central control over security.
The server manages the network. Needs a

No central control over the network.
Management dedicated team of people to manage the
Anyone can set up.
server.
Clients are not dependent on a central

Dependency Clients are dependent on the server.
server.
The server can be upgraded to be made If machines on the network are slow
Performance
more powerful to cope with high demand. they will slow down other machines.
Each computer has to be backed up.

Backups Data is all backed up on the main server.
Data can easily be deleted by users.
© Razmi Zahir 27
Ad hoc Networks
An ad hoc network is a network that is composed of individual devices communicating with
each other directly. The term implies spontaneous or impromptu construction because
these networks often bypass the gatekeeping hardware or central access point such as a
router.
An ad hoc network is a type of temporary computer-to-computer connection. In ad
hoc mode, you can set up a wireless connection directly to another computer without having
to connect to a Wi-Fi access point or router.
Examples of Ad Hoc Networks
• Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET)
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a
continuously self-configuring, self-organizing,
infrastructure-less network of mobile devices
connected without wires. It is sometimes known
as "on-the-fly" networks or "spontaneous
networks.
• Vehicular ad hoc networks

(VANETs)
VANETs are used for
communication between vehicles
and roadside
equipment. Intelligent vehicular
ad hoc networks (InVANETs) are a
kind of artificial intelligence that
helps vehicles to behave in
intelligent manners during vehicle-
to-vehicle collisions, accidents. Navy ad hoc networks
• Ad hoc home smart lighting
ZigBee is a low power form of wireless ad hoc networks that is now finding their way
in home automation. The home automation market is tipped to exceed $16 billion by
2019.
• Ad hoc street light networks

The concept is to use wireless control of city street lights for better energy efficiency,
as part of a smart city architectural feature. Multiple street lights form a wireless ad
hoc network. A single gateway device can control up to 500 street lights. Using the
gateway device, one can turn individual lights ON, OFF or dim them, as well as find out
which individual light is faulty and in need of maintenance.
© Razmi Zahir 28
Tethering
In the context of mobile technology, connecting a mobile phone to a laptop using a USB
cable is called tethering. Tethering can be done using different media such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth or USB. Tethering usually allows sharing of
internet connection of one device to another. All modern
mobile phone operating systems have tethering capability to
share internet. Windows, Android and iOS have built-in
features to allow tethering over USB, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
• When internet tethering is done via Wi-Fi, it is also

known as a mobile hotspot.
• Tethering via Bluetooth is comparatively difficult
to setup and also the speed is less than Wi-Fi. It is
not used much now.
• Tethering over USB is very fast and power
consumption is minimal as the device can be charged
over USB. However, not many devices support this USB
tethering capability. Also, it will need special drivers or
software on both sides and probably some configuration
stuff.
Tethering a 3G or 4G phone means connecting the phone to another device so that the
device can use the phone's internet connection to get online. ... Generally, if a
device supports Wi-Fi, you'll also be able to tether your phone to it wirelessly.
• Tethering, or a personal hotspot as it's sometimes called, can be an enormously useful

way to get devices, such as laptops and tablets, online when there's no Wi-Fi available.
• All you usually need to do it is a 3G or 4G smartphone with a data allowance, and it's
simple to setup.
• A smartphone makes for an ideal candidate for tethering. Modern smartphones have great
connectivity capabilities, making them very capable replacements for regular modems and
helping people to get more out of their contracts.
© Razmi Zahir 29
• With a smartphone, tethering can go further. The smartphone can act not just as a modem
for one computer, but as a hub of connectivity for a whole range of devices all at once. As
such, you can use a 3G or 4G smartphone as a replacement for a fully-equipped internet
router. Depending on the phone and the contract, high speed web access can be provided to
many devices at once.
2.1.2 Features and purposes of network communication protocols:
• wireless – Wi-Fi
• ZigBee®
• Bluetooth®
• cellular – Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications (3G/4G)
• infrared
• Ethernet
Wireless - Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses
radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network
connections
The cornerstone of any wireless network is an access point (AP). The primary job of an access
point is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and "tune" into. In order to
connect to an access point and join a wireless network, computers and devices must be
equipped with wireless network adapters.
The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi registered trademark term
specifically defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based
on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards."
Initially, Wi-Fi was used in place of only the 2.4GHz 802.11b standard, however the Wi-Fi
Alliance has expanded the generic use of the Wi-Fi term to include any type of network or
WLAN product based on any of the 802.11 standards, including 802.11b, 802.11a, dual-band
and so on, in an attempt to stop confusion about wireless LAN interoperability.
Wi-Fi is supported by many applications and devices including video game consoles, home
networks, PDAs, mobile phones, major operating systems, and other types of consumer
electronics. Any products that are tested and approved as "Wi-Fi Certified" (a registered
trademark) by the Wi-Fi Alliance are certified as interoperable with each other, even if they
are from different manufacturers. For example, a user with a Wi-Fi Certified product can use
any brand of access point with any other brand of client hardware that also is also "Wi-Fi
Certified".
© Razmi Zahir 30
ZigBee is an open global standard for wireless technology

designed to use low-power digital radio signals for personal area
networks.
• Zigbee is a low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad
hoc network.
• The technology defined by the Zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less
expensive than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or
more general wireless networking such as Wi-Fi.
• Applications include wireless light switches, home energy monitors, traffic management
systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that requires short-range low-rate
wireless data transfer.
•
Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10–100 meters line-of-sight,
depending on power output and environmental characteristics.
• Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through a mesh
network of intermediate devices to reach more distant ones.
• Zigbee is typically used in low data rate applications that require long battery life and
secure networking (Zigbee networks are secured by 128 bit symmetric encryption keys.)
• Zigbee has a defined rate of 250 Kbit/s, best suited for intermittent data transmissions
from a sensor or input device. This technology also has a low-channel bandwidth of 1MHz.
• ZigBee and Wi-Fi Coexistence. ZigBee and Wi-Fi channels both exist in the 2.4 GHz band,
existing in the exact same frequency space. Operating a ZigBee network and a Wi-
Fi network on the same frequency could cause them to interfere with each other. Usually,
the ZigBee network will take the hit.
• So unlike Wi-Fi, if you have two devices with ZigBee chips, it's possible that they won't be
able to operate with each other. It's restricted to wireless personal area networks (WPAN)
and reaches an average 10 to 30 meters for usual applications
•
Zigbee devices
o Amazon Echo
Plus.
o Bosch Security
Systems.
o Honeywell
thermostats.
o Ikea Tradfli.
o Philips Hue.
o Samsung
SmartThings.
© Razmi Zahir 31
Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology is a short-range wireless
communications technology to replace the cables connecting
electronic devices, allowing a person to have a phone
conversation via a headset, use a wireless mouse and
synchronize information from a mobile phone to a PC, all
using the same core system.
• Bluetooth uses low-energy radio waves to send

wireless data between Bluetooth-enabled devices.
• It's similar to Wi-Fi in that it operates over radio waves. However, Bluetooth can work
between any two enabled devices and does not require additional network equipment
such as routers or modems, making it a popular choice for sending data between
mobile electronics over close ranges.
• Since Bluetooth devices operate in the 2.4 GHz spectrum, they use the same
commodity antennas designed for WLAN devices.
• The ranges of Bluetooth signal depends on the device class:
Device Class Transmit Intended Devices

Power Range
Class 3 1 mW Less than 10 m
Class 2 2.5 mW 10 m, 33 feet Mobile phones, head sets
Class 1 100 mW 100 m, 328 f Laptop and desktop
Is Bluetooth secure? Wireless is always less secure than wired communication

How secure is Bluetooth? Like Wi-Fi, communications are encrypted too and there are
numerous other security features. You can restrict certain devices so they can talk only to
certain other, trusted devices—for example, allowing your cellphone to be operated only by
your Bluetooth hands-free headset and no-one else's. This is called device-level security.
Is Bluetooth better or worse than Wi-Fi?
People often get confused by Bluetooth and Wi-Fi because, at first sight, they seem to do
similar things. In fact, they're very different. Bluetooth is mainly used for linking computers
and electronic devices in an ad-hoc way over very short distances, often for only brief or
occasional communication using relatively small amounts of data. It's relatively secure, uses
little power, connects automatically, and in theory presents little or no health risk. Wi-Fi is
designed to shuttle much larger amounts of data between computers and the Internet, often
over much greater distances. It can involve more elaborate security and it generally uses
much higher power, so arguably presents a slightly greater health risk if used for long periods.
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are complementary technologies, not rivals, and you can easily use both
together to make your electronic gadgets work more conveniently for you!
© Razmi Zahir 32
Cellular – Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications (3G/4G)
GSM or Global System for Mobile Communications is the most popular wireless cellular
communication technique, used for public communication. The GSM standard was developed
for setting protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks.
It initially started as a circuit switching network, but later packet switching was implemented
after integration General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) technology as well. The widely-used
GSM frequency bands are 900 MHz and 1800 MHz.
In the Europe and Asia, the GSM operates in 900 to 1800 MHz frequency range, whereas in
United States and other American countries, it operates in the 850 to 1900 MHz frequency
range. It uses the digital air interface wherein the analog signals are converted to digital
signals before transmission. The transmission speed is 270 Kbps.
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is currently used by about 80% of mobile
phones across the worlds. There are about more than three billion users of this technology.
How GSM communication works?

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) uses a combination of Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Frequency Division Multiple Access:
It involves dividing a frequency band
into multiple bands such that each
sub-divided frequency band is
allotted to a single subscriber.
Time Division Multiple Access: It
involves allotting same frequency
channel to different subscribers by
dividing the frequency band into
multiple time slots. Each user gets
his/her own timeslot, allowing multiple stations to share same transmission space.
For GSM, each sub divided carrier frequency is divided into different time slots using TDMA
technique. Each TDMA frame lasts for 4.164 milliseconds (ms) and contains 8 time slots. Each
time slot or a physical channel within this frame lasts for 577 microseconds and data is
transmitted in the time slot in form of bursts
© Razmi Zahir 33
Mobile Phone Generations
Each of the Generations has standards that must be met to officially

use the G terminology.
• 1G – A term never widely used until 2G was available. This was

the first generation of cell phone technology. Simple phone calls
were all it was able to do.
• 2G – The second generation of cell phone transmission. A few more features were added
to the menu such as simple text messaging.
• 3G – This generation set the standards for most of the wireless technology we have come
to know and love. Web browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and other
Smartphone technology were introduced in the third generation. 3G should be capable of
handling around 2 Megabits per second.
• 4G – The speed and standards of this technology of wireless needs to be at least 100
Megabits per second and up to 1 Gigabit per second to pass as 4G. It also needs to share
the network resources to support more simultaneous connections on the cell.
The major wireless networks were not actually lying to anyone when 4G first rolled out,
they simply stretched the truth a bit. A 4G phone had to comply with the standards but
finding the network resources to fulfill the true standard was difficult. You were buying
4G capable devices before the networks were capable of delivering true 4G to the device.
• 4G LTE – Long Term Evolution – LTE sounds better. This buzzword is a version of 4G that
is the latest advertised technology and is getting very close to the speeds needed as the
standards are set. When you start hearing about LTE Advanced, then we will be talking
about true fourth generation wireless technologies because they are the only two formats
realized by the International Telecommunications Union as True 4G at this time.
© Razmi Zahir 34
Infrared
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared and visible light can all be used for communication. Radio
waves – are used to transmit television and radio programs. Microwaves – are used to
transmit satellite television and for mobile phones.
• Infrared – is used to transmit information from remote controls.

• IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer
peripherals and personal digital assistants.
• According the Infrared Data Association, devices based on the IrDA standard have a
range of one to two meters, and a maximum operating angle of 30 degrees.
• The current IrDA standard specifies data rates up to 16 Mbps, although actual rates
depend on products.
• IrDA usage is largely influenced by distance and the requirement for line-of-site (non-
obstructed) light wave transmission between devices. As a result, you won't find IrDA
being used to create wireless LANs.
• You'll largely find IrDA used for short point-to-point connections between devices like
laptops and printers, cell phones, cameras, and remote controllers.
Ethernet
Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting
wired local area networks (LANs), enabling devices to
communicate with each other via a protocol -- a set of rules or
common network language.
Any device accessing a geographically localized network using a cable -- i.e., with a wired
rather than wireless connection -- likely uses Ethernet -- whether in a home, school or office
setting. From businesses to gamers, diverse end users depend on the benefits of Ethernet
connectivity, including reliability and security.
Compared to wireless LAN technology, Ethernet is typically less vulnerable to disruptions --

whether from radio wave interference, physical barriers or bandwidth hogs. It can also offer
a greater degree of network security and control than wireless technology, as devices must
connect using physical cabling -- making it difficult for outsiders to access network data or
hijack bandwidth for unsanctioned devices.
© Razmi Zahir 35
2.1.3 Understand the features, functions, and use of network standards and protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are two distinct computer
network protocols. A protocol is an agreed-upon set of procedures and rules. When two
computers follow the same protocols—the same set of rules—they can understand each
other and exchange data. TCP and IP are so commonly used together, however, that TCP/IP
has become standard terminology for referring to this suite of protocols.
Transmission Control Protocol divides a message or file into packets that are transmitted over
the internet and then reassembled when they reach their destination. Internet Protocol is
responsible for the address of each packet so it is sent to the correct destination.
TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each with its own set of agreed-upon protocols:
• The Data link layer consists of methods and protocols that operate only on a link,
which is the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the
network. Protocols in the layer include Ethernet and ARP.
• The Internet or Networking layer connects independent networks to transport the
packets containing the data across network boundaries. Protocols are IP and ICMP.
• The Transport layer handles communications between hosts and is responsible for
flow control, reliability and multiplexing. Protocols include TCP and UDP.
• The Application layer standardizes data exchange for applications. Protocols
include HTTP, FTP, POP3, SMTP, and SNMP.
TCP/IP technically applies to network communications where the TCP transport is used to
deliver data across IP networks. A so-called "connection-oriented" protocol, TCP works by
establishing a virtual connection between two devices via a series of request and reply
messages sent across the physical network.
Web browsers, for example, use TCP/IP to communicate with Web servers. Millions of people
use TCP/IP every day to send email, chat online and play online games without knowing how
it works.
© Razmi Zahir 36
Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
VOIP is a technology that allows you to deliver voice and multimedia (videos, pictures)
content over the Internet. It is one of the cheapest way to communicate anytime, anywhere
with the Internet’s availability.
Voice over Internet Protocol (also voice over IP, VoIP or IP telephony) is a methodology and
group of technologies for the delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions over
Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet.
VoIP is a method for taking

analog audio signals, like the
kind you hear when you talk on
the phone, and turning them
into digital data that can be
transmitted over the Internet.
How is this useful?

VoIP can turn a standard Internet connection into a way to place free phone calls. The
practical upshot of this is that by using some of the free VoIP software that is available to
make Internet phone calls, you're bypassing the phone company (and its charges) entirely.
There are three different "flavors" of VoIP service in common use today:
• ATA - The simplest and most common way is through the use of a
device called an ATA (analog telephone adaptor). The ATA allows you
to connect a standard phone to your computer or your Internet
connection for use with VoIP. The ATA is an analog-to-digital
converter. It takes the analog signal from your traditional phone and
converts it into digital data for transmission over the Internet.
• IP Phones - These specialized phones look just like normal phones but
instead of having the standard RJ-11 phone connectors, IP phones have
an RJ-45 Ethernet connector. IP phones connect directly to your router
and have all the hardware and software necessary right onboard to handle
the IP call. Wi-Fi phones allow subscribing callers to make VoIP calls from
any Wi-Fi hot spot.
• Computer-to-computer - This is certainly the easiest way to use

VoIP. You don't even have to pay for long-distance calls. There are
several companies offering free or very low-cost software that you
can use for this type of VoIP. All you need is the software, a microphone, speakers, a sound
card and an Internet connection, preferably a fast one like you would get through a cable
or DSL modem. Except for your normal monthly ISP fee, there is usually no charge for
computer-to-computer calls, no matter the distance.
© Razmi Zahir 37
Pros and cons of VOIP
Pros Cons
▪ Cost Savings ▪ Voice quality
▪ Portability ▪ Bandwidth dependent
▪ Flexibility ▪ Power dependent
▪ Accessibility ▪ Emergency call concerns
▪ Integrated with other apps ▪ Security
▪ Improved productivity ▪ Reliability
▪ Video conferencing
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is one of the most common protocols used in VoIP technology.
It is an application layer protocol that works in conjunction with other application layer
protocols to control multimedia communication sessions over the Internet.
▪ The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a signaling protocol used for initiating, maintaining,
and terminating real-time sessions that include voice, video and messaging applications.
▪ SIP is used for signaling and controlling multimedia

communication sessions in applications of Internet telephony
for voice and video calls, in private IP telephone systems, in
instant messaging over Internet Protocol (IP) networks as well
as mobile phone calling over LTE (VoLTE).
▪ The protocol defines the specific format of messages

exchanged and the sequence of communications for
cooperation of the participants. SIP is a text-based protocol,
incorporating many elements of the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
▪ A call established with SIP may consist of multiple media

streams, but no separate streams are required for
applications, such as text messaging, that exchange data as
payload in the SIP message.
© Razmi Zahir 38
7-layer open systems interconnection (OSI) Model.

The seven layers refer to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, a conceptual
framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunication system.
▪ The model uses layers to help give a visual description of what is going on with a particular
networking system.
▪ This can help network managers narrow down problems (Is it a physical issue or
something with the application?), as well as computer programmers (when developing an
application, which other layers does it need to work with?).
▪ Tech vendors selling new products will often refer to the OSI model to help customers
understand which layer their products work with or whether it works “across the stack”.
Q: Why are layers used in protocols?

Answer: A layer can be removed/edited and replaced without affecting any of the other
layers
© Razmi Zahir 39
Layer 7 - Application
The Application Layer is the one at the top - it’s what most users see. In the OSI model, this is
the layer that is the “closest to the end user”. Applications that work at Layer 7 are the ones
that users interact with directly. A web browser (Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.) or other
app - Skype, Outlook, Office - are examples of Layer 7 applications.
Layer 6 - Presentation
The Presentation Layer represents the area that is independent of data representation at the
application layer - The layer “presents” data for the application or the network. A good
example of this is encryption and decryption of data for secure transmission - this happens at
Layer 6.
Layer 5 - Session
When two devices, computers or servers need to “speak” with one another, a session needs
to be created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions at this layer involve setup,
coordination (how long should a system wait for a response, for example) and termination
between the applications at each end of the session.
Layer 4 – Transport
The Transport Layer deals with the coordination of the data transfer between end systems
and hosts. How much data to send, at what rate, where it goes, etc. The best known example
of the Transport Layer is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on top of the
Internet Protocol (IP), commonly known as TCP/IP.
Layer 3 - Network
Here at the Network Layer is where you’ll find most of the router functionality that most
networking professionals care about and love. In its most basic sense, this layer is responsible
for packet forwarding, including routing through different routers. Your Colombo computer
wants to connect to a server in California, but there are millions of different paths to take.
Routers at this layer help do this efficiently.
Layer 2 – Data Link
The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly connected
nodes), and also handles error correction from the physical layer.
Layer 1 - Physical
At the bottom we have the Physical Layer, which represents the electrical and physical
representation of the system. This can include everything from the cable type, radio
frequency link (as in an 802.11 wireless systems), as well as the layout of pins, voltages and
other physical requirements. When a networking problem occurs, many networking pros go
right to the physical layer to check that all of the cables are properly connected and that the
power plug hasn’t been pulled from the router, switch or computer, for example.
© Razmi Zahir 40
2.2 Network design and implementation

A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it
is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Wireless
Wireless is one of the most important mediums of transmission of information from one
device to other devices. In this technology, the information can be transmitted through the
air without requiring any cable or wires or other electronic conductors, by using
electromagnetic waves like IR, RF, satellite, etc.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
© Razmi Zahir 41
Types of Wireless Communication
The different types of wireless communication mainly include, IR wireless communication,

satellite communication, broadcast radio, Microwave radio, Bluetooth, Zigbee etc.
▪ Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is one type of self-contained wireless

communication technology, it is widely spread all over the world to allow
users to stay connected almost anywhere on the earth. When the signal
(a beam of modulated microwave) is sent near the satellite then, satellite
amplifies the signal and sent it back to the antenna receiver which is located on the
surface of the earth. Satellite communication contains two main components like the
space segment and the ground segment. The ground segment could be fixed or mobile
equipment.
▪ Infrared Communication
Infrared wireless communication communicates information in a device or systems

through IR radiation. IR is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that is longer than that
of red light. It is used for security control, TV remote control and short range
communications. In the electromagnetic spectrum, IR radiation lies between microwaves
and visible light. So, they can be used as a source of communication
▪ Broadcast Radio
The first wireless communication technology is the

open radio communication to seek out widespread
use, and it still serves a purpose nowadays. Handy
multichannel radios permit a user to speak over
short distances, whereas citizen’s band and
maritime radios offer communication services for
sailors. Ham radio enthusiasts share data and
function emergency communication aids throughout disasters with their powerful
broadcasting gear, and can even communicate digital information over the radio
frequency spectrum.
For example, you can take a radio station. When the RJ says you are listening to 92.7 BIG FM, what he
really means is that signals are being broadcasted at a frequency of 92.7megahertz, that successively
means the transmitter at the station is periodic at a frequency of 92.700,000 Cycles/second.
© Razmi Zahir 42
▪ Microwave Communication
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned
with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
The data or information can be transfers using two methods.

One is satellite method and another one is terrestrial
method. The main disadvantage of microwave signals is, they
can be affected by bad weather, especially rain.
▪ Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a low power wireless communication that is used by various electronic devices like
smart phones, laptops, etc. In this setup, a router works as a communication hub wirelessly.
These networks allow users to connect only within close proximity to a router. Wi-Fi is very
common in networking applications which affords portability wirelessly. These networks need
to be protected with passwords for the purpose of security, otherwise it will access by others.
Advantages of Wireless Communication
• Any data or information can be transmitted faster and with a high speed
• Maintenance and installation is less cost for these networks.
• The internet can be accessed from anywhere wirelessly
• It is very helpful for workers, doctors working in remote areas as they can be in touch with
medical centers.
Disadvantages of Wireless Communication
• An unauthorized person can easily capture the wireless signals which spread through the
air.
• It is very important to secure the wireless network so that the information cannot be
misused by unauthorized users
© Razmi Zahir 43
Wired transmission
It is also referred to as Guided or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
▪ High Speed
▪ Secure
▪ Used for comparatively shorter distances
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about
each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
▪ Least expensive ▪ Susceptible to external interference

▪ Easy to install ▪ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to
▪ High speed capacity STP
▪ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
▪ Better performance at a higher ▪ Comparatively difficult to install and

data rate in comparison to UTP manufacture
▪ Eliminates crosstalk ▪ More expensive
▪ Comparatively faster ▪ Bulky
© Razmi Zahir 44
(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each
having a separate insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into
separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely
use Coaxial cables.
▪ High Bandwidth ▪ Single cable failure can disrupt the entire

▪ Better noise Immunity network
▪ Easy to install and expand
▪ Inexpensive
(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a
core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding. It is used for transmission of large
volumes of data.
▪ Increased capacity and bandwidth ▪ Difficult to install and maintain

▪ Light weight ▪ High cost
▪ Less signal attenuation ▪ Fragile - If the cable is bent it will get easily
damaged
(iv) Power Line

Power-line communication (PLC) carries data on a conductor that is also used
simultaneously for AC electric power transmission or electric power distribution to
consumers.
A wide range of power-line communication technologies are needed for different

applications, ranging from home automation to Internet access which is often called
broadband over power lines (BPL).
© Razmi Zahir 45
Understand a variety of network metrics:
▪ Speed – Internet speed is measured in bits per second.
❖ Dial-up modems support transmission rates up to 56 Kbps.

❖ Theoretical speed in home networks using an 802.11g Wi-Fi router is rated at 54
Mbps, while newer 802.11n and 802.11ac routers are rated at 450 Mbps and 1300
Mbps, respectively.
❖ The Gigabit Ethernet in your office has a transmission rate approaching 1 Gbps.
❖ A fiber-optic internet provider often reaches actual download speeds of 500 Mbps.
▪ Bandwidth is defined as a range within a band of frequencies or wavelengths.

Bandwidth is also the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.
For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps) or bytes
per second.
How Does Bandwidth Work?
The best way to explain how bandwidth (and your internet

speed) works is by using an analogy.
Think of bandwidth like a freeway. All cars (data) travel at

the same speed, so to get more data from the internet to
your computer faster, the freeway needs to be wider. In other words, say 1 Mbps is the
equivalent to a 1 lane freeway. And let’s say that you were trying to download an image,
which is 5 Mb in size. So if you had a bandwidth of 1 Mbps (1 lane freeway) it would take you
roughly 5 seconds to download the image.
Now let’s say that you have a 5 Mbps (bandwidth) connection, or a 5 lane freeway. How fast
will you receive your image? 1 second.
More bandwidth means that you’ll receive more data at the same time. In this example, you
can download 5 images with the wider bandwidth in the same time you could 1 with the
narrower bandwidth.
What’s important to note here, and this confuses a lot of people, is that your internet isn’t
any faster from 1 Mbps to 5 Mbps, or however much bandwidth your connection has. Your
data is just transferred to you at a faster rate because more data can be sent at the same
time. It’s more efficient, making your internet perceptually faster, not technically faster.
▪ Throughput is a measure of how many units of information a system can process in a

given amount of time.
▪ It is the amount of data that is sent and received successfully in a given time (Edexcel)
© Razmi Zahir 46
What is the difference between throughput and bandwidth?

Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that can travel through a 'channel'.
Throughput is how much data actually does travel through the 'channel' successfully. This
can be limited by a ton of different things including latency, and what protocol you are
using.
▪ Scalability is the capability of a system, network, or process to handle a growing amount

of work, or its potential to be enlarged to accommodate that growth. For example, a
system is considered scalable if it is capable of increasing its total output under an
increased load when resources are added
Most networks grow at some point either because of more employees/customer/usage.

