Table 4. Elemental range for foliar analysis of high 4. Barron. H. M. 1974. The use of slow-release fertilizers. Combined Proc.

quality plants of K. bbssfeldiana grown with slow- Intern. Plant Prop. Soc. 24:221-229.
release fertilizers. 5. Barron, H. M. 1977. Controlled-release fertilizer and its use in hot cli-
mates. Southern Flor. & Nurserym. 89(46): 16, 17, 35-38.
Range in 6. Coleman. R. A ..T . M och.andT. Furuta. 1978.Effectiveness ofOsmocote
high-quality fertilizer influenced by placement and dosage. Calif. Agr. 32(5): 12-13.
Element plants 7. Criley. R. A. and W. H. Carlson. 1970. Tissue analysis standards for vari-
(c/c) ous floriculture crops. Flor. Rev. 146(3771): 19, 20, 70-73.
N 1.9-3.3 8. Holcomb. E. J. and J. W. White. 1979. Using plant uptake to determine op-
P 0.25-2.0 timum values for soil tests. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104:365-370.
K 3.1-3.8 9. Irwin. J. 1972. Kalanchoe — a new crop. Ohio Flor. Assoc. Bui.
Ca 5.2-6.9 514:1-2,6.
Mg 2.0-2.9 10. Lunt. O. R. 1971. Control led-release fertilizer: achievements and potential.
(ppm) J. Agr. FoodChem. 19:797-800.
Mn 76-92 II. Mikkelsen. J. C. 1975. A-B-C- of kalanchoe culture. Ohio Flor. Assoc.
Fe 55-92 Bui. 550:7.
Cu 4-10 12. Mikkelsen, J. C. 1977. Kalanchoe culture. Ohio Flor. Assoc. Bui. 570:8-9.
B 6-7 13. Nelson, P. V., G. C. Elliott, and N. C. Mingis. 1980. Sampling procedure
Zn 30-85 for foliar analysis of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana ‘Feuerzauber.’ J. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 105:599-603.
14. Oertli, J. J. and O. R. Lunt. 1962. Control led-release of fertilizer minerals
by incapsulating membranes. I. Factors influencing the rate of release. II.
Efficiency of recovery, influence of soil moisture, mode of application, and
ing when N is generally lower and Ca higher in concentration.
other considerations related to use. Soil Sci. Soc. Proc. 26:579-587.
The highest-quality plants (largest and earliest to flower) in both ,5 Patel. A. J. andG. C. Sharma. 1977. N-release characteristics of controlled-
experiments were used in determining the nutrient range. If an release fertilizers four month incubation. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
element is within the suggested range, then the elemental concen- 102:364-367.
tration apparently was adequate for growth. Additional experi- 16 Penningsfeld. F. 1975. Use of slow-release fertilizer in peat substrates. Acta
Hort. 50:125-129.
ments will be needed to narrow the range to permit optimum Sharma, G. C. 1979. Control led-release fertilizer and horticulture applica-
growth of plants. tions. Scien. Hort. 11:107-129.
IR Simpson, B., A. E. Einert, and L. H. Hileman. 1975. Effects of Osmocote
Literature Cited application method on soil and plant nutrient levels and flowering of potted
1. Anonymous. 1977. Kalanchoe culture. Grow. T alks41(1): 1-6. chrysanthemums. Flor. Rev. 156(4032):27-28, 68.
2. Ball, V. 1974. Mat irrigation. Grow Talks 38(7): l - l 1. 19. Simpson. B., A. E. Einert, and L. H. Hileman. 1975. Important test on pot
3. Ball, V. 1978. Six ‘other’ pot plants. Grow Talks 41(10): 1-6. plant feeding. Grow. Talks 38( I ): 1-6.

J.Am er. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):552—557. 1981.

