Traffic Engineering

What is traffic?
• The movement of vehicles, ships, persons, etc., in an area, along a
street, through an air lane, over a water route, etc.

• The amount of cargo or number of passengers conveyed

What is traffic engineering?

• Field of engineering which deals with traffic planning and design of
roads, frontage development and parking facilities and with the
control of traffic to provide safe, convenient and economic
movement of vehicles and pedestrians (UK Institution of Civil
Engineers)

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 Traffic Flow Characteristics and Analysis

• The analysis of traffic flow is the basis for the design of

transportation system operating strategies, traffic control systems
and certain physical features of transportation systems
• Includes: (1) interaction of traffic events in space and time (2) the
analysis of travel times under various conditions (3) relationships
among traffic flow states such as speed, density and flow

3
Speed and Travel Time
 Speed, µ and Travel Time, t

• Speed of travel is a simple and widely used measure of the quality of

traffic flow
• Basic classes or measures of speed of travel:
• Spot speed
• overall speed
• Running or operating speed

d
µ=
t

5
 Spot Speed
• The instantaneous speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point along a street or
highway
• The average of a series of measures of spot speeds can be expressed in two ways: as
a time mean speed, µt and a space mean speed, µs
• Measured using electromechanical and electronic devices that capture the speed of
the vehicle as it approaches and passes the detectors
• Radar and laser devices are widely used by traffic engineers and enforcement
officers to measure spot speeds

Time mean Speed

• The arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles passing a point during a specified
interval of time
n

∑µ i
µt = i =1
n
Where: µ i = observed speed of the ith vehicle
n = number of vehicles observed
6
 Space Mean Speed, µs
• The arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles occupying a relatively long section of
street or highway at a given instant
• It is the average of vehicle speeds weighted according to how long they remain on
the section of the road

L nL
µs = n
= n
ti
∑
i =1 n
∑t
i =1
i

Where: L = length of roadway section

ti = observed time for the ith vehicle to travel distance L
n = number of vehicles observed

• Time mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the spot speeds while the space mean
speed is its harmonic mean
• Time mean speed is always greater than space mean speed except in the situation
where all vehicles travel at the same speed

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 Variance of the space distribution of speeds, σ2s

• Space mean speed and time mean speed are not equal and their variance
is taken as follows:
σ s2
µt = µ s +
µs
Where: σ2s = variance of the space distribution of speeds

Overall speed and running speed

• Speeds over a relatively long section of street or highway between an origin and a
destination
• Used in travel time studies to compare the quality of service between alternative
routes
Overall speed – the total distance travelled divided by the running time required
including delays
Running speed – the total distance travelled divided by the running time
Running time – time the vehicle is in motion; time for stop delays excluded

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 Example Problem 1
For the observed vehicles traversing a 1.5 km highway segment noted below,
determine the space mean speed.

vehicle Travel time

1 00:01:30
2 00:01:35
3 00:01:05
4 00:01:15
5 00:01:45

Solution
vehicle Travel time (sec)
nL 5 × 1.5
µs = =
1 90 n
(90 + 95 + 65 + 75 + 105)
2 95 ∑t
i =1
i
3600
3 65 µ s = 62.791 kph
4 75
5 105 9
 Example Problem 2
Three vehicles passed a kilometer post at 65, 73 and 82 kph, respectively.
Compute the time mean speed.

Solution
n

∑µ i
(65 + 73 + 82)
µt = i =1
= = 73.333 kph
n 3

Example Problem 3
Using the data taken in problems 1 and 2, determine the variance of the space
distribution of speeds

Solution
σ s2
73.333 = 62.791 +
σ s2 62.791
µt = µ s +
µs σ s = 25.728 kph
10
Traffic Volume
 Traffic Facilities
Types:
Uninterrupted flow facilities:
- These facilities are those on which no external factors cause periodic
interruption to the traffic stream. Example: freeways, limited-
access facilities, where there are no traffic signal, stop or yield
signs, or surface intersections. It may also exist in long sections
of rural highway between signalized intersections

Interrupted flow facilities:

- These facilities have external devices that periodically interrupt
traffic flow (the principal device creating interrupted flow is the
traffic signal)
 Volume

Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a

highway, or a given lane or direction of a highway, during a specified time
interval.

A. Daily volumes:
- Average Annual Daily Traffic: (AADT):
- Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT):
- Average Daily Traffic (ADT):
- Average Weekday Traffic (AWT):

Note: The unit is vehicles per day (vpd).

Daily volumes are used to establish trends over time and for planning purposes.
Daily volumes generally are not differentiated by direction or lane but are totals
for an entire facility at the specified location.
 Daily Volumes

- Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): is the average 24 hour traffic

volume at a given location over a full 365-day year – that is the total
number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided by 365
- Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT): is the average 24-hour traffic
volume occurring on weekdays over a full year. AAWT is computed by
dividing the total weekday traffic volume for the year by 260. This
volume is of considerable interest where weekend traffic is light, so
that averaging higher weekday volumes over 365 days would mask the
impact of weekday traffic.
 Daily Volumes
- Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is an average 24-hour traffic volume at
a given location for some period of time less than a year. While an
AADT is for a full year, an ADT may be measured for six months, a
season, a month, a week, or as little as two day. An ADT is a valid
number only for the period over which it was measure.
- Average Weekday Traffic (AWT): is an average 24-hour traffic
volume occurring on weekdays for some period of time less than one
year, such as for a month or a season. The relationship between
AAWT and AWT is analogous to that between AADT and ADT
 Daily Volumes

AADT and AAWT are used for several transportation analyses:
 Computation of accident rates in terms of 100 million vehicles
miles
 Establishment of traffic volume trends
 Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
 Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
 Development of improvement and maintenance programs

ADT and AWT are used for several transportation analyses:
 Measurement of current demand
 Evaluation of existing traffic flow
Daily Volumes
 Hourly Volumes
B. Hourly Volumes:
◦ Season Change → Daily Volumes → Planning
◦ Hourly → Design and operational analysis
◦ Design Hour Volume – future hourly volume that is used for design;
usually the 30th –highest hourly volume of the year
◦ Peak-Hour: The single hour of the day that has the highest volume.
◦ This volume is not a constant value from day to day, season to season
The traffic volume within the peak hour is of greatest interest to traffic
engineers in design or operational analysis.
Note: The peak-hour volume is generally a directional volume that is, a
volume in which the directions of flow are separated.
 Hourly Volumes
- Highways must be designed to adequately serve the peak-hour traffic volume
in the peak direction of flow.
- Most operational analysis must address conditions existing during periods of
peak traffic volume.