Bandwidth needs increase as well as people demand more video and more from their
software. Most large software systems (data centers/clouds) are distributed across many
computers so the network can limit how scalable the software is if not designed properly.
▪ Latency is the delay from input into a system to desired outcome;
❖ Latency – Amount of time that the network is idle, i.e. not sending data
(Edexcel)
❖ Latency is measured in units of time -- hours, minutes, seconds, nanoseconds or
clock periods.
❖ The time it takes for data to travel between two locations is known as the
latency. The higher the latency, the bigger the delay in sending the data.
❖ Latency in communication is demonstrated in live transmissions from various points
on the earth as the communication hops between a ground transmitter and a
satellite and from a satellite to a receiver each take time. People connecting from
distances to these live events can be seen to have to wait for responses. This latency
is the wait time introduced by the signal travelling the geographical distance as well
as over the various pieces of communications equipment.
❖ Network latency is an expression of how much time it takes for a packet of data to
get from one designated point to another.
▪ Error rate – Number of errors that occur in a given time

▪ The degree of errors encountered during data transmission over a communications or
network connection. The higher the error rate, the less reliable the connection or data
transfer will be.
© Razmi Zahir 47
Packet loss occurs when one or more packets of data travelling across a computer network
fail to reach their destination. Packet loss is either caused by errors in data transmission,
typically across wireless networks or network congestion.
▪ Packet loss is measured as a percentage of packets lost
with respect to packets sent.
▪ Packet loss can be checked using the Ping command in
Command Line.
▪ Packet loss remedies
❖ Check connections. Check that there are no cables or ports badly installed, or
deteriorated.
❖ Restart routers and other hardware. A classic IT trouble-shooting technique.
❖ Use a cable connection. ...
❖ Keep network device software up-to-date. ...
❖ Replace defective and inefficient hardware.
▪ Availability, in the context of a computer system, refers to the ability of a user to access
information or resources in a specified location and in the correct format.
▪ Jitter is any deviation in, or displacement of, the signal pulses in a high-frequency digital
signal.
▪ Among the causes of jitter are electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk with
other signals.
▪ Jitter can cause a display monitor to flicker, affect the ability of the processor in a desktop
or server to perform as intended, introduce clicks or other undesired effects
in audio signals, and loss of transmitted data between network devices.
What causes jitter on a network?

▪ The cause of jitter is that a packet gets queued or delayed somewhere in the circuit,
where there was no delay or queuing for other packets.
▪ Jitter can be caused both by router misconfiguration and by PVC misconfiguration by
the carrier or provide
▪ Jitter is the difference between the latency from packet to packet. Obviously, the speed
of light isn't subject to change, and fibers tend to remain the same length. So latency is
typically caused by buffering of packets in routers and switches terminating highly
utilized links
© Razmi Zahir 48
2.2.3 Network Components
Term Definition
• Hubs are the simplest network devices.
• Computers connect to a hub via a length of twisted-pair cabling.
Hub • In addition to ports for connecting computers, a hub generally has a port
designated as an uplink port that enables the hub to be connected to
another hub to create larger networks
• The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the connected
devices and forward it to all the other ports on the hub. This method of
operation is very inefficient because, in most cases, the data is intended
for only one of the connected devices
• Due to the inefficiencies of the hub system and the constantly increasing
demand for more bandwidth, hubs are slowly being replaced with switches
• Hubs have very little intelligence which is why hubs are inexpensive.
Switch • On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub, although the price tag
might be a giveaway.
• Switches can do much more and offer many more advantages than hubs
• As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair
cable. Multiple switches can be used, like hubs, to create larger networks
• Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards
data only to the port on which the destination system is connected.
• It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices
connected to it to determine the correct port.
• A MAC address is a unique number that is programmed into every NIC.
• By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the
switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link dramatically.
• In effect, the switch literally channels (or switches, if you prefer) data
between the ports
Bridge • Bridges are networking devices that divide up networks. Bridges divide up
networks and thus reduce the amount of traffic on each network. Network
switches have largely replaced them.
• A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the

destination MAC address written into each frame of data. If the bridge
believes the destination address is on a network other than that from
which the data was received, it can forward the data to the other networks
to which it is connected. If the address is not on the other side of the
bridge, the data is blocked from passing.
Gateway • A gateway is a piece of networking hardware used in telecommunications

for communications networks that allows data to flow from one discrete
network to another.
• Gateways are distinct from routers or switches in that they communicate
using more than one protocol and can operate at any of the 7 layers of the
OSI model.
© Razmi Zahir 49
• A Gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between

two networks. It may be a router, firewall, server, or other device that
enables traffic to flow in and out of the network.
• Gateways slow the flow of data and can therefore potentially become
bottlenecks.
Router • Routers are common in homes and offices.
• Routers are network devices that literally route data around the network.
By examining data as it arrives, the router is able to determine the
destination address for the data; then, by using tables of defined routes,
the router determines the best way for the data to continue its journey.
• Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardware-configured MAC

address to determine the destination of the data, routers use the
software-configured network address to make decisions. This approach
makes routers more functional than bridges or switches
multi-function • ADSL Routers that are used in homes and small offices combine the
device- features of a switch, WAP and a router.
combined • They provide broadband connectivity and wireless networking,
router/switch
• Space, power and management are three pros of multi-function routers
Modem • Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator.
• Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital signals from a

computer into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone
lines. The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and
demodulates at the receiving end.
• Modems provide a relatively slow method of communication. (Maximum

56Kbps). Modems are available as internal devices that plug into
expansion slots in a system; external devices that plug into serial or USB
ports.
© Razmi Zahir 50
Repeater • Used to boost signals so that it can go further (Edexcel)

• A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
• Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover
longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction.
• A wireless repeater takes an existing signal from a wireless router or
wireless access point and rebroadcasts it to create a second network
Server • A computer or computer program which manages access to a centralized

resource or service in a network.
Network • NICs are the mechanisms by which computers connect to a network
Interface Card • Most computers now come with built-in network interface
(NIC)
Wireless • Wireless network devices gain access to the network via WAPs.
access point • WAPs are typically deployed as part of a larger network infrastructure, but
in some environments, such as small businesses or home offices, they can
operate completely independently of a normal network.
What is the difference between Gateway and Multi-function switch/router

Bridge?
A bridge joins two similar types of networks so that
they look like one network. The word transparent is
often used with bridges because network clients do
not know the bridge is even in place. A gateway joins
two dissimilar networks. There can be a lot of
protocol conversion work to do.
© Razmi Zahir 51
2.2.5 Understand the characteristics and function of IP addressing
IP Addressing
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
An IP address serves two principle functions: host or network interface identification and
location addressing.
The "IP" part of IP address stands for "Internet Protocol." The "address" part refers to a unique
number that gets linked to all online activity you do...somewhat like a return address on a
letter you'd send out. (All this happens in milliseconds.)
An IP address plays a significant role in connecting you to the Internet. You and your computer
actually connect to the Internet indirectly: You first connect to a network that is 1) connected
to the Internet itself and 2) grants or gives you access to the Internet.
That network might be your Internet service provider (ISP) at home, or a company network
at work, or a wireless network at a hotel or coffee shop when you're on the road. But with
millions of computers on the Internet, how can your single computer jump right in and get
you your work or personal emails and more without any problems?
To make sure you can do your thing on the Internet, your computer's networking software is
hardwired to follow a list of built-in networking standards and rules (yes, protocols) to
connect to Internet, and to swap information and data back and forth.
One of those networking protocols on your computer, the Internet Protocol, is responsible
for addressing, delivering and routing your online requests precisely. It attaches an "electronic
return address" to all your online requests and activity for you. The address it uses is the IP
address for your connection.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.[2] However,

because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new
version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995 and is in use at
present along with IPv4.
IPv4 IPv6
• IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme • IpV6 uses 128-bit address
• IPV4 is 4 numbers • IPV6 is 8 numbers
• Each number can be zero to 255. • Each number written in hexadecimal
• Separated by full stop. • Separated by colons.
• A total of 2^32 addresses (just over • A total of 2^128 addresses (3.4 X 108)
4 billion addresses). • E.g. 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf.
• E.g. 192.168.145.1
© Razmi Zahir 52
Static and Dynamic IPs.

When a device is assigned a static IP address, the address does not change. Most devices
use dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned by the network when they connect and change
over time.
Most IP addresses assigned today by Internet Service Providers are dynamic IP addresses. It's
more cost effective for the ISP and you.
Here are some static IP advantages:

• Businesses are better suited for it than residences.
• It's also better for dedicated services such as mail, FTP and web servers.
• It's good for creating or hosting computer servers.
• It makes it easier for geo-location services to accurately assess where you are.
• It costs more to get a static IP

• Requires good technical skills to set it up.
Benefits of dynamic IP addresses

• It doesn't cost you anything extra.
• It's carefree, automatic and reliable with very little work on your end.
• Geolocation might be less accurate, if that matters to you.
• For your ISP, it's the most efficient use of IP addresses.
The "dynamic" part comes from something called DHCP, or Dynamic Host Control Protocol. It
all happens in the background. Technically, your computer or device "leases" (at no extra
charge) an IP address to get connected.
Ok, there are some drawbacks. It's possible that your upload and download speeds would be
faster if you had a static IP address, but you'll likely get used to the service and speeds you
get. Besides, you could possibly increase your speed with a plan upgrade.
As you can see, a dynamic IP address is the "standard" for most Internet connections. Static
IP addresses are requested by people who want more control over their connection—along
with more capabilities.
If you're not planning to host websites or setup servers, your reliable and sometimes changing
dynamic IP address should be just fine.
© Razmi Zahir 53
DHCP: The Networking Protocol That the Gives You an IP Address

DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol.
DHCP is at the heart of assigning you (and

everyone) their IP address. The key word in
DHCP is protocol—the guiding rules and process
for Internet connections for everyone,
everywhere.
DHCP is a part of the "application layer," which

is just one of the several TCP/IP protocols. All of
the processing and figuring out of what to send to whom happens virtually instantly.
The networking world classifies computers into two distinctive categories:
o Individual computers, called "hosts," and
o Computers that help process and send data (called "servers").
A DHCP server is one computer on the network that has a number of IP address at its disposal
to assign to the computers/hosts on that network. If you use a cable company for Internet
access, making them your Internet Service Provider, they likely are your DHCP server.
Think of getting an IP address as similar to obtaining a special permission slip from the DHCP
server to use the Internet. In this scenario, you are the DHCP client—whenever you want to
go on the Internet, your computer automatically requests an IP address from the network's
DHCP server. If there's one available, the DHCP server sends a response containing an IP
address to your computer.
How DHCP works
The key word in DHCP is "dynamic." Because instead of having just one fixed and specific IP
address, most computers will be assigned one that is available from a subnet or "pool" that is
assigned to the network. The Internet isn't one big computer in one big location. It's an
interconnected network of networks, all created to make one-on-one connections between
any two clients that want to exchange information.
One of the features of DHCP is that it provides IP addresses that "expire." When DHCP assigns
an IP address, it actually leases that connection identifier to the user's computer for a specific
amount of time. The default lease is five days.
Typically, a DHCP server renews your lease automatically, without you (or even a network
administrator) having to do anything. However, if that IP address's lease expires, you'll be
assigned a new IP address using the same DHCP protocols.
© Razmi Zahir 54
MAC (Media Access Control) Address
• A MAC address is a unique number that is programmed into every NIC.