Calcium Efficiency among Tomato Strains1

Jean E. English2 and Donald N. Maynard3’4
Department o f Plant and Soil Sciences , Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station ,
University o f Massachusetts, Amherst , MA 01003
Additional index words, nutrient efficiency, Lycopersicon spp., acid soil tolerance
Abstract. Seedlings of 44 tomato strains were screened in low (16.5 mg/plant) Ca nutrient solutions. Tolerance to low Ca
was rated according to plant appearance and efficiency ratios, i.e., tissue produced (g) per unit of Ca (mg) in the tissue.
Correlations among various symptom ratings and Ca-efficiency ratios for roots, stems and petioles, and laminar tissue
showed that only 1 deficiency symptom and dry weight or 1 symptom and 1 efficiency ratio were necessary to rank plants.
These methods showed that Plant Introductions (PI) 340909,341984, and 341988 (all L. esculentum) were Ca-inefficient,
whereas PI 205040 (L. esculentum cv. Yellow Peach) and PI 129021 (L. esculentum x L. pimpinellifolium) were Ca-effi-
cient. Differences in efficiency were maintained when these selections were grown with higher Ca concentrations.
Stress-tolerant crop varieties offer an attractive alternative for imbalances on reclaimed strip mines (8). Mortvedt (9) recom-
soil problems which cannot be remedied easily by adding lime, S, mended development of Fe-efficient varieties over the application
or fertilizers. Already, fescues have been bred to tolerate mineral of Fe fertilizer in deficient, western soils. Epstein and Norlyn (4)
have investigated the possibility of irrigating salt-tolerant barley
with seawater.
Ca-efficiency might be desirable in serpentine (14), sodic (12),
'Received for publication December 11, 1980. Contribution No. 2346 from the or acidic soils which are often inherently low in Ca. Ca deficien-
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, MA 01003.
The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part by the payment of page cies may be induced in other soils by acid rain, NH4 fertilizers, or
charges. Under postal regulations, this paper therefore must be hereby marked drought.
advertisement solely to indicate this fact. While a need for cultivars suited to mineral imbalances is rec-
2Graduate Assistant. ognized, methods for screening vary considerably. The most
3Present address: Vegetable Crops Department. University of Florida, Gaines-
ville, FL 32611.
common selection procedures are based on visual deficiency or
4The authors acknowledge the technical assistance of A. V. Barker and R. A. toxicity symptoms, the elemental concentration in plants grown
Damon, Jr. under conditions of mineral imbalance, and on the growth re-