Peak hour volumes are sometimes estimated from projections of the AADT. It
is referred to as the “directional design hour volume” (DDHV)
DDHV = AADT * K * D
Where:
K – proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour
D – proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction of flow
 Hourly Volumes

Used for several transportation analyses:

◦ Functional classification of roads
◦ Design of geometric characteristics of highways (number of
lanes)
◦ Capacity analysis
◦ Development of programs related to traffic operations
◦ Development of parking regulations
 Sub hourly Volumes
C. Sub hourly volumes and Rates of Flow
Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a
highway during a time period less than 1 hour.
number of vehicles during observation
rate of flow = q = veh/h
observation time
Minimum Time Interval = 15 minutes or 900 seconds (2000 Highway
Capacity Manual)

The quality of traffic flow is often related to short-term fluctuations in traffic

demand
It is often necessary to design facilities and analyze traffic conditions for a
period of maximum rate of flow within the peak hour
 Sub hourly Volumes
Example of volumes and rate of flow

Time Interval Volume (vehicles) Rate of Flow (veh/hr)

950 * (60/15) = 3800

5:00 -5:15 PM 950
1150 * (60/15) = 4600
5:15 - 5:30 PM 1150
5:30 - 5:45 PM 1250 1250 * (60/15) = 5000

5:45 - 6:00 PM 1000 1000 * (60/15) = 4000

For the hour

5:00-6:00 PM 4350 (veh/hr)

A facility may have capacity adequate to serve the peak-hour demand, but
short-term peaks of flow within the peak hour may exceed capacity,
thereby creating a breakdown.
 Sub hourly Volumes
Peak-Hour Factor (PHF): is the ratio of the volume occurring during
the peak hour to a maximum rate of flow during a given time
period within the peak hour

hourly volume
PHF =
maximum rate of flow

Usually, 15 minute periods of flow are used (2000 Highway

Capacity Manual)

HV HV
Where: PHF = =
(60/15) ∗ V 4∗V
HV – Hourly Volume 15 15
V15 – Maximum 15 minute volume within the hour
 Sub hourly Volumes
Example of PHF:
HV= 4350 vehicles
V15 = 1250 vehicles

HV
PHF =
4∗V
15
4350
PHF = = 0.87
4 ∗1250
NOTE:
0.25 ≤ PHF ≤ 1.00, normal between 0.70 and 0.98
Lower PHF indicates a greater degree of variation in flow
during the peak-hour.
 Traffic Density, k
• The average number of vehicles occupying a unit length of roadway at a given instant
• Generally expressed in vehicles per mile or vehicles per km
• It is difficult to measure but can be calculated as follows:

q
k=
µs
Where: k = density, veh/km or veh/mile
q = flow rate, veh/hr
µ s = space mean speed (kph, mph)

Spacing and Headways

• Spacing – the distance between successive vehicles, typically measured from the front
bumper to front bumper; average spacing or space headway is the reciprocal of the
traffic density
• Headway – time between the arrival of successive vehicles at a specified point; average
headway or time-headway is the reciprocal of the volume or flow rate

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 Spacing and Headways
1
s=
k
1 s
h= =
q µs
Spacing of vehicles in a traffic lane can generally be observed from aerial photographs.
Headways of vehicles can be measured using stopwatch observations as vehicles pass a
point on a lane.

Lane Occupancy
• A measure used in freeway surveillance

R=
∑ L i Where: R = ratio of the lengths of vehicles on a given
D roadway section
nR Li = sum of lengths of vehicles
k=
∑ Li D = length of roadway section
k = traffic density
n = number of observed vehicles 26
 Lane Occupancy
Could also be described as the ratio of the time that vehicles are present at a detection station
in a traffic lane compared to the time of sampling

LO =
∑ t o Where: t0 = total time the vehicle detector is occupied
T T = total observation time
L = average length of the vehicles
L+C C = distance between the loops of the detector
t0 =
µs k = traffic density

LO
k=
L+C

Lane occupancy applications are of much concern in on-line surveillance and control systems. For example, freeway
surveillance is accomplished by monitoring lane occupancy from numerous stations such as entrance ramps. Proper
records of lane occupancy can be useful in evaluating traffic stream performance

27
 Example Problem 4
During a 60-sec period, a detector is occupied by vehicles for the following times: 0.34, 0.38,
0.40, 0.32 and 0.52 sec. Estimate the rate of flow, traffic density and average velocity.
(Assume that the detector loop length is 3m and that the average length of vehicles is 6 m)

Solution
∑t 0 = 0.34 + 0.38 + 0.40 + 0.32 + 0.52 = 1.96 sec
n=5
100%
LO = 1.96 × = 3.27%
60
The average effective length of a vehicle plus distance between loops is assumed = 3 + 6 =
9m
3.27 1000
k= × = 3.63 Veh/km
100 9
n( L + C ) 5 × 9
µs = = = 22.96 = 82.65 kph
∑ t0 1.96
q = kµ s = 3.63 × 82.65 = 300 Veh/hr 28
 Clearance, c and Gap, g
Where: g = mean gap (sec)
L L = mean length of vehicles (ft or m)
g = h−
µs c = mean clearance (ft or m)
h = mean headway (sec)
µ s = mean speed (ft/sec or m/sec)
c = g × µs

c (m or ft) L (m or ft)
g (sec)

Spacing (m or ft)
Headway (sec)

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 Speed-volume-density Relationships