• It is also referred to as a physical address because it is physically embedded in the interface.
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is responsible for the assignment
of MAC addresses. It has assigned each manufacturer an ID (first three bytes) and then let
the manufacturer further allocate IDs. The last three are assigned by the manufacturer.
• MAC addresses are expressed in hexadecimal: only the numbers 0 through 9 and the letters
A through F can be used in them.
• An example of a MAC address is 00:D0:59:09:07:51.
• The first three bytes (00:D0:59) identify the manufacturer of the card; because only this
manufacturer can use this address, it is known as the organizationally unique identifier
(OUI).
• The last three bytes (09:07:51) are then referred to as the Universal LAN MAC address:
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

URL is used to specify addresses on the World Wide Web. A URL is the fundamental network
identification for any resource connected to the web (e.g., hypertext pages, images, and
sound files). The protocol specifies how information from the link is transferred.
URL is a reference (an address) to a resource on the Internet. It has two main components:
• Protocol identifier: For the URL http://example.com, the protocol identifier is http.
• Resource name: For the URL http://example.com, the resource name is example.com
DNS (Domain Name System (or Service or Server))

DNS is an Internet service that translates domain names into IP addresses. Because domain
names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on
IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the
name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name www.example.com
might translate to 198.105.232.4.
How is a URL converted to an IP? (Edexcel Question)

• Browser sends URL to DNS
• DNS has a table of URL and their IPs
• DNS looks for URL in table…
• … returns IP if found…
• … if not, sends URL to higher DNS
© Razmi Zahir 55
Network security
2.3.1 Understand the impact of network security issues on individuals and
organizations
Network security is an organization's strategy and provisions for ensuring the security of its
assets and all network traffic. Network security is manifested in an implementation
of security hardware and software.
Few examples of network threats:
• Hackers - At the other end of every security breach is an individual with malicious intent.
Most often, businesses are targeted by hackers for financial gain.
• Viruses - A virus is a piece of software created to damage a computer. The program
replicates and executes itself, interfering with the way a computer operates. It can steal
data, corrupt your files or delete them altogether, which is a menacing threat to any
business.
• Spyware – it spies on the user without their knowledge or permission. If a spyware
program is installed on a computer in your organization, the criminal who executed it has
the ability to monitor activity on that device, collecting information to use against the
user.
• Adware - When unwanted advertisements start appearing on a computer, it has been
victimized by adware. You may have accidentally download adware while trying to access
free software
• Phishing - A phishing scam tricks a user to give information disguised as legitimate
requests (e.g., a vendor or financial institution asking for login details in order to fix an
account or resolve an issue). Once the recipient hands over the sensitive information, the
hacker gains the access they need to lock up, steal or compromise your critical data.
• Spam - Junk email tends to clog up business servers and annoy recipients in the company.
Spam becomes a computer security threat when it contains harmful links, overloads your
mail server or is harnessed to take over a user’s computer and distribute additional spam.
• DOS Attacks - In a DOS (Denial-of-Service) attack, your company’s website or web service
can be rendered unavailable to users. Often, these attacks are used against businesses for
ransom or blackmail purposes. Perhaps the most well-known version is DDoS (Distributed
Denial of Service), which involves bombarding your server with traffic and requests in
order to overwhelm and shut down the system.
2.3.2 Methods used to secure a network using both hardware and software:
1. firewall
2. security settings
3. anti-malware
4. user controls/access/rights/profile
5. authentication types (including passwords, two-factor, biometrics)
6. encryption techniques
7. physical controls
© Razmi Zahir 56
Firewall
A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a
trusted internal network and untrusted external network, such as the
Internet.
• A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between your computer and the rest
of the network (where the hackers are!)
• If you wish to protect your whole LAN from hackers out on the Internet, you would place a
firewall between the LAN and the Internet connection.
• If your PC is connected to the Internet, you are a potential target to an array of cyber
threats, such as hackers, key loggers, and Trojans that attack through unpatched security
holes. ... A firewall works as a barrier, or a shield, between your PC and cyber space.
Security settings
Network security starts with Authentication, commonly with a username and a password. ...
Though effective to prevent unauthorized access, this component may fail to check
potentially harmful content such as computer worms or Trojans being transmitted over
the network.
Here are a few simple things that you should do to secure your wireless network:
• Open your router settings page. ...
• Create a unique password on your router. ...
• Change your Network's SSID name. ...
1. Hackers could easily penetrate if common names are used
2. It is not advisable to use an easily identifiable company name if the
network is in a shared building or in close proximity to other buildings
or networks
• Enable Network Encryption. ...
• Filter MAC addresses. ...
• Reduce the Range of the Wireless Signal. ...
• Upgrade your Router's firmware.
Anti-malware
Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer
user. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses and spyware.
Total internet security packages, anti-malware software could be used to protect against
malware.
© Razmi Zahir 57
User controls/access/rights/profile
Network Access Control (NAC) is a computer networking solution that uses a set of protocols
to define and implement a policy that describes how to secure access to network nodes by
devices when they initially attempt to access the network
When a computer connects to a computer network, it is not permitted to access anything

unless it complies with a business defined policy; including anti-virus protection level, system
update level and configuration. While the computer is being checked by a pre-installed
software agent, it can only access resources that can resolve any issues. Once the policy is
met, the computer is able to access network resources and the Internet, within the policies
defined within the NAC system.
Access Rights are the permissions an individual user or a computer application holds to read,
write, modify, delete or otherwise access a computer file; change configurations or settings,
or add or remove applications. An organization’s network or information technology
administrator can define permissions for files, servers, folders or specific applications on the
computer.
In a Windows environment, a user profile is a record of user-specific data that define the
user's working environment. The record can include display settings, application settings,
and network connections.
Windows roaming profiles are similar to local profiles in that they store user settings and
data. The difference is that roaming profiles are stored on a network server rather than on
individual devices. No matter which desktop or laptop a user logs onto, the user's profile will
follow him.
Authentication types (including passwords, two-factor, biometrics)
There are three common factors used for authentication:

• Something you know (such as a password)
• Something you have (such as a smart card)
• Something you are (such as a fingerprint or other biometric method)
Two Factor Authentication, also known as 2FA, two step verification is an extra layer of
security that is known as "multi factor authentication" that requires not only a password
and username but also something that only, and only, that user has on them,
This authentication method can be easily summed up as a combination of "something you

have and something you know”.
For example to log in to your email you need your username and password plus a code that
is sent to your mobile phone whenever you attempt to login.
© Razmi Zahir 58
Encryption techniques
• The word encryption refers to a method by which plain text is converted into an
incomprehensible sequence using a key.
• Encryption is used to protect files, drives, or directories from unwanted access or to

transmit data confidentially
• Encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only
authorized parties can access it and those who are not authorized cannot.
• Encryption does not itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a
would-be interceptor.
Physical controls
The first level of security in any computer network is physical security. Physical security is
important for workstations but vital for servers. To protect the server, follow these guidelines:
• Protect the perimeter

• Control access to the facility
1. Lock the computer room.
2. Give the keys only to people you trust. Use biometric means for opening
doors
3. Keep track of who has the keys/who has access to the server room
• Monitor the entire site
• Cabinet level lock: Mount the servers on cases or racks that have locks
• Disable USBs and DVD ROMs. (A common hacking technique is to boot the server
from an external device, thus bypassing the carefully crafted security features of
the network operating system.)
© Razmi Zahir 59
Here are some other potential threats to physical security that you may not have
considered:
• The nightly cleaning crew should be considered a threat. Take precautions
• What about your trash? Every piece of paper that leaves your building via the trash
bin should first go through a shredder.
• Where do you store your backup tapes? Don’t just stack them up next to the server.
Not only does that make them easy to steal, it also defeats one of the main purposes
of backing up your data in the first place: securing your server from physical threats,
such as fires. Have backups in remote locations
• Some networks have the servers are in a locked computer room, but the hubs or
switches are in an unsecured closet. They too should be secured just like the servers.
Q. Give three ways of protecting a network from unauthorized access. (Edexcel)
• Firewall
• Limit access rights
• Limit physical access
• Authentication
• Limit to MAC addresses
© Razmi Zahir 60
Network Diagram
The camp is upgrading its network infrastructure to offer the latest in digital games and
network access.
• The computers in the games room will be used to play multi-player games. The
campers play only against each other.
• They cannot play with people outside the room as the computers cannot connect to
the internet. The games require a very quick network response time.
• The computers in the office are used by the administration staff. All of the camp’s
files are stored centrally on the site.
• The administration team generates a great deal of network traffic between
themselves. The network traffic generated by the administration team must not slow
down the rest of the camp’s network.
• The common room is a separate hut 200 metres away from the main building.
Campers can use their own tablets and phones to access the Internet in the common
room.
• There is a machine room with air conditioning close to the office.
Complete the diagram to show a design for a network infrastructure that will meet these
requirements.
© Razmi Zahir 61
3 – The Online Environment

3.1 The internet and the World Wide Web
The Internet
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked
by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.
The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW), also called the Web, is an information space where documents
and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), interlinked by
hypertext links, and accessible via the Internet
The Web, or World Wide Web (W3), is basically a system of Internet servers that support
specially formatted documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as
graphics, audio, and video files.
Features of the web
• The WWW is a search tool that helps you find and retrieve information from a Web
site using links to other sites and documents.
• Hypertext is identified by underlined text and a different colour usually.
• Each time you access a new document by choosing a link, there is a connection made
with the web server that the document is on. Once the appropriate document is
retrieved the connection is broken.
• This interface used to connect to the www is the browser.
• WWW has a protocol, which is known as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP
acts as an interface between a Web Client Software, such as Firefox.
• A major advantage of the WWW is that it also supports TCP/IP services, such as FTP in
addition to HTTP
Impact of the World Wide Web
• Instant Communication - quick response; it is no longer necessary to wait for days on

end for a reply on some issue from a receiver of your message. This kind of
communication is what has rapidly converted the world into a small village; a global
village at that.
• The most important thing about WWW is that it has enabled businesses and
organizations to establish a presence.
• Another impact is that the World Wide Web has made it possible for organizations
working in the same line of industry to network, form partnerships and learn from
each other all through the web
• Availability of services 24/7
© Razmi Zahir 62
Impact of World Wide Web on Social Networking
Social networking websites and electronic mail communication websites like twitter,
Facebook and yahoo mail played a great role in bring people together in terms of spontaneous
and rapid communication.
• It is possible to chat with friends online and even date with the intentions of getting
married, all by logging into some special websites that offer such services.
• On this social networking websites, it’s not only about making friends but also about
keeping in touch with various other happenings around the world.
• One can get the latest news, download the latest music and movies and younger
people and children can play online games or download them.
• In addition to socializing, it has now become very possible to get political views and
stay informed on the most current news around the world, all by staying connected
to the relevant websites.
The World Wide Web is one of the top tools that facilitate Globalization. Globalization is a
process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology.
Negative impacts of World Wide Web
• There are websites that contain misleading, addictive and false information; for
instance, there are sites created with the intention of providing suicidal persons with
information on how to go about killing themselves
• More people now tend to make decisions based on technological advance. In other
words, decisions are based on the outcome of a result given by a computer, more than
common knowledge. For example, it is not uncommon to hear that an organization is
not giving a certain service to clients at a given time, simply because the systems are
down.
Static and dynamic web pages

Web pages can be either static or dynamic. "Static" means unchanged or constant, while
"dynamic" means changing or lively. Therefore, static Web pages contain the same prebuilt
content each time the page is loaded, while the content of dynamic Web pages can be
generated on-the-fly.
Standard HTML pages are static Web pages. They contain HTML code, which defines the
structure and content of the Web page. Each time an HTML page is loaded, it looks the same.
The only way the content of an HTML page will change is if the Web developer updates and
publishes the file.
Other types of Web pages, such as PHP, ASP, and JSP pages are dynamic Web pages. These
pages contain "server-side" code, which allows the server to generate unique content each
time the page is loaded. For example, the server may display the current time and date on
the Web page. It may also output a unique response based on a Web form the user filled out.
© Razmi Zahir 63
Many dynamic pages use server-side code to access database information, which enables
the page's content to be generated from information stored in the database. Websites that
generate Web pages from database information are often called database-driven websites.
You can often tell if a page is static or dynamic simply by looking at the page's file extension
in the URL, located in the address field of the Web browser. If it is ".htm" or ".html," the page
is probably static. If the extension is ".php," ".asp," or ".jsp," the page is most likely dynamic.
While not all dynamic Web pages contain dynamic content, most have at least some content
that is generated on-the-fly.
Client-side and Server-side Scripting
Client-side Environment
The client-side environment used to run scripts is usually a browser. The processing takes
place on the end users’ computer. The source code is transferred from the web server to the
user’s computer over the internet and run directly in the browser.
The scripting language needs to be enabled on the client computer. Sometimes if a user is
conscious of security risks, they may switch the scripting facility off. When this is the case a
message usually pops up to alert the user when script is attempting to run.
Server-side Environment
The server-side environment that runs a scripting language is a web server. A user's request
is fulfilled by running a script directly on the web server to generate dynamic HTML pages.
This HTML is then sent to the client browser. It is usually used to provide interactive web sites
that interface to databases or other data stores on the server.
This is different from client-side scripting where scripts are run by the viewing web browser,
usually in JavaScript. The primary advantage to server-side scripting is the ability to highly
customize the response based on the user's requirements, access rights, or queries into data
stores.
Software used for Server-Side Scripting include PHP, python, Ruby, C# and Java
Client-Side Scripting include JavaScript, Java, Python, CSS, PHP
© Razmi Zahir 64
Operating Online
People use online communities to socialise, share information, pay games, work, learn and create.
Each type of online community has a function, which is what it does for people who use it and
features, which enable (or allow it to achieve) its function.
• Social networking is the practice of forming groups in a society. Online social network
communities allow members to connect through shared interests or relationships.
• Online gaming communities exist in order to allow members of the communitiy to play multi-
player games together. Examples include PlayStation network and Xbox Live.
• Using Online work spaces, members can collaborate together for the purpose of work.
Collaborative working is to work together by splitting a given task into a number of individual
tasks, each of which can be done by a different employee.
• Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) are used to allow students and teachers to use learning
and assessment materials. Examples include Pearson Active Teach, Moodle and Google
Classroom.
• A wiki is a website or database that is developed by a number of collaborating users, all of
whom can add and edit content. Examples include the online encyclopaedia, Wikipedia and
music databacase Discogs.
Communities could include, e.g.
• social communities such Facebook, Twitter, Instagram