552 J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):552-557. 1981.

sponse of plants to additions of limiting elements. Problems en- showing deficiency symptoms were harvested after 33 days (Au-
countered include plants which may not show symptoms because gust 1, 1977).
they are inherently slow growing; or, they may show symptoms Screening for Ca-efficiency. Forty-four strains (Table 2) were
but are still capable of more growth than a visually healthy culti- germinated in sand which was sub-irrigated with deionized water.
var. Some mineral imbalances produce so many symptoms that After 15 days (April 26, 1978), seedlings were transplanted into
visual rating systems become meaningless. Similarly, efficiency individual 2-liter polyethylene containers holding 1.8 liters of the
ratios (g dry weight per mg of element in the tissue) alone may not nutrient solution described in the previous section, except that
reflect plant appearance. each plant received 16.5 mg Ca as CaCl2 • 2H20 .
Measuring the response, usually expressed as plant dry weight, Four replicates were arranged in a randomized block design in a
to decreased increments of an element is a good relative measure greenhouse under conditions of natural light with temperatures
of efficiency, especially if the appearance of the plant is noted. ranging from 21° to 32°C. Extra seedlings remained in sand in
Unfortunately, this method often is not suited to testing a large flats and received 200 ml of a low-Ca (2.2 x KT4 m ) nutrient so-
number of strains because of space requirements. lution twice. These were used to replace seedlings that died dur-
The media in which plants are screened also vary among soil, ing the first week of the experiment. Solutions in the pots were
sand, and solution culture. The nutrient solution may contain a brought up to volume with deionized water as required.
constant, low concentration of the element in question or an initial Deficiency symptoms (leaf curl, leaf necrosis, and growing
quantity of the element which is eventually depleted. While many point necrosis) were rated individually according to the following
studies show similar results in soil and solution culture experi- schedule: 0 = no symptoms appeared by day 31; 1, 2, 3, 4 =
ments (1, 3 ,5 ,7 , 10), these media may produce different results symptoms appeared by day 31,28, 20, 16, respectively.
( 1 1 ).
Relatively quick and simple procedures must be used in order
to screen several strains simultaneously. However, selections
from both ends of the efficiency spectrum must be tested under
more rigorous conditions before they are labelled positively as ef- Table 2. Tomato strains screened for Ca efficiency/
ficient or inefficient. Code no. Species and cultivar PI number
This paper identifies a rapid screening method for Ca-efficien- 3 L. esculentumc\. Tropic
cy among tomato strains using seedlings in low-Ca nutrient solu- 5 L. esculentumcv. Jubilee
tions and the response of efficient and inefficient selections to in- 6 L. esculentumcv. Galaxy
creasing Ca. 7 L. esculentumcv. Doublerich
9 L. esculentumcv. Heinz 1350
Materials and Methods 10 L. esculentumcv. Yellow Peach 205040
11 L. esculentum 255849
Ca content o f seeds. Oven-dried seeds (100 mg) of each of 24 12 L. esculentum 263726
strains were wet-ashed with H N 03-H 20 2 and analyzed for Ca by 13 L. esculentumcv. Bushy 273444
14 L. esculentumcv. Maliutka 280957
atomic absorption spectrophotometry. 15 L. esculentumcv. Summer Prolific 303791
Determining a stress level o f Ca. Tomato seeds (‘Heinz 1350’, 16 L. esculentum 340909
‘Roma’, ‘Jubilee’, ‘Michigan State Forcing’, and ‘Tropic’) were 17 L. esculentumcv. Campbell 24 341131
sown in 1 coarse: 1 fine quartz sand (w/w) in plastic flats and 18 L. esculentumcv. Heinz 1417 341136
watered with deionized water as necessary. When the first true 19 L. esculentum 341144
20 L. esculentum 341984
leaves appeared (June 28, 1977), seedlings were transplanted in- 21 L. esculentum 341988
dividually to 2-liter polyethylene containers filled with 1.8 liters 22 L. esculentumcv. Lycoprea 393955
of solution containing 5 meq/liter each of K N 03 and N aN 03 and 1 23 L. esculentum G-23326
meq/liter each of M gS04 and KH2P 0 4. Micronutrients were sup- 24 L. esculentumcv. Canabec Super G-23598
25 L. esculentumcv. Rosabec G-23599
plied according to Hoagland and Amon (6), and Ca concentra- 26 L. peruvianurn 126441
tions varied (Table 1). The seedlings were supported in slit foam 27 L. hirsutum 126445
plugs. Each treatment was replicated 4 times. Solutions were 28 L. hirsutum f. glabratum 126449
brought to volume as needed with deionized water throughout the 29 L. peruvianum 126431
experiment. 30 L. pimpinellifolium 112215
31 L. pimpinellifolium 79532
When Ca deficiency symptoms appeared, plants were harvest- 32 L. glandulosum 126434
ed; separated into roots, stems, and leaves; weighed, dried in a 33 L. glandulosum 126440
forced-draft oven for 5 days at 70°C, and re weighed. Plants not 34 L. peruvianum humifusum 127828
35 L. esculentum xL . pimpinellifolium 129021
36 L. hirsutum x L. glabratum 129157
37 L. esculentum XL. pimpinellifolium 190188
39 L. esculentumcv. Anahu 265955
41 L. esculentum
Table I . Ca concentrations used to determine a stress level of Ca. 42 L. esculentum
43 L. esculentum
CaCI2concentration Ca per plant 44 L. esculentum 367940
Treatment (mM) (mg/l .8 liters) 47 L. esculentumcv. Miguel Pereira
1 3.33 240 48 L. esculentumcv. Roma VF
2 1.67 120 49 L. esculentum 129059
3 0.83 60 51 L. esculentumcv. Big Boy
4 0.42 30 52 L. esculentumcv. Wisconsin Chief
5 0.21 15 53 L. esculentum 77BI46
6 0.11 8 'Plant introductions were obtained from the Plant Introduction Stations of Gene-
7 0.06 4
va. N.Y. and Ames. Iowa.

J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):552-557. 1981. 553

 Table 3. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients for deficiency symptoms, efficiency ratios, and growth.