95
Speed (kph or mph)

Max q
Volume or
Density, k

flow, q
90
Density, k
Speed-density
relationship Volume(flow)-density
95 relationship
Speed (kph or mph)

Volume or
flow, q
q = kµ s
capacity
Speed-volume (flow) relationship

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 Example problem 5
Assuming a linear speed-density relationship, the mean free speed is observed to be 95 kph
near zero density and the corresponding jam density is 90 veh/km. Assume that the average
length of vehicles is 6 m.
a. Draw the µ s – k, µ s – q and q – k diagrams indicating critical values
b. Compute the speed and density for a flow of 1000 veh/hr
c. Compute the average headways, spacing, clearances and gaps when the flow is
maximum

Solution
µ s − 95 0 − 95
(a) =
k −0 90 − 0 dq
= 95 − 2.111k = 0
95 dk
µ s = 95 − ( )k
90 k = 45 Veh/km
95 95
q = µ s k = (95 − ( )k ) × k qmax = 95 × 45 − ( ) × 452 = 2138.625 Veh/hr
90 90
95 2
q = 95k − ( )k
90 31
 Max q
2138.625

Volume or flow,
Speed (kph or mph)
95

Density, k

q
Density, k 45

90

95
Speed (kph or mph)

Volume or flow,
q
2138.625

32
(b) For q = 1000 veh/hr

95 2
q = 95k − ( )k
90
95
1000 = 95k − ( )k 2
90
k1 = 12.173; µ s1 = 82.149
k 2 = 77.827; µ s 2 = 12.849

(c)
1 1
h= = × 3600 = 1.683 sec
q 2138.625
s 1000
h= ; s = 1.683 × 47.5 × = 22.206 m
µs 3600
L 6 3600
g =h− = 1.683 − × = 1.228 sec
µs 47.5 1000
1000
c = gµ s = 1.228 × 47.5 × = 16.203 m
3600
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 Highway Capacity
• The maximum hourly flow rate at which persons or vehicles can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point
• Applied in transportation planning studies, highway design and traffic
operational analyses

Highway Capacity Analysis

1. Transportation planning – to evaluate the sufficiency or performance of

an existing highway network
2. Highway design – to select the type of highway that is needed
3. Traffic operations – look at the bottlenecks that are already existing or
are potential to exist

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Two-lane Highway

Multi-lane Highway
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 Multi – lane Highways
Basic characteristics

• Posted speeds: 40-55 mph (65-90 kph)

• Usually have a total of four to six lanes, counting both directions, often with
medians or Two-way left-turn lanes (TWLTL), however, they may also be
undivided
• Typically located at suburban communities, leading into central cities, or
along high-volume rural corridors connecting two cities or two significant
activities that generate a substantial number or daily trips
• Often signalized; traffic signals spaced at 2.0 miles (3.2 km) or less typically
create urban street conditions
• Traffic volumes vary from 15,000 to 40,000 vpd; although some reaches
100,000 vpd

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 Divided multi-lane highway in a Divided multi-lane highway in a
rural environment suburban environment

Undivided multi-lane highway in a Undivided multi-lane highway in a

rural environment suburban environment
37
 Multi – lane Highway
Multi-lane Highway Capacity

Multilane highways in suburban and rural settings have different operational

characteristics from freeways, urban streets and two-lane highways.
Multilane highways are not completely access controlled – they can have at-
grade intersections and occasional traffic signals

Multilane highways range from the uninterrupted flow of freeways to the
flow conditions on urban streets, which are frequently interrupted by signals

The capacity of a multilane highway is the maximum sustained hourly flow
rate at which vehicles reasonably can be expected to traverse a uniform
segment under prevailing roadway traffic and traffic conditions

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 Multi – lane Highway
Free Flow Speed

Speed of traffic at low volume and low density

Speed at which drivers feel comfortable travelling under the physical, environmental
and traffic control conditions on an uncongested sections of multi-lane highways

Lower on sections of highway with restricted vertical or horizontal alignment

Lower when posted speed limits are lower

The starting point for analyzing capacity and level of service (LOS) for uninterrupted-
flow conditions

Field determination requires travel time studies during periods of low-to moderate
volume; for multi-lane highways, the upper limit for low volume is 1400 passenger cars
per hour per lane (pc/h/ln)

For multilane highways, it is the mean speed of passenger cars under low-to-moderate
traffic flow

The LOS for multilane highways is based on density, which is calculated by dividing
per-lane flow by speed

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 Multi – lane Highway vs. Other Roadway Types

Vs. Freeways

• Vehicles may enter or leave multilane highways at intersections and

driveways, and they can encounter traffic signals
• Design standards for multi-lane highways tend to be lower than
those for freeways, although a multi-lane highway approaches
freeway conditions as its access points and turning volumes
approach to zero
• Visual setting and the developed frontage along multi-lane highways
have a greater impact on drivers than they do along freeways

40
 Multi – lane Highway vs. Other Roadway Types

Vs. Urban Streets

• Similar to urban streets but lacks the regularity of traffic signals and
tends to have greater control on the number of access points per mile
• Design standards are generally higher than those for urban streets
• The speed limits on multilane highways are often 5 to 15 mph higher
than speed limits on urban streets
• Pedestrian activity, as well as parking, is minimal, unlike on urban
streets

41
 Multi – lane Highway vs. Other Roadway Types

Vs. Two-lane highway

• A driver on multilane highway is able to pass slower-moving vehicles

without using lanes designated for oncoming traffic unlike two-lane
highways
• Multilane highways tent to be located near urban areas and often
connect urban areas; they usually have better design features than two-
lane highways, including horizontal and vertical curvature

42
Speed-Flow and Density-Flow Relationship

43
The capacity value of 2,200 pc/h/ln represents the maximum 15-min flow rate
accommodated under base conditions for highways with an FFS of 60 mi/h