• action communities such as 38degrees.org.uk, change.org, zooniverse.org
• professional communities such as LinkedIn, Xing
• local communities such as teignmouthnews.co.uk, shetlink.com,
• common circumstance communities such as assamassociationdelhi.org,
mumsnet.com, singaporeexpats.com
• common interest communities such as bigfooty.com, thephotoforum.com
3.2.2 Security risks to personal data stored online and methods of protection
Data may get:
• Lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard disk
• Corrupted as a result of faulty disks, disk drives, or power failures
• Lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files
• Lost or become corrupted by computer viruses
• Hacked into by unauthorised users and deleted or altered
• Destroyed by natural disasters, acts of terrorism, or war
• Deleted or altered by employees wishing to make money or take revenge on their
employer
© Razmi Zahir 65
Some guidelines to increase the safety of your devices and data online:
1. Securing devices: Keep your software up to date. If you have your web browser, operating
system and other software kept up to date, this is a first step against hackers.
2. Install good Antivirus software
3. Use common sense while browsing the Internet or plugging something into your
computer. E.g. Do not click on links in unexpectedly received emails.
4. Use strong passwords – more than 8 characters, mix of simple and upper case, symbols
and numbers, not common words or words associated with you.
5. Use Two-Factor Authentication wherever possible, so in case your password somehow
leaks or gets guessed you still have a second layer of protection.
6. Encrypt your hard drive, so when your laptop is stolen thieves cannot access the data
inside.
7. Backup your data and test your backups.
8. Don’t connect to untrusted networks, such as public networks at railway stations, etc.
9. Always lock your devices when you leave them alone, so no one else can use them.
10. You should constantly educate yourself and people around you on novel security risks by
reading security blogs or news magazines.
11. Do not have your devices’ location on unless necessary
12. Make sure mobile hotspot, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi are switched off when not in use
13. Remember to log off from email or other accounts when using public devices and not to
click on ‘remember password’ option.
14. Most search engines track your search history and build profiles on you to serve you
personalised results based on your search history. You could use a search engine that
doesn’t track or clear browser history after use or use incognito mode if available.
15. Be cautious of what information you share on social networking sites
Digital Footprint
A digital footprint is a trail of data you create
while using the Internet. It includes the websites • Websites visited
you visit, emails you send, social media, chats and • Messages sent
information you submit to online services. • Music/Videos downloaded
• Pictures uploaded
A digital footprint is your online identity and • Games played
individuality and is what makes you unique. It • Tweets
builds the online reputation, or impression • Comments Posted
depending on the things you do online. • Tweets, snap chats
• Facebook Posts
It is important to be aware of it because anything • Instagram pictures
posted online is permanent and stays there • Your personal info:
forever regardless of being deleted. It is currently o Full name
easier and cheaper to store data than it is to o Address
delete it. o Phone number
It is a self-portrait we paint online so it is o Birthday
important to ensure it is accurate, and truly
displaying who we are. It can be traced and used by others.
© Razmi Zahir 66
A passive digital footprint is created when data is collected without the owner knowing (also
known as data exhaust), whereas active digital footprints are created when personal data is
released deliberately by a user for the purpose of sharing information about oneself by means
of websites or social media.
Pros:
• Fraud or legal issues can more easily be detected

• Personalization (like suggested products or related advertising) serves to add value
to our use of the Internet
• Companies can more easily offer incentives based on interests and needs,
sometimes resulting in cost savings
Cons:
• Personal data can be used to generate revenue without our knowledge

• It can be annoying and distracting to be constantly inundated with advertisements
and information
• Purchase behaviour data may be used as a basis to reduce credit limits or increase
interest
Use of digital footprint:
• Have you ever noticed how the ads nowadays are highly customized to your
preferences? Big companies such as Facebook, use your previously collected data in
order to match advertisements of companies to your digital profile
• You have noticed when you have looked prior to that website to those specific shoes,
they seem to pop up in an ad the next time. For marketing purposes, it is very clear.
• How about our GPS? You may find a setting in your iPhone allowing your phone to
register your most visited locations. This gives information about where you are, at what
time and perhaps reason to look into this.
What happens when this data is being sold without your apparent permission?
Reducing your digital footprint
• You may never be able to completely erase your digital footprint, since so much is
already out there about pretty much everyone.
Techniques you can use to reduce the digital trail that you leave:
• Delete all tracking cookies and browsing history from your computer regularly
• Review security settings on social networks and stay updated on new features and
settings
• Make sure to use the latest version of your browsers.
• Choose safe and secure passwords that are unique to each login and be sure to change
them regularly.
• Use cash instead of credit cards
• Opt out of providing personally identifiable information (e.g. you may not be required by
law to provide your telephone number when making a purchase)
© Razmi Zahir 67
• Check all your privacy settings and if you have included personal information on your
profiles, consider removing, reducing or hiding them.
• Remove old accounts. ... Search for your name on Google's image search. Delete these
old accounts or update them with a false name, email address and blank image. Google
will eventually index these changes resulting them being removed from your digital
footprint
• Unsubscribe from mailing lists - this will reduce the data available for personal profiling.
• Register with a different email address - Have a secondary email for site registrations
• Use stealth mode when browsing - browsing will then be anonymous (Incognito in
Chrome)
• Think before you post - Being a little more restrained with what you post.
• Use browsers such as Tor - which hides your information, physical location, and it lets
you access sites which are blocked.
• Use anti-tracking tools - There are a number of additional tools you can use to mask your
internet browsing including Disconnect, Ghostery and DoNotTrackMe.
A final note on this topic is that a Digital Footprint can be a very positive thing as well.
Increasingly people are putting greater weight toward our online identities. For instance, a high
profile ad company announced they had an opening and would not be accepting resumes. The
requirements were high Kred and Klout scores and an active Twitter feed with over 1000 active
followers.
Kred and Klout

Social influence scores (also
known as social authority scores)
are a measurement of an
individual or brand’s reach online.
Klout, established in 2009, and

Kred, established in 2011, are two
of the apps that that brands and
individuals use to measure that
reach and influence across social
channels.
Influence is determined by
factors, including shares,
mentions, likes, retweets, number
of followers and quality of
followers.
It’s not, however, a race for

followers – a high Klout or Kred
score comes from quality of
interaction, not quantity of
interaction.
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Monetization opportunities provided by online communities:

• use of customer data with targeted advertising
• pay-per-click advertising
• selling of customer data.
• paid subscriptions (paywalls)
• sponsored content.
The world produces an estimated 2.5 billion gigabytes, of data every day. That data comes from
a variety of sources including online transactions, social media, search engines, web traffic and
more.
Data is valuable because it tells companies about their audience’s interests, allowing them to
improve their customers’ experiences. Companies can derive value from their own data and
they can purchase it from other sources. If you have high-quality data, you can also sell it to
create a more direct economic benefit.
a. Use of customer data with targeted advertising

• Online ads target individuals, not Web sites. Tracking technology allows companies to
target ads to Web site users as they move around the Internet
• When a person views a product on a retail Web site, the user’s browser submits
information about what he is looking at to third-party advertising networks, such as
doubleclick.net.
• The information is stored in a browser cookie - a small piece of code that lets ad
networks and sites share information on what visitors view or buy. Users can clear these
cookies periodically to clear out their record with ad networks.
• If that person later clicks on another site in the same advertising network, ads for the
• product the user viewed at the first retail site could show up. The ad is targeted to the
user in hopes of drawing him back to purchase the product.
b. Pay per click advertising

• Pay-per-click (PPC), also known as cost per click (CPC), is an internet advertising
model used to direct traffic to websites, in which an advertiser pays a publisher
(typically a website owner or a network of websites) when the ad is clicked.
• Pay-per-click is commonly associated with
first-tier search engines (such as Google
AdWords and Microsoft Bing Ads). With
search engines, advertisers typically bid on
keyword phrases relevant to their target
market.
• In contrast, content sites commonly charge a
fixed price per click rather than use a bidding
system.
• PPC advertisements are shown on web sites with related content that have agreed
to show ads and are typically not pay-per-click advertising.
• Social networks such as Facebook and Twitter have also adopted pay-per-click as one
of their advertising models.
© Razmi Zahir 69
c. Selling of customer data.

Organisations sometimes sell collected customer data. They must make sure customers you
have customer consent to pass their data
• Businesses must review their terms and conditions before passing customer details
to third parties for the purposes of direct marketing.
• Businesses must ensure they provide clear information, in a prominent place, to
customers as to how their data will be used and who it will be shared with; it is not
enough to simply rely on small print which is hidden away.
• If a breach of the Data Protection Act occurs then anyone who is affected has a right
of compensation for any distress caused
• Example: Pharmacy2U was fined £130,000 by the Information Commissioner for
selling customers’ details to third parties without their consent in breach of the Data
Protection Act. Pharmacy2U is the largest NHS approved online pharmacy and like
many businesses collects personal data through its customer registration process.
Why do companies collect, sell, buy, store personal online data?

• Companies collect your data in order to build up your profile, which can be used to
push you targeted products and services. This has become big business now as
customers are willing to pay a lot of money for such data that can help them target
specific segments of the market.
• There has been an unprecedented growth of a multi-billion dollar industry of data
brokers that operates in the glooms with virtually no oversight.
• Data Brokers collect, analyze and package some of your most sensitive personal
information and sell it as a commodity to businesses, advertisers, other data brokers
and even the government without letting them know.
Information collected by Data Brokers include-
• Name, Age, and Gender

• Present and previous Address
• Mobile phone numbers
• Email address
• Marital status
• The extent of data collection can spread to monitoring important life events like
marriage, baby, relationship status, getting a divorce and more.
Data Brokers can be termed as specialist firms across the web. To gather information about
users and throw up related ads, they host a slew of third parties that observe who comes to
the site and build up a digital profile about them. Using the collected data, they summarize
what sites users you have visited, what you have shopped for, what time you are
© Razmi Zahir 70
d. Paid subscriptions (paywalls)

A paywall is a method of restricting access to content via a paid subscription.
• Beginning in the mid-2010s, newspapers started implementing paywalls on their

websites as a way to increase revenue after years of decline in paid print readership and
advertising revenue.
• In academics, research papers are often subject to a paywall and are available via
academic libraries that subscribe.
• Paywalls have also been used as a way of increasing the number of print subscribers; for
example, some newspapers offer access to online content plus delivery of a Sunday print
edition at a lower price than online access alone.
e. Sponsored content
Many brands are sponsoring articles on blogs or other online publications with large
preexisting audiences. In other words, sponsored articles amount to advertising on a media
outlet in the form of editorial content that looks like it’s supposed to be there.
Sponsored articles have received pushback from some publishers, brands, and consumers—
and even government regulators who are concerned because the articles resemble editorial
content. This can damage the editorial integrity of a publication, as well as a brand’s image.
Not all publishers offer sponsored article opportunities to marketers. Many big-name
publishers like Forbes, The New York Times, Washington Post and The Wall Street Journal
have all embraced sponsored articles as a revenue source.
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Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is a term that refers to online space that you can use to store your data. Cloud
storage involves stashing data on hardware in a remote physical location, which can be
accessed from any device via the internet. Clients send files to a data server maintained by
a cloud provider instead of (or as well as) storing it on their own hard drives.
Types of cloud storage

• hosted general storage such as mega.nz, dropbox
• self-hosted storage such as Nextcloud, Seafile
• personal/mobile storage such as Google drive, iCloud
• storage for specific types of files such as Amazon Prime music, Apple music, Flickr
Advantages of cloud storage Issues that could rise in cloud storage

Usability: simple drag and drop or Usability: Using drag/drop could move a
directly save to cloud facilities document into the cloud storage folder. Do a
copy and paste instead of drag/drop.
Bandwidth: Send a web link of files
rather than emailing the files itself Bandwidth: Some cloud services have a specific
saving bandwidth bandwidth allowance and charges extra if the
bandwidth is exceeded.
Accessibility: Stored files can be
accessed from anywhere via Internet Accessibility: If you have no internet connection,
connection. you have no access to your data.
Disaster Recovery: Cloud storage can Data Security: There are concerns with the safety
be used as a back‐up plan by businesses and privacy of important data stored remotely.
Cost Savings: Cloud storage costs about Software: If you want to manipulate your files
3 cents per gigabyte to store data locally through multiple devices, you’ll need to
internally. download the service on all devices.
Offsite data store, no need If there’s a down-time, user’s work will be

maintenance cost for the user. disrupted.
© Razmi Zahir 72
Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially

data storage and computing power, without direct active management by the user. The
term is generally used to describe data centres available to many users over the Internet.
Cloud computing is a general term that is better divided into three categories:
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – where big players like Amazon and Google rent
out immense computing infrastructure to other companies;
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) – online spaces where developers create online
applications for specific sets of users; o YouTube provides a Public, Software-as-a-
Service Cloud. The fact that anyone can create an account and upload a video makes
it a Public Cloud.
• Software as a Service (SaaS) – where clients use software over the internet. o
Developers can use Microsoft Azure as a platform (Paas) for building and deploying
applications.
o Facebook, Twitter and Gmail are all examples of SaaS cloud applications
o One of the things that make it so powerful is the fact that that thousands,
even millions, of people can interact with the same bit of information
simultaneously.
© Razmi Zahir 73
4 – IT Systems
A system is a number of components working towards a common goal.
An IT system consists of
• Hardware
• Software
• People
• Processes
IT system types could include, e.g.:

• Information systems
◦ Transaction Processing Systems
◦ Management Information Systems
◦ Executive Information Systems
◦ Decision Support Systems
• Control systems
◦ central heating systems
◦ vehicle management systems
◦ robotic systems
◦ security systems
• Communications systems
◦ email
◦ video conferencing
◦ Voice Over IP (VOIP)
• Expert Systems and Neutral Networks
◦ medical diagnosis
◦ engine diagnosis
◦ financial advice and transactions (robo trading)
◦ rendering text to speech
◦ image recognition
Let’s look at an example of computerizing a school.