Dry
Characteristic 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 weight
1. Leaf curl 0.83** 0.89** 0.96** 0.92** 0.05 -0.10 -0.05 -0.19 -0.26
2. Leaf necrosis 0.92** 1.00** 0.95** 0.15 0.02 0.11 -0.10 -0.13
3. Necrosis of growing point 0.94** 0.53** -0.24 -0.26 -0.24 -0.33* -0.33*
4. 2& 3com bined 0.95** 0.05 -0.07 0.03 -0.13 -0.19
5. 1 ,2& 3 combined 0.07 -0.07 0.02 -0.13 -0.21
6. Plant efficiency ratio 0.96** 0.92** 0.75** 0.86**
7. Root efficiency ratio 0.81** 0.62** 0.87**
8. Stem and petiole efficiency ratio 0.65** 0.82**
9. Laminar efficiency ratio 0.63**
* **Significant at 5% (*) or !% (**) level.

Plants were harvested 31 days after transplanting, separated in-
to roots, stems and petioles, and laminar tissue, and dried for 4
days in a forced-draft oven at 70°C. Dry weights were deter-
mined, and the tissue was ground in a Wiley mill to pass a 20-
mesh screen. Tissue was wet-ashed and analyzed for Ca by atom-
ic absorption spectrophotometry.
Efficiency ratios were calculated for each plant part by dividing
the dry weight (g) by Ca content (mg). These values were com-
bined as weighted averages to give an efficiency ratio for each en-
tire plant.
Strains were ranked according to ratings of deficiency symp-
toms, efficiency ratios, and dry weights. Spearman’s rank corre-
lation coefficients (13) were computed for all combinations of
variables. Efficient and inefficient strains were selected based on
deficiency symptoms, efficiency ratios, and dry weight.
Response to increased Ca. Five selected strains were germinat-
ed and transplanted to solution culture on May 16, 1979 as de-
scribed above, except that the initial Ca supply ranged from 15 to
365 mg per container by increments of 70 mg.
Solutions were brought to volume with equal volumes of mi-
nus-Ca nutrient solutions so that faster growing plants would not
become N-deficient. Deionized water was used to make up the
difference when unequal volumes of solution were taken up.
Plants were harvested after 41 days in solution culture and plant
parts were dried, weighed, ground, and analyzed for Ca as pre-
viously described.
Results
Ca content o f seeds. The mean Ca content per tomato seed was
0.60 |xg with a maximum of 1.62 |xg, and neither of these values
was considered significant.
Determining a stress level o f Ca. Plants receiving 4 or 8 mg Ca
developed deficiency symptoms within a week and did not attain
sufficient dry weight for analysis. For those receiving 30 m gCaor
more, N appeared to be the limiting element rather than Ca.
Ca deficiency symptoms varied in severity among cultivars
supplied with 15 mg Ca, and N deficiency was not apparent. Dry
weight was sufficient for analysis, so that a Ca concentration be-
tween 15 and 20 mg per plant was deemed feasible for screening.
Screening fo r Ca efficiency. Various combinations of Ca defi-
ciency symptoms appeared 16 days after transplanting, generally
in the order: leaf curl, leaf necrosis, and growing point necrosis.
Some strains exhibited no symptoms, while others developed
some or all symptoms.
Analysis of variance indicated differences among strains for all
symptom ratings. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients (Ta-
ble 3) between all combinations of symptoms were positive and
highly significant, suggesting that any one symptom could be
used to rank plant appearance. Similarly, efficiency ratios for
various plant parts were highly correlated with one another and
with dry weight, indicating that any one efficiency ratio or dry
weight, used in combination with one deficiency symptom,
would be a good indicator of tolerance to low Ca.
Thus, 2 groups were initially selected: one group in which
growing point necrosis occurred in 3 or 4 replicates and the other
in which it did not occur. Subsequently, plants with early devel-
opment of leaf necrosis as well as growing point necrosis were
tentatively labeled inefficient (4 strains) and those with no symp-
toms, efficient (8 strains).
Based on sums of the ranks for dry weights plus entire plant ef-
ficiency ratios, the inefficient group was narrowed to 3 strains (PI
340909, 341984, and 341988, all L. esculentum), and the effi-

Table 4. Mean scores for selected strains.