44
density varies continuously throughout the range of flow rates

45
 Multi – lane Highways
General considerations

1. Lane width and lateral clearance

 Lane width – 3.6 m (12 ft)
 Shoulder width – 3.0 – 3.6 m (outside); 1.2 – 2.4 m inside
 Lateral Clearance – 1.8 m (6 ft)
2. Median
 Rural – 1.5 – 3.0 m
 Urban – for 4 lanes – 3.0 m
For > 6 lanes – 6.6 m or 7.8 m (when truck traffic > 250 veh/hr)

Types of Medians along multilane rural and suburban highways

 Undivided medians composed of a striped centerline

 TWLTL medians composed of a full-width lane
 Medians composed of a raised curb, barrier or natural terrain or landscaping

46
47
 Multi – lane Highways
General considerations

3. Access point density

 Total number of active intersections and driveways on the right side of the road
divided by the length of the facility
 Rural – 0-6 access points
 Urban – 7 – 12 access points

48
 Multi – lane Highways

General considerations

4. Specific grade or general terrain

 Higher grades have lower free flow speed
 Level terrain 3 – 6%
 Mountainous terrain 5 – 8%
5. Base free flow speed (BFFS)
 If no field measurement available, FFS can be estimated by applying
adjustment to BFFS
 BFFS of 60 mph may be used for rural or a suburban multilane highway
 BFFS must be reduced to account for the effects of lateral clearance at the
shoulder and median, median type, lane width and density of access
points

49
 Multi – lane Highways
General considerations

6. Peak hour factor (PHF)

 Rural 0.88
 Urban 0.92
7. Percentage of heavy vehicles
 Includes recreational vehicles, trucks, bus
 Rural > urban
8. Driver-population factor
 Factor = 1.0 (usual)
 Factor = 0.8 (in recreational areas or during weekends

50
 Multi – lane Highways

Base Conditions

• 3.6 m lane width

• 3.6 m lateral clearance from edge of travel lanes to obstructions/ and
in the median
• Only passenger cars
• No direct access points along the roadway
• A divided highway
• FFS = 100 kph

51
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Applications
PRIMARY OUTPUT:
 Level of Service (LOS)
 Flow rate qp
SECONDARY OUTPUT:
 Density
 Speed

1. OPERATIONAL APPLICATION
 Find LOS of existing or changed highways
 Output = LOS
 Input = FFS and Flow rate
2. DESIGN APPLICATION
 Find number of lanes
 Output = Number of lanes (N)
 Input = FFS and Level of Service (LOS)
3. qp analysis
 Output = qp
 Input = LOS and Number of Lanes (N) 52
53
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 1
Estimate the Free Flow Speed
If the field data is not available, calculate

FFS = BFFS - FLW - FLC - FM - FA

Where:
BFFS = Base Free Flow Speed
FFS = Free Flow Speed (estimated)
FLW = Adjustment factor for Lane width (Exhibit 21-4)
FLC = Adjustment factor for Lateral clearance
(Ex 21-5)
TLC = LCR + LCL
LCR – Lateral clearance from the left edge of the travelled lanes to the roadside
obstruction
LCL – Lateral clearance from the right edge of the travelled lanes to the roadside
obstruction
FM = Adjustment factor for Median Type (21-6)
FA = Adjustment factor for Access Point (Ex 21-7)
54
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Determining FFS

55
56
57
58
Step 1

59
Step 1

60
 Step 1

61
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

62
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

63
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

64
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

65
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

66
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

67
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

68
Step 2

69
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 2

70
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 3
Determine the Level of Service (LOS)

71
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Step 3
Determine the Level of Service (LOS)

72
1

3
73
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Problem 1

A 3,200-ft segment with 2.5 percent grade of a 3.25-mi undivided four-lane

highway on a level terrain was observed. The segment has the following data:

• Level terrain
• 46.0 mph field measured FFS
• 11-ft lane width
• 1900 veh/h peak hour volume
• 13 percent trucks and buses
• 2 percent RVs
• 0.9 PHF
Determine the peak-hour LOS, speed and density for the level terrain portion of
the highway.

74
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Solution

1. FFS = 46.0 mph

2. Compute Vp
1 1
f HV = =
1 + PT ( ET − 1) + PR ( ER − 1) 1 + 0.13(1.5 − 1) + 0.02(1.2 − 1)
f HV = 0.935
V 1900
Vp = =
PHF * N * f HV * f p 0.9 * 2 * 0.935 *1.00
V p = 1,129 pc/h/ln

3. Determine LOS

• LOS C
Vp 1129
D= = = 24.543 pc/mi/ln
S 46
75
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Problem 2
A new 2-mi segment having 90-ft right of way has the following data:
• 60,000 AADT
• 50 mph speed limit
• Peak-hour volume is 10 percent of daily traffic
• Peak-hour traffic has 55/45 directional split
• Rolling terrain
• 5 percent trucks
• 10 access points
• 0.9 PHF
What is the cross section required to meet the design criterion of LOS D? What is the expected
travel speed for passenger cars?

Assume that the given AADT is for the design year and that the other factors, although current,
are accepted as representative of expected design year conditions

Assume base FFS to be 5.0 mph greater than the posted speed. BFFS = 50.0 + 5.0 = 55.0 mph

76
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Solution
1. BFFS = 55.0 mph; assuming base conditions
FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f A − f M
FFS = 55 − 0 − 0 − 2.5 − 0 = 52.5 mph
2. Compute N
• Convert AADT to design-hour volume
DDHV = AADT × K × D
DDHV = 60,000 × 0.10 × 0.55 = 3300 vph
1 1
f HV = =
1 + PT ( ET − 1) + PR ( ER − 1) 1 + 0.05(2.5 − 1) + 0
f HV = 0.93