• The technology of the system: the software, hardware, networks and other
infrastructure which go to make it up.
• The processes are the business rules that are in place. For example the term mark is
the % of all the class tests and the final exam mark is 80% of the exam + 20% of the
term mark.
• Organization where the system is used and developed. The success of a system in
use depends a lot upon how well it fits with the need of this organization, and the
way it is organized.
• The people involved in the system: technical staff (such as developers, maintainers
and support staff); end users-teachers and parents.
• For the system to be successful all the above components should work together. If
any component is missing or lags the overall system will not be successful.
© Razmi Zahir 74
Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)

A DFD is a graphical representation of the "flow" of data through an information system,
modelling its process aspects. A DFD is often used as a preliminary step to create an
overview of the system without going into great detail, which can later be elaborated.
© Razmi Zahir 75
A service station has four self-service fuel pumps, numbered 1 to 4. Each pump can
dispense petrol and diesel fuel. The pumps measure the volume of fuel dispensed in
litres. Customers pay for the number of litres shown on the pump display
A. Fuel type (1)
B. Fuel volume (1)
C. Fuel price (1)
D. Pump number (1)
E. Cash/money (1)
F. Print receipt (1)
© Razmi Zahir 76
Systems Flow charts

A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process. The
flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting the boxes
with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given
problem.
System flowcharts are a way of displaying how data flows in a system and how decisions are
made to control events. Note that system flow charts are very similar to data flow charts.
Data flow charts do not include decisions, they just show the path that data takes, where it is
held, processed, and then output.
This shape shows the beginning and end of a sequence. A sequence is

Start/Stop
the order in which one task follows another
Process
This shape shows a command. A command is a specific instruction
Sub Process
This shape shows a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ decision

Decision
Input/Output This shape shows where data are being received or sent from a
computer program. Data are facts and figures.
These arrows show the way we move through the sequence from
symbol to symbol. The arrows show the direction of flow.
A variable is anything that can be stored by the computer, and changed, controlled or measured. We
use variables in flow charts to show what is being changed, controlled or measured in our algorithm.
© Razmi Zahir 77
This is a flow chart for a simple program that shows whether a name user likes reading. The user is
the person who is using the program.
Start
Output
‘What is your name?
Input
User types in name.
Store input in variable NAME.
Output
‘Do you love reading?’
Input User types in ‘yes’

or ‘no’.
Does the user Yes

Output NAME
like reading? loves reading!
No
Output NAME could Stop

try a different author
© Razmi Zahir 78
Selection and if…then…else statements

Selection happens when you reach a step in the algorithm that has two
or more possibilities. The program then needs to ask a question. Decisio
Depending on the answer to the question, the program chooses a n
particular direction of flow. The program will ignore any other
possibility. This selects the path through the flow chart.
Loops
Sometimes an algorithm has to repeat a step. For example, imagine you are programming a robot to
work in a factory. The robot picks up an item and puts it down somewhere else. The robot then
moves back to the first position and picks up the next item, and so on. The robot needs to repeat the
motion steps many times. We call this iteration.
Start
Input NUM_1
Input NUM_2
TOTAL = This is the loop.

NUM_1+ NUM_2 The steps will
repeat from the
Output TOTAL input NUM_1
Output “Do it
Again?”
Input: User types

’yes’ or ‘no’
No
Continue? Yes
Stop
© Razmi Zahir 79
Evaluation
Evaluation is the process that allows us to make sure our solution does the job it has been
designed to do and to think about how it could be improved.
Why do we need to evaluate our solutions? Evaluation allows us to consider the solution to
a problem, make sure that it meets the original design criteria, produces the correct solution
and is fit for purpose
What happens if we don’t evaluate our solutions? Without evaluation any faults in the
system will not be picked up, and the system may not correctly solve the problem, or may
not solve it in the best way.
Faults may be minor and not very important. For example, if a solution to the question ‘how
to draw a cat?’ was created and this had faults, all that would be wrong is that the cat
drawn might not look like a cat. However, faults can have huge – and terrible – effects, e.g.
if the solution for an airplane autopilot had faults.
We may find that solutions fail because:
• it is not fully understood - we may not have properly decomposed the problem
• it is incomplete - some parts of the problem may have been left out accidentally
• it is inefficient – it may be too complicated or too long
• it does not meet the original design criteria – so it is not fit for purpose
Fitness for purpose
• Software is deemed fit for purpose if it meets the requirements determined at the
analysis phase.
• The original purpose and functional requirements can be used to decide if a program
is fit for purpose.
• It is often necessary to look at test table data to ensure the software is working as
expected.
• If software is not fit for purpose, it will be necessary to revisit previous phases of the
development process, refining the solution until it is fit for purpose and meets the
specification agreed upon at the analysis phase.
© Razmi Zahir 80
5 - Data and Information

Data is words, numbers, dates, images, sounds, etc. without context.
Information is a collection of words, numbers, dates, images, sounds, etc. put into context,
i.e. to give them meaning.
Data items need to be part of a structure, such as a sentence, in order to give them
meaning.
• Data Information
• 42 When used to form part of a sentence they gain meaning:
• rabbits
• 16:00 • There are 42 apples in that box and each one of them has been
• 76 nibbled by rabbits
• apples • The fare to the seaside is £40 and the journey takes 76 minutes
• 09743245530 by rail
• £40
• My telephone number is 09743245530, call me at 16:00.
• seaside
~ This is information - data put into context. ~
Unstructured data sources include:
• Emails,
• letters, books, newspapers etc.
• posts on forums, newsgroups, etc
• Word Processing Files, PDFs, web pages, etc.
• Spreadsheets
• Photos (digital and film), video, audio
Note: some of these may have some structure, e.g. spreadsheets, but they are not
regarded as structured unless all their content can be processed by data mining
tools.
Data are the facts or details from which information is derived. Individual pieces of data are
rarely useful alone. For data to become information, data needs to be put into context.
Data Information
Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to When data is processed, organized,
be processed. Data can be something simple structured or presented in a given context so
and seemingly random and useless until it is as to make it useful, it is called information.
organized.
Each student's test score is one piece of data The average score of a class or of the entire
school is information that can be derived
from the given data.
© Razmi Zahir 81
Changing data into information
A structure is needed in order for data to become information.

Stef Yes
In the table below the second and third columns contain
either 'Yes' or 'No' but without headings there is no meaning.
Kieran Yes
By adding headings, the data becomes information.
Sophie No Yes
Max No No
Flat file databases

Flat file databases consist of one table. As a result, a large database will most likely have
data which is unnecessarily repeated several times in the same table.
The table below holds data on teachers in a school. It also contains information about the
department they work in.
ID Forename Surname Department Department ID Phone number
1 Colin Arthur ICT 001 300
2 Laura Brown ICT 001 300
3 Stephen MacLeod ICT 001 300
4 Scott Sinclair English 002 301
5 Michelle Wie English 002 301
6 Ross Dyett PE 003 302
7 Ian Anderson PE 003 302
8 Betty Flood Geography 004 303
© Razmi Zahir 82
In this flat file database, the data on each member of staff is held together with all data for
each department. This is unnecessary as some information is stored more than once (e.g. the
same phone number). This also results in an increased file size for the database. Using flat file
databases can lead to three very specific problems: insert, delete and update anomalies.
Anomalies
Insert anomaly
In the above example, it is not possible to add a new department to the database without
also having to add a member of staff at the same time. The table expects a teacher’s details
and the details of a department to be stored together as one record.
At the moment, there is no way to add the Maths department without also having to add a
Maths teacher. This problem is known as an insert anomaly.
Delete anomaly
A delete anomaly is the opposite of an insert anomaly. When a delete anomaly occurs it
means that you cannot delete data from the table without having to delete the entire record.
For example, if we want to remove Betty Flood from the table, we would also need to remove
all data that is stored about the Geography department. This means we would lose data that
we might not want to lose.
Update anomaly
Take a look at the table shown above again. If the phone number for the English department
changed to 307 instead of 301 it would need to be changed in two different records.
If the change only happened in one of the two records, then an update anomaly would have
taken place.
In small tables it can be easy to spot update anomalies and make sure that changes are made
everywhere. However, large flat file tables would often contain thousands of records,
meaning that it is difficult to make changes to every record. Update anomalies lead to
inaccuracy and inconsistency in a database.
© Razmi Zahir 83
Linked database
The way to avoid insert, delete and update anomalies is to design relational databases that
use two or more linked tables to store data. In our example, it is possible to split the data into
two different tables and to link them together using a field that is relevant to both tables.
The first table could store details on each member of staff. This table stores their ID,
forename, surname and department ID. The ID is the primary key and is a unique value - two
teachers cannot share the same ID.
Teacher Table Department Table
ID Forename Surname Department ID

Department Phone
1 Colin Arthur 1 Department
ID number
2 Laura Brown 1
1 ICT 300
3 Stephen MacLeod 1
2 English 301
4 Scott Sinclair 2
3 PE 302
5 Michelle Wie 2
4 Geography 303
6 Ross Dyett 3
7 Ian Anderson 3
8 Betty Flood 4
The second table is the Department table. This table contains three fields, department ID,
department and phone number. Department ID is the primary key and is unique for each
department.
The tables are linked together because the primary key in this table (Department ID) is also
needed in the staff table – so that you know which department each member of staff is part
of. In the staff table, Department ID is known as a foreign key.
When you use linked tables in a relational database you reduce the likelihood of insert,
update and delete anomalies. In this example, moving to linked tables means:
• A new department can be added without having to add staff information alongside it.
• If a member of staff were deleted, such as Betty Flood, you would no longer lose the
information held about her department.
• If the ICT phone number had to change, it would only have to change once in the
department table.
© Razmi Zahir 84
Field types
When creating tables in a database, it is necessary to define the type of data that will be
held in each field.
• Text field - Stores words, numbers and other characters such as punctuation marks.
• Number field - Stores both whole numbers and decimal numbers.
• Date field - Dates can be stored using the date field type
• A time field stores a specific time. Some packages use one filed type to store date/time
• Boolean field - stores either true or false, often showing on screen as Yes or No
Primary and foreign keys

Primary key - A primary key is a field used to uniquely identify every record in the database.
Sometime primary keys are obvious, for example a car license plate could be used to uniquely
identify cars.
Examples of primary keys:
Often, primary keys are less obvious, and it is necessary to
- Car registration number
create a unique value – often an ID number.
- National Insurance number
Foreign key - School's exam centre no.
- Candidate no. for exams
A foreign key is a primary key from one table that appears
in another table to link the two together. The Department ID is the primary key in the
Department table that appears as a foreign key in the Staff table to link the two.
Teacher Department
© Razmi Zahir 85
Structures and links

A database is a way of storing information in an organised, logical way
Databases are used by almost everyone. From Facebook account details, to mobile phone
contacts in a SIM card, to attendance records at school. A database consists of three parts.
The file, records and fields.
- A database file stores all of the information on a particular subject. It is made up of

records.
- A record stores all the information about one person/thing. It usually consists of several
different fields.
- A field stores one piece of
information.
In a school, all of the information on

pupils would be stored in a file. The file
will consist of many records, with every
individual pupil having their own
individual record. All the pieces of
information stored on the pupil would
be stored in different fields.
Examples of organisations that use

databases are as diverse as schools,
hospitals, Facebook, Twitter, banks, and email account holders.
Consider a citizen database of a country. Each of these pieces of information is stored in a

separate field and some of the pieces have different data types.
© Razmi Zahir 86
ER diagram
An Entity Relationship (ER) Diagram is a type of flowchart that illustrates how “entities” such
as people, objects or concepts relate to each other within a system. ER Diagrams are most
often used to design or debug relational databases in the fields of software engineering,
Connecting entities
The main characteristics of a relational database are:
• it is built from a set of unique tables (also called relations)