Strain LC' LN GPN DW PER RER SER LER

10E 0.75 a-b* 0.00a 0.00a 4.72 a-g 614 b-h 1094 b-f 1507 b-j 484 a-i
35E 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 5 .14a-f 798 a 1128 b-f 2421 a 559 a-d
161 3.50 f-g 4.00g 1.25 c 3.37 d-l 5 lOd-h 928 b-f 1155 g-n 385 g-k
201 2.25 c-f 4.00g I.OOb-c 3.55d-k 542 d-h I I 35 b-f 1121 i-n 378 g-k
211 2 .0 0 b-e 3 .5 0 f-g 1.25 c 3.3 7 d-l 5 50 d-h 922 b -f 1219 f-n 4 IO e -k
'Abbreviations: LC = leaf curl (0-^)
LN = leaf necrosis (0-4)
GPN = growing point necrosis (0-^4)
DW = dry weight (1 .2 6 - 6.07 g)
PER = plant efficiency ratio (3 0 6 - 813)
RER = root efficiency ratio (7 1 6 - 1737)
SER = stem and petiole efficiency ratio (773 - 2421)
LER = laminar efficiency ratio (225-618)
'Mean separation among 44 strains by Duncan's multiple range test, 5c/( level.

554 J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):552-557. 1981.

Table 5. Dry weight and shoot:root ratios for selected strains, (means of 4 repli- efficiency ratios; root efficiency ratios were the same for all
cates).
strains. Shoot and root dry weights and shoot:root ratios are often
Root dry wt Shoot dry wt Shoot: root of interest for describing differences in efficiency. However, in
Strain (g) <g) ratio this experiment, there were no significant differences in these
I0E 0.73 c-h' 3.99 h-n 5.66 a-c measures (Table 5).
35E 0.82 d-h 4.31 j-n 5.25 a-c Response to increased Ca. Increasing the Ca concentration of
161 0.51 a-f 2.86 d-j 5.75 a-c
201 0.70 b-h 2.85 d-j
the medium increased dry weights and generally decreased effi-
4.00 a-c
21! 0.66 a-h 3.11 d-k 4.73 a-c ciency ratios of all strains (Table 6). Different responses between
'Mean separation among 44 strains by Duncan’s multiple range test, 5% level.
efficient and inefficient strains occurred for all dependent vari-
ables as revealed by the significance of F values for 10 and 35 vs.
16, 20, and 21. Thus, the efficient strains generally weighed more
and had higher plant efficiency ratios than the inefficient strains
cient group was narrowed to 2 strains [PI 205040 (L. esculentum (Fig. 1,2).
cv. Yellow Peach) and PI 129021 (L. esculentum Xpimpinellifoli- Within the 2 efficiency groups, strain 10 was generally superior
um)]. These correspond to experimental numbers 16, 20, 21, 10 to 35 in dry-weight production and efficiency ratios for entire
and 35, respectively, and for brevity will be listed as such. plants and laminar and root tissue when differences existed (Fig.
Efficient strains differed from inefficient strains mainly in their 2 ,3 , and 4). Strain 35 was superior in producing stem tissue with
lack of deficiency symptoms (Table 4). Dry weight of entire minimal Ca (Fig. 5). Strain 16 tended to have lower root efficien-
plants did not differ. Strain 35E had a greater plant efficiency ratio cy ratios than the other 2 inefficient lines (Fig. 4). Strain 20 gener-
than the other 4 strains, and this could be attributed to greater stem ally required more Ca for stem tissue than strain 21 (Fig. 5).

Table 6. Levels of significance for response to tomato seedlings to increased Ca concentrations.

Source of variation Dry wt Root ER' Stem ER Laminar ER Plant ER

Calcium concentration ** ** ** ** **
Strain ** ** ** ** **
10,35 vs. 16,20,21 ** ** ** ** **
10 vs. 35 ** NS ** ** NS
16vs. 20,21 NS ** NS NS NS
20 vs. 21 NS NS ** NS NS
Ca x strain NS NS ** ** **

'Efficiency Ratio.