• Maximum Vp for LOS D: 1,780 pc/h/ln

• Minimum number of lanes required
V
N=
PHF × V p × f HV × f p
3300
N= = 2.2; use 3 lanes
0.9 ×1780 × 0.93 ×1.00
77
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Solution
• Determine if base conditions will fit within available right-of-way with a 12-ft median
to accommodate left-turn bays in the future
• Lane width = 12 ft
• Median width = 12 ft
• Lateral clearance (shoulder) = 6 ft
• Total required width = 12 + 6*12 + 2*6 = 96 ft > 90 ft
• Assume different design to fit available right-of-way. Use 6-ft median and do not use
shoulder on median
• Lane width = 12 ft
• Median width = 6 ft (raised)
• Lateral clearance (shoulder) = 6 ft
• Total required width = 6 + 6*12 + 2*6 = 90 ft, ok
• Compute FFS

FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f A − f M
FFS = 55 − 0 − 0 − 2.5 − 0 = 52.5
78
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Solution

3. Check LOS
• LOS C

Vp1314
D= = = 25.029 pc/mi/ln
S 52.5

79
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Problem 3

A 2.1-mi segment of an east-west five-lane highway with two travel lanes in

each direction separated by a two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL). The highway
includes a 4 percent grade, 6000 ft in length followed by a level terrain of 5000 ft.
The segment has the following facts:
• 12-ft lane width
• 6% trucks and buses
• 10 access points/mi (eastbound)
• 12-ft and greater lateral clearance for both eastbound and westbound
• 52 mph 85th percentile speed
• 1500 vph peak-hour volume
• 13 access points/mi (westbound)
• 0.90 PHF

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 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Problem 3
What is the LOS of the highway on level terrain during the peak hour?

Assume base FFS to be 2 mph less than the 85th percentile speed; BFFS =
52 – 2 = 50 mph

Assume no RVs, since none indicated

81
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Solution
1. BFFS = 50.0 mph)

FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f A − f M
FFS = 50 − 0 − 2.5 − 0 = 47.5 mph
FFS = 50 − 0 − 3.3 − 0 = 46.7 mph

2. Compute Vp
• Compute fHV
1 1
f HV = =
1 + PT ( ET − 1) + PR ( ER − 1) 1 + 0.06(1.5 − 1) + 0
f HV = 0.971
V 1500
Vp = =
PHF * N * f HV * f p 0.9 * 2 * 0.971*1.00
V p = 858 pc/h/ln
82
 Multi – lane Highways Capacity Analysis

Solution

3. LOS C (EB and WB)

Eastbound:
LOS C
FFS = 47.5 mph
Density = 18.063 pc/mi/ln

Westbound:
LOS C
FFS = 46.7 mph
Density = 18.373 pc/mi/ln

83
Two-way Highways

84
 Two-way Highways
• An undivided highway with two lanes, one for use by traffic in each
direction. Passing a slower vehicle requires use of the opposing sight
distance and gaps if the opposing traffic stream permit. As volumes and
geometric restrictions increase, the ability to pass decreases and
platoons form. Motorists in platoons are subject to delay because they
are unable to pass.

85
 Classification of Two-lane Highways

• Class I. – motorists expect to travel at relatively high speeds

- Includes two-lane highways that are major intercity
routes, primary arterials connecting major traffic
generators, daily commuter routes or primary links in
state and national highway networks
- Most often serves long-distance trips or provide
connecting links between facilities that serve long-
distance trips
• Class II. – motorists do not necessarily expect to travel at high speeds
- Includes two-lane highways that function as access routes
to Class I facilities, serve as scenic or recreational routes
that are not primary, or pass through rugged terrain
- Most often serve relatively short trips, the beginning and
ending portions of longer trips, or trips for which
sightseeing plays a significant role

86
 Classification of Two-lane Highways

Class I Class II
• mostly arterials • mostly collectors and local roads

• LOS is defined in terms of percent • LOS is defined in terms of percent

time-spent-following and average time-spent-following only
travel speeds

• Directional distribution ranges from • Directional distribution reaches 80/20

50/50 to 70/30 or more during holidays or other peak
periods

87
 Base Conditions

• Lane widths ≥ 12 ft
• Clear shoulders ≥ 6 ft
• No no-passing zones
• All passenger cars
• No impediments to through traffic, such as traffic control or turning vehicles; and
• Level terrain
• 50/50 directional split

Basic Relationships
• See Exhibit 12-6. Speed-Flow and Percent Time-Spent-Following Flow
Relationships for Two-Way Segments with Base Conditions
• See Exhibit 12-7. Speed-Flow and Percent Time-Spent-Following Flow
Relationships for Directional Segments with Base Conditions

88
Basic Relationships

89
Basic Relationships

90
 Passing Lanes on Two-Lane Highways

Passing lane – lane added in one direction of travel on a conventional

two-lane highway to improve opportunities for passing

91
 Level of Service (LOS)

The primary measures of service for Class I two-lane highways

are percent time-spent-following and average travel speed. For
Class II two-lane highways, service quality is based only on
percent time-spent-following.

LOS criteria are defined for peak 15-min flow periods and are
intended for application to segments of significant length

92
 Level of Service (LOS)

• LOS A - highest quality of traffic service, when motorists are

able to travel at their desired speed; without strict enforcement,
the highest quality would result in average speeds of 55 mi/h or
more on two-lane highways in Class I; passing frequency
required to maintain these speeds has not reached a demanding
level, so that passing demand is well below passing capacity, and
platoons of three or more vehicles are rare; drivers are delayed no
more than 35 percent of their travel time by slow-moving
vehicles; a maximum flow rate of 490 pc/h total in both
directions may be achieved with base conditions
- For class II highways, speeds may fall below 55 mph,
but motorists will not be delayed in platoons for more than 40
percent of their travel time

93
 Level of Service (LOS)

• LOS B – characterizes traffic flow with speeds of 50 mph or slightly

higher on level terrain Class I highways; the demand for passing to
maintain desired speeds become significant and approximates the
passing capacity at the lower boundary of LOS B; drivers are delayed in
platoons up to 50 percent of the time; service flows of 780 pc/h in both
directions can be achieved under base conditions; above this flow rate,
the number of platoons increase dramatically
- On class II highways, speeds may fall below 50 mph, but
motorists will not be delayed in platoons for more than 55 percent of
their travel time