• a table contains data about just one entity
• tables must have a primary key
• tables are linked by primary and foreign keys
When working with relational databases, users need to try to keep information about
different entities in separate tables. Each entity has a primary key to provide a unique
reference to an entity, which means that an entity can be referenced in another table without
having to call up all the details about that entity.
Entities can relate to each other in three different ways: one to one, one to many and many
to many.
You can represent these relationships using an entity relationship diagram (ERD).
• One to one -
For example, one person has one address.
• One to many
For example, one cinema

as many customers.
• Many to many
For example, many subjects can be

taken by many students.
Relationship example
The tables in a database for an online shop could be:
• customer
• product
• orders
© Razmi Zahir 87
Customer table
The customer table gives customers a unique Customer ID (the primary key for this table)
and shows customer details, i.e. name, address and phone number
Customer ID First name Surname Address Phone number

2942 Rebecca Johnson 49 Drew Road 029 381834
2943 Mushtaq Aqbar 28 Lyttleton Lane 028 282738
Product table
The product table gives details about the products. The Product ID is the primary key.
Product ID Product type Colour Size Cost

284758 Jeans Blue 28 £14.99
384957 Shoes Brown 6 £12.99
483927 Jumper Red M £29.99
489320 Shirt Blue M £33.99
839258 Socks White 6 £10.00
Orders table
In the orders table, each order has a unique Order number (the primary key for this table).
The table also includes customer ID (the primary key of the customer table) and product ID
(the primary key of the product table) as foreign keys, but does not need to include all details
about customers and products as these are stored in the Customer and Product tables.
Order number Customer ID Product ID Quantity Total cost

59876 2942 284758 2 £29.98
59877 2942 384957 3 £38.97
59878 2942 483927 1 £29.99
59879 2943 489320 3 £99.97
59880 2943 839258 2 £20.00
If the Orders table did not use Customer ID and Product ID fields, it would need to include
additional fields from the Customer table and the Product table – an extra eight fields. It
would also need to repeat the same customer details for each order. The Orders table would
be much larger, use more data, and be repetitive.
© Razmi Zahir 88
Issues with Many-to-many

A many-to-many relationship exists where more than one instance of an entity is directly
linked to one or more instances of another entity.
The sports centre may employ coaches to deliver

training sessions. Coaches may be qualified to
coach more than one sport. Each sport may have
many qualified coaches. This would result in a many
to many relationship between coaches and sports.
Many-to-many relationships are not desirable as it becomes difficult to track and maintain
data. Insertion, deletion and update anomalies are all more likely if many-to-many
relationships exist.
The way around this is to add a third entity that can be used to create two one-to-many
relationships. These entities are often known as associative entities. In this case, an entity
called session could be created that would allow for two one-to-many relationships. In this
scenario only one coach can be involved in a training session.
One coach can still be assigned to coach many different sessions and each sport can be
coached in many different sessions but the direct many-to-many relationship between
coaches and sports has been replaced by two different one-to-many relationships.
Issues with One-to-One

In reality, it is highly likely that the data held within two one to one related tables would be
combined to one entity
• Student table in a school containing student ID, name, etc.

• Member table in a school library containing member id, name, etc.
• In a school it is the students that are members of the library.
The Student table could incorporate the fields from the Member table.
© Razmi Zahir 89
Exercises
1. Each of Dialog Corporation’s divisions is composed of many departments. Each of the

departments has many employees assigned to it, but each employee works for only one
department. Each department is managed by one employee, and each of these managers
can manage only one department at a time.
2. During some period of time, a customer can rent many video DVDs from the Movie-Base
store. Each of the DVDs can be rented to many customers during that period of time.
3. An airline can be assigned to fly many flights, but each flight is flown by only one airline.
4. The Brandix Corporation operates many factories. Each factory is located in a region. Each
region can be "home" to many of Brandix factories. Each factory employs many
employees, but each of these employees is employed by only one factory.
5. An employee may have earned many degrees, and each degree may have been earned by
many employees.
SQL (Structured Query Language)

SELECT - extracts data from a database
SQL is a standard language for storing, UPDATE - updates data in a database
manipulating and retrieving data in databases.
DELETE - deletes data from a database
What Can SQL do? INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
▪ Execute queries against a database CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

▪ Retrieve data from a database ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
▪ Insert records in a database
▪ Update records in a database CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
▪ Delete records from a database ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
▪ Create new databases
▪ Create new tables in a database DROP TABLE - deletes a table
Using SQL in Your Web Site
To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:
▪ An RDBMS (relational database) program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

▪ To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
▪ To use SQL to get the data you want
▪ To use HTML / CSS to style the page
*SQL keywords are NOT case sensitive: select is the same as SELECT
*Some databases require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
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Customer table used in SQLs below
CustomerID CustomerName Address City Country
1 Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México Mexico

2222 D.F.
3 Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México Mexico

D.F.
4 Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London UK
5 Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå Sweden

Berglund
The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SELECT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name;
Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select data from. Use the *
if you want to select all the fields available in the table
SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;
SELECT * FROM Customers;

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;
The SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.
WHERE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Mexico';
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Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields

SQL requires single quotes around text values (most database systems will also allow double
quotes).
However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:

WHERE CustomerID=1;
Operators in The WHERE Clause

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal. In some versions written as !=
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal

<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between a certain range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN To specify multiple possible values for a column
The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators.
The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition:
The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND is TRUE.
The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE.

The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.
WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';
WHERE City='Berlin' OR City='München';
WHERE NOT Country='Germany';
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Combining AND, OR and NOT

WHERE Country='Germany' AND (City='Berlin' OR City='München');

WHERE NOT Country='Germany' AND NOT Country='USA';
The SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records in
descending order, use the DESC keyword.
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country;

SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country DESC;
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by
the "Country" and the "CustomerName" column:
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country, CustomerName;
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;
The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table. It is possible to write the INSERT
INTO statement in two ways.
The first way specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country)

VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen 21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway');
Note: Insert into is called Apend Query in MS Acces
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will insert a new record, but only insert data in the "CustomerName",
"City", and "Country" columns (CustomerID will be updated automatically):
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)

VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');
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SQL NULL Values

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert
a new record or update a record without adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved
with a NULL value.
Note: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL
value is one that has been left blank during record creation!
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address

FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NULL;
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address

FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL;
The SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.
UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City= 'Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan'
WHERE Country='Mexico';
The SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.
DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE
clause, all records in the table will be deleted!
DELETE FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
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Delete All Records

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM Customers;

The SQL SELECT TOP Clause
The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number
of records can impact on performance.
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition; SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers
;
SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.
An alias only exists for the duration of the query.
SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name;
The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column. The MAX() function returns
the largest value of the selected column.
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products;
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice FROM Products;
The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SELECT COUNT(ProductID)
FROM Products;
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;
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SQL Wildcard Characters
A wildcard character is used to substitute any other character(s) in a string.
Wildcard characters are used with the SQL LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE
clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
% - The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters
_ - The underscore represents a single character
Note: MS Access uses a question mark (?) instead of the underscore (_).
In MS Access and SQL Server you can also use:
[charlist] - Defines sets and ranges of characters to match
[^charlist] or [!charlist] - Defines sets and ranges of characters NOT to match
The wildcards can also be used in combinations!

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';
Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:
LIKE Operator Description
WHERE CustomerName LIKE

Finds any values that start with "a"
'a%'

Finds any values that end with "a"
'%a'

Finds any values that have "or" in any position
'%or%'

Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
'_r%'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE Finds any values that start with "a" and are
'a_%_%' at least 3 characters in length
WHERE ContactName LIKE Finds any values that start with "a"
'a%o' and ends with "o"
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "ber":

WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with any character, followed
by "erlin":
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '_erlin';
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The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "L", followed by any
character, followed by "n", followed by any character, followed by "on":
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE 'L_n_on';
Using the [charlist] Wildcard
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "b", "s", or "p":
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[bsp]%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "a", "b", or "c":
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[a-c]%';
The SQL IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause. The IN operator is a
shorthand for multiple OR conditions.
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.
The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
SELECT * FROM Product WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di
Giovanni' ORDER BY ProductName;
SELECT * FROM Orders

WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #01/07/1996# AND #31/07/1996#;
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SQL JOIN
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between
them.
Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID OrderDate
10308 2 18/09/96
10309 37 19/09/96
Then, look at a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Mexico

Emparedados y
helados
3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Moreno Mexico

Taquería
Notice that the "CustomerID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the "CustomerID" in the
"Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables above is the "CustomerID" column.
Then, we can create the following SQL statement (that contains an INNER JOIN), that selects records
that have matching values in both tables:
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate

FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
and it will produce something like this:
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Different Types of SQL JOINs
Here are the different types of the JOINs in SQL:
(INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the left table, and the matched records from the right
table
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the right table, and the matched records from the left
table
FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records when there is a match in either left or right table
The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName

FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match between
the columns. If there are records in the "Orders" table that do not have matches in "Customers",
these orders will not be shown!
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matched records
from the right table (table2). The result is NULL from the right side, if there is no match.
The following SQL statement will select all customers, and any orders they might have:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
Note: The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (Customers), even if there are no
matches in the right table (Orders).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the matched records
from the left table (table1). The result is NULL from the left side, when there is no match.
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SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword return all records when there is a match in either left (table1) or right
(table2) table records.
Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
A selection from the result set may look like this:
The SQL UNION Operator
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Each SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
The columns must also have similar data types
The columns in each SELECT statement must also be in the same order
UNION Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
The following SQL statement returns the cities (only distinct values) from both the "Customers" and
the "Suppliers" table:
SELECT City FROM Customers

UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Note: If some customers or suppliers have the same city, each city will only be listed once, because
UNION selects only distinct values. Use UNION ALL to also select duplicate values!
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The SQL GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG) to
group the result-set by one or more columns.
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country:
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low:
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;
The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.
CREATE DATABASE testDB;
The SQL DROP DATABASE Statement
The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL database.
DROP DATABASE testDB;
The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);
CREATE TABLE Persons (

PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
Tip: The empty "Persons" table can now be filled with data with the SQL INSERT INTO statement.
The SQL DROP TABLE Statement
The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database. DROP TABLE Shippers;
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6 – Wider issues
Guided research into environmental impact including, e.g.:
• carbon footprint
• raw material extraction and processing
• water requirements
• power requirements and sources
• transport
• disposal of toxic waste
• consumables
• batteries
The research should also look at positive impacts, e.g.;
• carbon footprint of books, newspapers, etc

• reduction transfer of paper between locations
• automation efficiencies over manual procedures
Guided research into environmental monitoring and efficient use of resources including,
• emissions monitoring
• remote sensing
• more efficient process control
• intelligent design of products to use less material
• improved logistics
Computers and the environment

Technology has had an impact on the environment that is both positive and negative. The
use of computers affects the environment in different ways, such as energy consumption,
technological waste, and the impact of remote working.
Advantages
• Using email and working electronically means that less printing is required, and so
less paper is used
• Using systems like FaceTime, Skype and video conferences can reduce the need for
people to travel to meet each other, and so less fuel is used
• People can work from home - which reduces commuting (less fuel is used) and
means that less office space is needed
• Download software instead of purchasing CDs
Disadvantages
• Technology consumes energy. Digital devices require electricity and most

smartphones and tablets require recharging after just a few hours of use. Tablets
and mobile phones use less energy than desktops and laptops.
• Technological waste - also known as e-waste - sometimes contains poisonous
chemicals and can be an environmental hazard.
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Carbon footprint
Creating and running computer systems requires a lot of energy. This energy comes from
electricity that is mostly generated from fossil fuel. This releases harmful gases and emissions
that damage the atmosphere.
The lifetime carbon footprint of computers and their related parts is significant. Billions of
devices are in use each day from smartphones, to servers, embedded systems to personal
computers. All of these devices need to be manufactured and ultimately disposed of when
no longer needed. Use of these devices also causes a significant drain on natural resources.
Carbon footprint is the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere as a result
of the activities of a particular individual, organization, or community.
Throughout the life of an electronic device, it will have a lifetime carbon footprint. This
comes from:
• Manufacturing - the materials and resources used to create and build the device
during manufacture.
• Use - electricity usage, any replacement
• parts etc., as the device is used in its everyday life.
• Disposal - more energy is used to collect, take apart and dispose of the electronic
device.
Rules and regulations

Governments have put rules and regulations in place to make companies take greater
responsibility for looking after the environment.
Companies using any electronic equipment must evaluate their energy use. This will save
money and also prolong the life of much of their equipment. Measures that can be taken
include:
• use energy efficient monitors
• reduce brightness and backlighting on monitors during the day
• activate standby settings on energy efficient monitors after 15 minutes of inactivity
• avoid the use of screensaver on energy efficient monitors
• activate sleep/standby settings for your laptop or desktop
• only switch peripherals on when they are needed
Companies are regulated by acts which mean they must dispose of old electronic equipment
properly and separately from other waste items. Companies who make or sell electronic
equipment must provide customers with a way to dispose of their old equipment. Companies
are being regulated to ensure that they have a reduced or neutral carbon footprint. This
means they offset their energy usage in ways that will save energy. For example by:
• Installing equipment which reduces their emissions.