Fig. 2. Plant efficiency ratios in response to increasing Ca.

J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):552—557. 1981. 555

 Fig. 3. Laminar efficiency ratios in response to increasing Ca. Fig. 5. Stem efficiency ratios in response to increasing Ca.

Discussion crosis and least shoot growth as Ca-inefficient. Subsequently, the

efficient lines could be tested at sufficient Ca concentrations to
Ca-efficient and inefficient strains were distinguished by grow-
find the strains which consistently performed better. In this study,
ing point necrosis, leaf necrosis, dry weight, and plant efficiency
relative efficiency was maintained at increased Ca concentra-
ratios. However, correlation coefficients show that a more rapid
tions, but this has not always been the case (2).
selection procedure is available. One could select strains with al-
Apparently, several complex mechanisms account for these
most as much sensitivity by labeling plants with no symptoms and
differences in efficiency. Efficient strains are larger and, as entire
maximum shoot growth as Ca-efficient and those with severe ne-
plants, require less Ca than inefficient strains (Fig. 1,2). A min-
imal Ca requirement for stem tissue is especially important for
strain 35 (Fig. 5 and Table 4). While laminar efficiency ratios are
different for efficient and inefficient plants (Table 6), these differ-
ences become less important as additional Ca is available (Fig. 3).
This variability in efficient use of Ca could be due to differen-
ces in Ca-oxalate precipitation, or the number of Ca-pectate
bridges in cell walls. Roots might contribute to efficiency if mem-
brane integrity were less responsive to low Ca so that an imbal-
ance of other elements does not occur so readily.
Strains which use Ca efficiently may provide a source of resis-
tance to blossom end rot, a common physiological disorder of to-
matoes. We intend to grow the 5 selected strains to fruiting stage
in Ca-deficient media to determine whether efficiency is main-
tained in large, fruiting plants.

Literature Cited
1. Baker, D. E. 1976. Soil chemical constraints in tailoring plants to fit prob-
lem soils. I. Acid soils, p. 127-140. In: M. J. Wright (ed.) Plant adaptation
to mineral stress in problem soils. Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta.. Ithaca.
N.Y.
2. Brown. J. C .. J. E. Ambler, R. I. Chaney, and C. D. Foy. 1972. Differen-
tial responses of plant genotypes of micronutrients, p. 389-418. In: J. J.
Mortvedt, P. M.Giordano, and W. L. Lindsay (eds.) Micronutrients in agri-
culture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.. Madison, Wis.
3. Clark, R. B. 1976. Plant efficiencies in the use of calcium, magnesium and
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al stress in problem soils. Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta., Ithaca, N.Y.
4. Epstein. E. and J. D. Norlyn. 1977. Seawater-based crop production: a
Fig. 4. Root efficiency ratios in response to increasing Ca. feasibility study. Science 197:249-251.

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eral stress in problem soils. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta., Ithaca, N.Y.
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growing plants without soil. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. 347.
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ing problems of soil mineral stress. Heavy metal toxicities. p. 95-105. In:
M. J. Wright (ed.) Plant adaptation to mineral stress in problem soils. Cor-
nell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta., Ithaca, N.Y.
9. Mortvedt, J. J. 1976. Soil chemical constraints in tailoring plants to fit prob-
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tion to mineral stress in problem soils. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta., Ithaca.
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10. Reid, D. A .,G . D. Jones, W. H. Armiger, C. D. Foy, E. J. Kock, andT. M.
Starling. 1969. Differential aluminum tolerance of winter barley varieties
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sulfur, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine, p. 173-200. In: L. M. Walsh and
J. D. Beaton (eds.) Soil testing and plant analysis. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer..
Madison, Wis.
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J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):557-561. 1981.