94
 Level of Service (LOS)

• LOS C – describes further increases in flow, resulting in noticeable

increases in platoon formation, platoon size, and frequency of passing
impediments; average speed still exceeds 45 mph on level terrain Class I
highways, even though unrestricted passing demand exceeds passing
capacity; at higher volumes the chaining of platoons and significant
reduction in passing capacity occur; although traffic flow is stable, it is
susceptible to congestion due to turning traffic and slow-moving
vehicles; percent time-spent-following may reach 65 percent; a service
flow rate of up to 1190 pc/h total in both directions can be
accommodated under base conditions
- On class II highways, speeds may fall below 45 mph, but
motorists will not be delayed in platoons for more than 70 percent of
their travel time

95
 Level of Service (LOS)
• LOS D – describes unstable traffic flow; two opposing traffic streams
begin to operate separately at higher volume levels, as passing becomes
extremely difficult; passing demand is high, but passing capacity
approaches to zero; mean platoon sizes of 5 to 10 vehicles are common,
although speeds of 40 mph still can be maintained under base conditions
on Class I highways; the proportion of no-passing zones along the
roadway section usually has little influence on passing; turning vehicles
and roadside distractions cause major shock waves in the traffic stream;
motorists are delayed in platoons for nearly 80 percent of their travel
time; maximum service flow rates of 1830 pc/h total in both directions
can be maintained under base conditions
- On class II highways, speeds may fall below 40 mph, but
motorists will not be delayed in platoons for more than 85 percent of
their travel time

96
 Level of Service (LOS)

• LOS E – traffic flow conditions have a percent time-spent-following

greater than 80 percent on Class I highways and greater than 85 percent
on Class II. Even under base conditions, speeds may drop below 40
mph. Average travel speeds on highways with less than base conditions
will be slower, even down to 25 mph on sustained upgrades. Passing is
virtually impossible at LOS E, and platooning becomes intense, as
slower vehicles or other interruptions are encountered
- The highest volume attained under LOS E defines the
capacity of the highway, generally 3200 pc/h total in both directions

• LOS F – represents heavily congested flow in traffic demand exceeding

capacity. Volumes are lower than capacity and speeds are highly variable

97
 Required Input Data and Estimated Values

•These data may be used in the absence of local data. Taking field measurements for use as inputs to
an analysis is the most reliable means of generating parameter values. Only when this is not feasible
should the default values be considered.

98
Required Input Data and Estimated Values

99
Required Input Data and Estimated Values

100
Required Input Data and Estimated Values

101
Required Input Data and Estimated Values

102
M
E
T
H
O
D
O
L
O
G
Y
103
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 1

Identify the Two-way highway class

a. Class I – ATS and PTSF
b. Class II – PTSF only
STEP 2

104
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

105
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

106
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

107
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

108
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

109
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

110
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

111
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

112
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

113
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 2

114
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 3

115
STEP 3

116
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 4
DETERMINE LOS

117
1

118
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 5

119
 METHODOLOGY
STEP 5

120
 Example Problem 1

GIVEN
•Class I two-lane highway
•1600 VEH/H (two-way volume)
•14 % trucks and buses
•0.95 PHF
•Rolling terrain
•4-ft shoulder width
•50 percent no-passing zones
•50/50 directional split
•4 % RVs
•60 mph BFFS
•11-ft lane width
•6-mi length
•20 access points/mi

What is the two-way segment LOS for the peak hour?

121
 Example Problem 1

SOLUTION

1. DETERMINE THE GRADE ADJUSTMENT FACTOR FOR

AVERAGE TRAVEL TIME (USE EXHIBIT 20-7)

f G = 0.99
2. COMPUTE fHV FOR AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED (USE
EXHIBIT 20-9 AND EQUATION 20-4)

1
f HV =
1 + PT (E T − 1) + PR ( E R − 1)
1
f HV = = 0.931
1 + 0.14(1.5 − 1) + 0.04(1.1 − 1)
122
 Example Problem 1

3. COMPUTE vp (USE EQUATION 20-3)

V
vP =
PHF * f G * f HV
1600
vP = = 1827.307 pc/h
(0.95) * (0.99) * (0.931)

4. CALCULATE THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE

V p × 0.5 = 1827.307 × 0.5 = 913.654 pc/ln

123
 Example Problem 1

5. CHECK THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE AND TWO-

WAY FLOW RATE AGAINST CAPACITY VALUES OF 1700 pc/h
AND 3200 pc/h, RESPECTIVELY

914 pc/h < 1700 pc/h

1827 pc/h < 3200 pc/h

6. COMPUTE THE FFS (USE EXHIBITS 20-5 AND 20-6 AND

EQUATION 20-2)

FFS = BFFS − f LS − f A
FFS = 60 − 1.7 − 5.0 = 53.3 mi/h
124
 Example Problem 1

7. COMPUTE THE AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED (USE EXHIBIT

20-11 AND EQUATION 20-5)
ATS = FFS − 0.00776V p − f np
ATS = 53.3 − 0.00776 × 1827.307 − 0.836 = 38.284 mi/h

8. DETERMINE THE GRADE ADJUSTMENT FACTOR FOR

PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING (USE EXHIBIT 20-8)

fG = 1.00

125
 Example Problem 1

9. COMPUTE fHV FOR PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING (USE

EXHIBIT 20-10 AND EQUATION 20-4)

1
f HV = = 1.00
1 + 0.14(1.0 − 1) + 0.04(1.0 − 1)
10. COMPUTE vp (USE EQUATION 20-3)

1600
Vp = = 1684.21 pc/h
(0.95) × (1.00) × (1.00)

11. CALCULATE THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE.

V p × 0.5 = 1684.21× 0.5 = 842.105 pc/h

126
 Example Problem 1

12. CHECK THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE AND TWO-

WAY FLOW RATE AGAINST CAPACITY VALUES OF 1700 pc/h
AND 3200 pc/h, RESPECTIVELY.