• Generating their own renewable energy, such as by using solar panels.
• Sponsoring alternative energy initiatives to reduce the carbon footprint in
developing countries.
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Recycling and disposal

• Where possible, computer components such as monitors, speakers, RAM chips and
hard drives should be re-used. It is not always necessary to dispose of every part of a
computer system during an upgrade.
• Electronic devices contain precious materials including gold, silver and palladium.
These materials are finite. This means that they will eventually run out. To sustain
our use of these devices, materials need to be recovered and reused.
• Electronic devices also contain highly toxic materials
such as mercury, lead and arsenic. If these materials
are not handled and disposed of properly then they
can harm the environment and humans if they get
into the air or water supply.
• Lastly, it is important that electronic devices are
disposed of correctly. This ensures that sensitive
data is not passed to third parties, who may use the
data to commit crime. The need for organisations to
dispose of storage devices appropriately is covered
by the Data Protection Act.
Smart Homes
Home automation or domotics is building automation for a home, called a smart home or smart
house. A home automation system will control lighting, climate, entertainment systems, and
appliances. It may also include home security such as access control and alarm systems. When
connected with the Internet, home devices are an important constituent of the Internet of
Things.
Benefits of smart homes

• Comfort
o Turn lights off remotely or have them turn themselves off when they sense that
they are not needed, thus saving energy, cutting our electricity bills and reducing
our carbon footprint
• Safety
o Doorbells create a three-way link with a camera and your smartphone, so,
whenever someone comes to your door, you can see them and, if you wish,
communicate with them even if you are nowhere nearby. In time
• Smart technology and efficiency
o home heating and/or air-conditioning systems can now respond to the actual
temperature rather than simply switching on or off
• Smart fridges which can prompt homeowners when items are running out and even
place an order for more
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Smart City
A smart city is one that makes optimal use
of all the interconnected information
available today to better understand and
control its operations and optimise the use
of finite resources. Its citizens can easily
access the information they need so as to
make informed choices.
The mission of a smart city is to

optimize city functions and drive
economic growth while improving quality of life for its citizens using smart technology and
data analysis.
Features of a smart city; smart city technologies

• Smart parking meter that uses an app to help drivers find available parking spaces
• The smart meter also enables digital payment, so there's no risk of coming up short
of coins for the meter.
• Smart traffic management is used to monitor and analyze traffic flows to optimize
streetlights to prevent roadways on time of day or rush-hour schedules.
• Ride-sharing and bike-sharing are also common services in a smart city.
• Energy conservation and efficiency are major focuses of smart cities. Using smart
sensors, smart streetlights dim when there aren't cars or pedestrians on the
roadways.
• Smart grid technology can be used to improve operations, maintenance and
planning, and to supply power on demand and monitor energy outages.
• Smart city initiatives also aim to monitor and address environmental concerns such
as climate change and air pollution.
• Sanitation can also be improved with smart technology, systems for waste collection
and removal.
• Smart city technology is used to improve public safety, from monitoring areas of high
crime to improving emergency preparedness with sensors. For example, smart
sensors can be used in early warning system before droughts, floods, landslides or
hurricanes.
• Smart buildings are also often part of a smart city project. Placing sensors in
buildings to not only provide real-time space management and ensure public safety,
but also to monitor the structural health of buildings. Attaching sensors to buildings
and other structures can detect wear and tear and notify officials when repairs are
needed.
• Smart city technologies also bring efficiencies to urban manufacturing and urban
farming, including job creation, energy efficiency, space management and fresher
goods for consumers.
• Water meters and manhole covers are just a couple of the other city components
monitored by smart sensors.
• Free and/or publicly available Wi-Fi.
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Smart city challenges and concerns

o Smart city initiatives must include the people it aims to help: its residents,
businesspeople and visitors.
o City leaders must not only raise awareness of the benefits of the smart city
technologies being implemented, but also promote the use of open data to its
citizens. If people know what they are participating in and the benefits it can bring,
they are more likely to engage.
o Smart city opponents worry that city managers will not keep data privacy and
security top of mind, fearing the exposure of the data that citizens produce on a
daily basis to the risk of hacking or misuse.
o The presence of sensors and cameras may be perceived as an invasion of privacy or
government surveillance. To address this, smart city data collected should be
anonymized and not be personally identifiable information.
Examples of smart cities

a. The smart city initiative of Kansas City, Mo., involves smart streetlights, interactive
kiosks and more than 50 blocks of free public Wi-Fi along the city's two-mile streetcar
route.
b. San Diego installed 3,200 smart sensors in early 2017 to optimize traffic and parking and
enhance public safety, environmental awareness and overall livability for its residents.
Solar-to-electric charging stations are available to empower electric vehicle use, and
connected cameras help monitor traffic and pinpoint crime.
c. The city-state of Singapore uses sensors and IoT-enabled cameras to monitor the
cleanliness of public spaces, crowd density and the movement of locally registered
vehicles. Its smart technologies help companies and residents monitor energy use, waste
production and water use in real time. Singapore is also testing autonomous vehicles,
including full-size robotic buses, as well as an elderly monitoring system to ensure the
health and well-being of its senior citizens.
d. In Dubai, United Arab Emirates, smart city technology is used for traffic routing, parking,
infrastructure planning and transportation. The city also uses telemedicine and smart
healthcare, as well as smart buildings, smart utilities, smart education and smart tourism.
e. The Barcelona, Spain, smart transportation system and smart bus systems are
complemented by smart bus stops that provide free Wi-Fi, USB charging stations and bus
schedule updates for riders. A bike-sharing program and smart parking app that includes
online payment options are also available. The city also uses sensors to monitor
temperature, pollution and noise, as well as monitor humidity and rain levels.
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Ethics and morals

Ethics, e.g. external, objective, code of conduct, imposed by / on a group.
Morals, e.g. internal, subjective, belief system of individual / group, self-imposed.
Factors affecting ethics and morals, e.g.:
• personal belief and experience

• religion
• peer pressure
• local customs and traditions
• societal expectations
Understand the moral and ethical issues associated with the use of information technology
systems:
• privacy
• inclusion
• civil liberties
• access
• accessibility
• expression
• association.
Accessibility
Accessibility is the design of products, devices, services, or environments for people with
disabilities. The concept of accessible design and practice of accessible development
ensures both "direct access" (i.e. unassisted) and "indirect access" meaning compatibility
with a person's assistive technology (for example, computer screen readers, use of Alt tag in
HTML for images).
Example: Microsoft accessibility tools

o Vision - Need a larger screen? A brighter screen? A narrator to read text? Find out
about accessibility tools and features for people who are blind, color blind, or have
low vision.
o Hearing - For those who are hard of hearing, have hearing loss, or have deafness, our
specialized features can provide solutions including closed captioning, mono sound,
and live call transcription.
o Mobility - Our suite of products helps people living with arthritis, quadriplegia, spinal
cord injuries, and other mobility issues to navigate the digital world in non-
traditional ways.
o Mental health - Learn more about assistive technologies for people living with issues
such as bipolar disorder, anxiety, PTSD, depression, or ADHD. Our products can help
with distraction, reading, and concentration.
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Inclusion
How ICT can be used to support learning and teaching in
inclusive settings? An inclusive education setting is where a
learner with a disability or special educational need follows
education in a mainstream class with their non-disabled
peers for the largest part of the school day.
Civil Liberties
o Civil liberties protected in the Bill of Rights (USA) may be divided into two broad
areas: freedoms and rights guaranteed in the First Amendment (religion, speech,
press, assembly, and petition) and liberties and rights associated with crime and due
process.
o Social media is a great tool for freedom of speech. The recent circulation of the
online petition campaign calling for the release of the Sri Lankan student in Australia
is one such example.
o The Me-Too movement, with many local and
international alternatives, is a movement against
sexual harassment and sexual assault. #MeToo
spread virally in 2017 as a hashtag used on social media in an attempt to
demonstrate the widespread prevalence of sexual assault & harassment, especially
in the workplace
o Social media played a significant role during the Arab Spring because it facilitated
communication and interaction among participants of political protests. Protesters
used social media to organize demonstrations (both pro- and anti-governmental),
disseminate information about their activities,
and raise local and global awareness of
ongoing events. Online revolutionary
conversations often preceded mass protests on
the ground, and that social media also played a
central role in shaping political debates in the
Arab Spring. (The Arab Spring was a series of
pro-democracy uprisings that enveloped
several Middle East countries, including
Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, Libya, Egypt and Bahrain).
Expression
Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community
to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or sanction
Association
o - A group of people organized for a joint purpose.
o For example ICT teachers making a group to communicate and share resources. The
success of the association will depend on the overall contribution of its members, its
usefulness, etc.
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Access
As a network administrator or security professional, you have rights and privileges
that allow you to access most of the data on the systems on your network.
o Should you read the private e-mail of your network users just because you can?
o Is it OK to monitor the Web sites visited by your network users?
o Is it OK to place key loggers on machines on the network to capture everything the
user types?
o We're not talking about legal questions here. A company may very well have the
legal right to monitor everything an employee does with its computer equipment.
We're talking about the ethical aspects of having the ability to do so.
Real world ethical dilemmas

o What if you had seen documents revealing company trade secrets? What if you later
leave the company and go to work for a competitor? Is it wrong to use that
knowledge in your new job?
o What if the documents you read showed that the company was violating
government regulations or laws? Do you have a moral obligation to turn them in, or
are you ethically bound to respect your employer's privacy? Would it make a
difference if you signed a nondisclosure agreement when you accepted the job?
o IT and security consultants who do work for multiple companies have even more
ethical issues to deal with. If you learn things about one of your clients that might
affect your other client(s), where does your loyalty lie?
o Then there are money issues. Is it wrong for you to charge hundreds or even
thousands of dollars per hour for your services when the fix was a very small one?
o What about kickbacks from equipment manufacturers? Is it wrong to accept
"commissions" from them for persuading your clients to go with their products?
o Is it wrong to steer your clients toward the products of companies in which you hold
stock?
o What if a client asks you to save money by cutting out some of the security measures
that you recommended? Should you go ahead and configure the network in a less
secure manner?
Research into types of wireless, location awareness technology,
o local systems using WiFi (in wireless LAN), RF tags, proximity detectors
o national or regional systems using cell phone signals (GSM, LTE, 3G),
o worldwide systems using GPS
Research into uses of wireless, location awareness technology.
o guides to tourist attractions, restaurants, transport services, shops, etc.

o site guides to museums, art galleries, etc.
o satellite navigation systems, vehicles, aircraft, shipping etc.
o enhanced / augmented reality systems
o surveying equipment
o road tolls
© Razmi Zahir 109

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IAL Information Technology - Unit 1

IAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY – UNIT 1 NOTES

• Computers including laptops, notebook, etc.

An embedded system is a computer system, made from a combination of hardware and

It may or not be programmable, depending on the application. Examples of embedded

Characteristics of embedded systems:

Here’s some applications:

• Consumer electronics – Videogame consoles, Blu-Ray players, home entertainment

Mobile phones use a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) to connect to a mobile

Smartphones are a class of mobile phones and of multi-purpose mobile

• Outgoing and Incoming calls are restricted to 4 parent approved numbers.

Home entertainment systems

Smart TVs, much like smartphones and smart home devices

Home Automation and Smart Assistants

A smart home is a residence that uses internet-

Amazon Alexa is a virtual assistant capable of voice

Figure 6 Sat Nav example (TomTom)

Multifunctional devices and convergence

Devices such as smartphones often adopt technologies

Examples of convergence include:

• Newer smartphones getting bigger to look more like tablets – phablets.

Types of user interfaces

A Graphical User Interface (GUI) is controlled by a pointer on the screen and

Gesture interface allows the user to control the device by swiping

Features of digital devices

Security features (Software & Hardware)

Bluetooth is used for wireless connections over a short range; up to 10 m.

❖ It does not use much power and it uses radio waves.

This invisible energy consumption is often called “vampire load/phantom load.”

Technologies used by digital devices

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Memory & Storage

RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification)

At a simple level, RFID systems consist of three components:

• An RFID tag or smart label (transponder)

RFID tags contain an integrated circuit and an antenna,

As stated above, an RFID tag consists of an integrated circuit and an

NFC (Near-Field Communication)

Have you ever wondered what

NFC evolved from radio frequency

NFC standard has three modes of operation:

Near Field Communication versus Bluetooth

Quick response (QR) code

The QR code, similar to a barcode, is an example of an information matrix. However,

What are some of the advantages?

Factors used to assess the performance of digital devices.

Bandwidth - When referring to a data connection, bandwidth, communication speed, or connection

• Significantly reduces carbon footprint.

Data Transfer Rate

Data Transfer Rate = Amount of Data / Time

First, convert bytes to bits:

Time = 10,066,258,329.6 / 52,000

= 193.583 seconds = 193.583/60 minutes = 3.22 minutes

Convert 1.536Mb/s to bits per second = 1.536 x 2 20 bits per second

Time Taken = Amount/Rate = 7.8 x 233 /1.536 x 220

= 41,600 seconds = 693 minutes = 11.55 hours

What Is “Sample Rate”?

Can You Hear the Unhearable?

Examples of operating systems are:

Organizations purchase software licenses to cover the number of workstations on their

• Giving a copy to a friend/family for free

• Making a copy and then selling it

• Using the software on a network (unless the license allows it)