Comparison of Several Chemical Pinching Agents on

Greenhouse Forcing Azaleas, Rhododendron cv.1
Lih-Jyu Shu, Kenneth C. Sanderson, and J. C. Williams2
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, AL 36849
Additional index words, chemical pruning, growth regulators, growth inhibitors
Abstract. Applications of 0.5% dikegulac sodium (sodium salt of 2,3:4,6-bis-0-(l-methylethyliderie-L-xylo-2-hexulofu-
ranosonic acid) sprays produced significantly more new shoots on ‘Red wing’ or4King fisher’ azalea plants than manual
pinching and other chemical pinching agents in 2 experiments. In 5 other experiments involving 5 other cultivars, dike-
gulac sodium-treated plants generally produced the most shoots, however, the shoot number was not different from shoot
number on either manually pinched or 4.2% Off-Shoot-O-treated (mixture of C6 to CI2 methyl ester of fatty acids) plants.
Sprays of dimethyl dodecylamine caprylate at 0.2% and 0.5%, n-decanol at 2.5%, ethephon [(2-chloroethyl)phosphonic
acid)] at 0.08%, and UBI-P293 (2,3-dihydro-5,6-diphenyl-1,4-oxathiin) at 1.0% gave inconsisent results but yielded
shoot number comparable to dikegulac sodium in some tests. Off-Shoot-O, dimethyl dodecylamine caprylate, and n-un-
decanol were destructive pinching agents at some concentrations and caused considerable plant injury. Dikegulac sodium
caused minor injury and transient chlorosis. Ethephon, PBA [6-benzylamino-9(2-tetrahydropyran-2-yl)-9H-purine],
and UBI-P293 did not produce any visible phytotoxicities. Shoots of plants sprayed with 0.5% dikegulac sodium and
1.0% UBI-P293 were of similar length or shorter than shoots of either manually pinched or untreated check plants 3
weeks after treatment.

Chemical pinching of azaleas, Rhododendron cv., developed
from the work of Tso (21) who reported that fatty acids and their
analogues showed inhibitor effects on the development of flow-
ers, young top leaves of intact plant, and axillary bud of decapitat-
ed tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum L. Cathey et al. (6) showed that
lower alkyl esters of C8 to C , 2 fatty acids and the C8 to C ,0 fatty al-
cohols selectively killed the terminal meristem of a wide variety
of plants without damaging the axillary meristems, foliage, or
stem tissue.
Furuta (8) tested different compositions and concentrations of
fatty acid methyl esters from C6 to C l8 as chemical pinching
agents on azaleas to determine effectiveness and plant response.
Stuart (19) reported that azalea plants treated with certain fatty
acid methyl esters developed more shoots than hand-pinched
'Received for publication August 11, 1980.
The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part by the payment of page
charges. Under postal regulations, this paper therefore must be hereby marked
advertisement solely to indicate this fact.
2Former graduate student (deceased). Professor of Horticulture, and Associate
Professor of Research Data Analysis, respectively.
plants. Work by several investigators (4, 8, 10, 18, 19) contribut-
ed to the commercial application of chemical pinching on azaleas.
A mixture of methyl ester of fatty acids (4% C6, 56% C8, 38%
C l0, and 2% C ,2) has been licensed for commercial pinching of
azaleas by Proctor and Gamble, Cinncinnati, Ohio under the
trademark name of Off-Shoot-O. Several other growth regulators
such as ethephon (12), ethephon plus Off-Shoot-O (15), PBA
(12, 13), n-decanol and n-undecanol (13), dimethy dodecylamine
caprylate, and oxathiin or UBI-P293 (9, 16) have been investigat-
ed as chemical pinching agents for azaleas with varying results.
Recently, the chemical dikegulac sodium has renewed interest in
chemical pinching of azaleas (3, 7). Dikegulac sodium has been
found to destroy apical dominance and induce production of axil-
lary shoots on azalea plants (3 ,7 , 14).
Unlike Off-Shoot-O, n-decanol and n-undecanol, and dimethyl
dodecylamine caprylate, dikegulac sodium acts “ hormonally”
on the plant apex and does not destroy plant tissue (1). Chlorosis
of the leaves (1 ,3 ,7 ) and delay and retardation of plant growth (3)
have been reported on plants treated with dikegulac sodium.
These results have raised questions about its commercial use.
A comparative test of these various chemical pinching agents
has not been made. The purpose of the present study was to con-
duct such a comparative test of the effects of several chemical

J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(5):557-561. 1981. 557