842.105 pc/h < 1700 pc/h

1684.21 pc/h < 3200 pc/h

13. COMPUTE THE BASE PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING (USE

EQUATION 20-7)

−0.000879V p
BPTSF = 100(1 − e )
BPTSF = 100(1 − e −0.000879×1684.21 ) = 77.246%

127
 Example Problem 1

14. COMPUTE THE PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING (USE

EXHIBIT 20-12 AND EQUATION 20-6).

PTSF = BPTSF + f d / np
PTSF = 77.246 + 4.774 = 82.02%
15. DETERMINE LOS (USE EXHIBIT 20-3)

ATS = 38.32 mi/h

PTSF = 82.02%
LOS E

128
 Example Problem 1

OTHER PERFORMANCE MEASURES

vp 1827.307
v/c = = = 0.571 → volume capacity ratio
3200 3200
Total travel on the analysis segment
during the peak 15 - min period (Eq. 20 - 9)
 V   1600 
VMT15 = 0.25  Lt = 0.25 6 = 2526 veh - mi
 PHF   0.95 

Total travel on the analysis segment

during the peak hour (Eq. 20 - 10)
VMT60 = V * Lt = (1600)6 = 9600 veh - mi

Total travel time for all vehicles on the analyzed segment

during the peak 15 - min period (Eq. 20 - 11)
VMT15 2526
TT15 = = = 65.92 veh - h
ATS 38.32
129
 Example Problem 2

GIVEN
•Class II two-lane highway
•1050 veh/h (two-way volume)
•5 % trucks and buses
•0.85 PHF
•Rolling terrain
•2-ft shoulder width
•60 percent no-passing zones
•70/30 directional split
•7 % RVs
•55 mph BFFS
•10-ft lane width
•6-mi length
•10 access points/mi

What is the two-way segment LOS for the peak hour?

130
 Example Problem 2

SOLUTION

1. DETERMINE THE GRADE ADJUSTMENT FACTOR FOR

AVERAGE TRAVEL TIME (USE EXHIBIT 20-7)

f G = 0.93
2. COMPUTE fHV FOR AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED (USE
EXHIBIT 20-9 AND EQUATION 20-4)
1
f HV =
1 + PT ( E T − 1) + PR ( E R − 1)
1
f HV = = 0.951
1 + 0.05(1.9 − 1) + 0.07(1.1 − 1)

3. COMPUTE vp (USE EQUATION 20-3)

V
vP =
PHF * f G * f HV
1050
vP = = 1396.712 pc/h
(0.85) * (0.93) * (0.951) 131
 Example Problem 2

4. CALCULATE THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE

v p * 0.70 = 1396.712 * 0.70 = 977.698 pc/h
5. CHECK THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE AND
TWO-WAY FLOW RATE AGAINST CAPACITY VALUES OF
1700 pc/h AND 3200 pc/h, RESPECTIVELY
977.698 pc/h < 1700 pc/h
1396.712 pc/h < 3200 pc/h
6. COMPUTE THE FFS (USE EXHIBITS 20-5 AND 20-6 AND
EQUATION 20-2)

FFS = BFFS - f LS − f A
FFS = 55 - 3.7 - 2.5 = 48.8 mi/h

132
 Example Problem 2

7. COMPUTE THE AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED (USE EXHIBIT

20-11 AND EQUATION 20-5)

ATS = FFS - 0.00776 v p − f np

ATS = 48.8 - 0.00776 (1396.712) − 1.207 = 36.747 mi/h

8. DETERMINE THE GRADE ADJUSTMENT FACTOR FOR

PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING (USE EXHIBIT 20-8)
f G = 0.94
9. COMPUTE fHV FOR PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING
(USE EXHIBIT 20-10 AND EQUATION 20-4)
1
f HV = = 0.976
1 + 0.05(1.5 − 1) + 0.07(1.0 − 1)
133
 Example Problem 2

10. COMPUTE vp (USE EQUATION 20-3)

1050
vp = = 1346.458 pc/h
(0.85)(0.94)(0.976)
11. CALCULATE THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE.
v p * 0.70 = 1346.458 * 0.70 = 942.52 pc/h
12. CHECK THE HIGHEST DIRECTIONAL FLOW RATE AND
TWO-WAY FLOW RATE AGAINST CAPACITY VALUES OF
1700 pc/h AND 3200 pc/h, RESPECTIVELY.

942.52 pc/h < 1700 pc/h

1346.458 pc/h < 3200 pc/h
134
 Example Problem 2

13. COMPUTE THE BASE PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING

(USE EQUATION 20-7)
BPTSF = 100 (1 - e
-0.000879vp
)
BPTSF = 100 (1 - e -0.000879(1346.458) ) = 69.38%

14. COMPUTE THE PERCENT TIME-SPENT-FOLLOWING (USE

EXHIBIT 20-12 AND EQUATION 20-6).
Use fd/np value at Vp
PTSF = BPTSF + f d/np
PTSF = 69.38 + 7.926 = 77.306%
15. DETERMINE LOS (USE EXHIBIT 20-4)

PTSF = 77.306%
LOS D
135
 Example Problem 2

OTHER PERFORMANCE MEASURES

vp 1396.712
v/c = = = 0.436 → volume capacity ratio
3200 3200

Total travel on the analysis segment

during the peak 15 - min period (Eq. 20 - 9)
 V   1050 
VMT15 = 0.25  Lt = 0.25 6 = 1852.9 veh - mi
 PHF   0.85 
Total travel on the analysis segment
during the peak hour (Eq. 20 - 10)
VMT60 = V * Lt = (1050)6 = 6300 veh - mi

Total travel time for all vehicles on the analyzed segment

during the peak 15 - min period (Eq. 20 - 11)
VMT15 1852.9
TT15 = = = 50.452 veh - h
ATS 36.727
136
1

137
1

138
1 2

1 2
139
1

140
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141
1

142
2

143
 Urban Street
Freeway

Multilane Rural
suburban highways

Urban
streets

Local
streets

144
 Urban Street

Difference

Street Control Character and

function conditions intensity of
roadside
development

Arterial streets → roads that primarily serve longer through trips. However,
providing access to abutting commercial and residential land uses is
also an important function of arterials.

Collector streets → provide both land access and traffic circulation within
residential, commercial, and industrial areas. Their access function is
more important than that of arterials, and unlike arterials their
operation is not always dominated by traffic signals.

145
 Urban Street

Downtown streets → signalized facilities that often resemble arterials. They

not only move through traffic but also provide access to local
businesses for passenger cars, transit buses, and trucks. Turning
movements at downtown intersections are often greater than 20 percent
of total traffic volume because downtown flow typically involves a
substantial amount of circulatory traffic. Pedestrian conflicts and lane
obstructions created by stopping or standing taxicabs, buses, trucks,
and parking vehicles that cause turbulence in the traffic flow are typical
of downtown streets. Downtown street function may change with the
time of day; some downtown streets are converted to arterial-type
operation during peak traffic hours.

• Multilane suburban and rural highways differ from urban streets in

the following ways: roadside development is not as intense, density
of traffic access points is not as high, and signalized intersections
are more than 2 mi apart. These conditions result in a smaller
number of traffic conflicts, smoother flow, and dissipation of the
platoon structure associated with traffic flow on an arterial or
collector with traffic signals.
146
 Urban Street

Flow Characteristics
is influenced by three main factors: street environment,
interaction among vehicles, and traffic control. As a
result, these factors also affect quality of service.
• The street environment includes the geometric characteristics of the
facility, the character of roadside activity, and adjacent land uses. Thus,
the environment reflects the number and width of lanes, type of
median, driveway/access-point density, spacing between signalized
intersections, existence of parking, level of pedestrian activity, and
speed limit.

• The interaction among vehicles is determined by traffic density, the

proportion of trucks and buses, and turning movements. This
interaction affects the operation of vehicles at intersections and, to a
lesser extent, between signals.

• Traffic control (including signals and signs) forces a portion of all

vehicles to slow or stop. The delays and speed changes caused by
traffic control devices reduce vehicle speeds; however, such controls
are needed to establish right-of-way. 147
 Urban Street
Free-Flow Speed

• The street environment affects the driver’s speed choice. When vehicle
interaction and traffic control are not factors, the speed chosen by the average
driver is referred to as the free-flow speed (FFS). FFS is the average speed of
the traffic stream when traffic volumes are sufficiently low that drivers are not
influenced by the presence of other vehicles and when intersection traffic
control (i.e., signal or sign) is not present or is sufficiently distant as to have no
effect on speed choice. As a consequence, FFS is typically observed along
midblock portions of the urban street segment.

Running Speed

• A driver can seldom travel at the FFS. Most of the time, the presence of other
vehicles restricts the speed of a vehicle in motion because of differences in
speeds among drivers or because downstream vehicles are accelerating from a
stop and have not yet reached FFS. As a result, vehicle speeds tend to be lower
than the FFS during moderate to high-volume conditions.

• One speed characteristic that captures the effect of interaction among vehicles
is the average running speed. This speed is computed as the length of the
segment divided by the average running time. The running time is the time
taken to traverse the street segment, less any stop-time delay.
148
 Urban Street
Travel Speed

• The presence of traffic control on a street segment tends to reduce

vehicle speeds below the average running speed. A speed
characteristic that captures the effect of traffic control is average travel
speed. This speed is computed as the length of segment divided by the
average travel time. The travel time is the time taken to traverse the
street segment, inclusive of any stop-time delay.

Peak-Hour Factor

• In the absence of field measurements of peak-hour factor (PHF),

approximations can be used. For congested conditions, 0.92 is a
reasonable approximation for PHF. For conditions in which there is
fairly uniform flow throughout the peak hour but a recognizable peak
does occur, 0.88 is a reasonable estimate for PHF.

149
 Urban Street

Length of Analysis Period

The analytical procedures for estimating speed for an urban street depend
on the estimation of delay for the signalized and unsignalized
intersections on the street. The delay equations for signalized and
unsignalized intersections are most accurate when the demand is less
than capacity for the selected analysis period. If the demand exceeds
capacity, the intersection delay equations will estimate the delay for all
vehicles arriving during the analysis period but will not determine the
effect of the excess demand (the residual queue for the next period) on
the vehicles arriving during the next analysis period.

The typical analysis period is 15 min. However, if demand creates a

residual queue for the 15-min analysis period (i.e., v/c greater than 1.00),
the analyst should consider the use of multiple analysis periods or a single
longer analysis period to improve the delay estimate.

150
151
Signalized Intersection

Time-space plot of vehicles

on the northbound approach
to the intersection. The
intervals for the signal cycle
are indicated in the diagram.

Repeats the timing

intervals and labels the
various time intervals of
interest with the symbols

Idealized plot of flow rate

passing the stop line,
indicating how saturation
flow is defined
Signalized Intersection
 Signalized Intersection

The signal cycle for a given lane group has two simplified components:

• Effective green time is the time that may be used by vehicles

on the subject lane group at the saturation flow rate.
• Effective red time is defined as the cycle length minus the
effective green time.
 Signalized Intersection

At the beginning of green, the start-up losses are called start-up lost time
(l1). At the beginning of the yellow, when vehicles tend to continue to
enter the intersection for a short period of time, an extension of
effective green (e) is experienced. When this extension of green has
been exhausted, the remainder of the change and clearance interval
is considered to be clearance lost time (l2). The lost time for a lane
group, tL, is the sum of the start-up and clearance lost times.
 Signalized Intersection

Research (2) has shown that start-up lost time (l1) is about 2 s and that the
extension of effective green (e) is about 2 s (sometimes longer under
congested conditions). Thus, the relationship shown in Equation 10-1 exists for
typical conditions, and the relationship among actual green, lost time,
extension of effective green, and effective green is shown in Exhibit 10-10.
When l1 = 2 and e = 2 (typical), then tL = Yi.

tL = l1 + l2 = l1 + Yi – e Equation 10-1