COMPILED NOTES

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION

Meaning of Education
However, education can be understood as the deliberate and systematic influence exerted by a
mature through instruction, and discipline. It means the harmonious development of all the powers of
the human being; physical social, intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual. The essential elements in the
educative process are a creative mind, a well-integrated self, socially useful purposes and experience
related to the interests of the individual, needs and abilities of the individual as a of a social group. In
the historical development of man, education has been the right of a privileged few. It is only in recent
centuries that education has come to be recognized as a human right. All have equal right to be
educated as education has become sine qua non of civilization.

According to Farrant (1980), “Education describes the total process of human learning by which
knowledge is imparted, faculties trained, and skills developed” (p.18). Education encompasses all
forms of learning both in school and out of school. These forms of learning can be categorized as
informal, formal and non-formal education (Farrant, 1980; Best, Griffiths & Hope, 2000).
1. Informal education takes place from birth until death. It is the form of learning through which
one acquires knowledge, skills and attitudes from the family, church, mass media.

2. Formal education is equated with schooling. It is scheduled, structured, meant for a specified
period within an institution, with a set curriculum, timetabled sessions, and trained
professionals (Knight, 1998).

3. Non-formal education is voluntary and flexible. It is delivered through moderately structured

programmes that include clubs, youth groups, part-time sessions, evening classes and
correspondence schools. Whatever the form of education, the aim is to ensure that individuals
develop the competencies needed in order to function effectively in the real world.

Dimensions of Education
There are mainly four dimensions of education namely: The cognitive dimension, the normative
dimension, the creative dimension and the dialogical dimension.
1. The Cognitive Dimension of Education
This dimension defines education in terms of learning and schooling. Psychologists, generally
distinguish between two types of learning namely: Associative learning and Cognitive learning.
Associative learning: This implies a stimulus response pattern and the formation of conditioned
associations.

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Cognitive learning: This is characterized by concept formation, cognitive learning, operational and
formal thinking.
Education must involve the development of knowledge and understanding. Any reference to education
presupposes the acquisition of knowledge, facts, skills, ideas, principles etc. It involves intellectual
activities like thinking, judging, reasoning, perceiving, deciding e.g. If an activity does not involve
intellectual process, then education cannot be said to have taken place. It involves abstraction,
discrimination, intuition and imagination.
2. The Normative Dimension of Education
Education should involve Socialization. Education takes place in a social setting and serves social
functions. Education as Socialization is the acquisition of Knowledge, values, attitudes, skills to make
learners acceptable members of society. These values and skills are passed from one generation to the
next. The aims (objectives), content and methods of education are socially determined. The norms and
values transmitted ought to address the mind/the understanding level as opposed to mere habit
formation.
3. The Creative Dimension
Education should involve the development of individuality. Education should encourage the
development of individual unique capacities. Education should make the individual creative rather than
a docile recipient of knowledge should make one a tool, user rather that make one a tool. Education
should encourage self-esteem, self–reliance, self–determination, self–expression and individual
growth. Education that places emphasis on knowledge only may produce a person who is too academic
but lacking social training (well educated). Whenever people see unbecoming behaviour, the question
becomes: ‘where did you go to school? This is because schools are expected to make one social.
Besides being academically endowed, an educated person should actively participate as a creative
agent.
4. Dialogical dimension
Education should involve dialogue. Education is essentially a process of communication between the
learner and the environment as well as between the learner and teacher. Education as dialogue
encourages mutual respect, understanding, free debate and co-operation between learner and teacher.
Methods that hinder free and active participation of both teacher and learners negate proper education.
The methods should neither be too permissive nor too authoritarian.
General Aims of Education

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Taylor (1970) says that the aims of education system in any country are to be found in the values and
purposes of those who control the state. For Shiundu and Omulando (1992), aims of education must
specify precisely what qualities and values are thought most desirable to develop among the citizens

1. To Promote National Unity

To promote this in our society we must live and interest as one. In Kenya to promote this unity though
they have different race, religion but they establish two national languages so that anything can fit and
provide with to each other to be countable e.g Kiswahiri and English. It also helps the youth to acquire
sense of removing conflicts and promote attitude and mutual respect.
2. To Promote Social, Economic, Technological and Industrial needs for National Development
Education should prepare the youth play effective and productive role in national development.
Social
In terms of social education must prepare the youth for changes in the attitudes and abilities which are
necessary for rapid development. Education should assist the youth to adapt to this change. Teachers
should help the youth to differential and adapt the good.

Economic
Education should produce citizens with skills, knowledge expertise and support the nation in terms of
economy. In Kenya they are building of a model and independent economic in the youth. The grant is
trying to give much attention and skills training to increase small scale industries e.g. Agriculture.

Technology and Industries

To provide the youth with necessary skills and attitudes for industrial development. As technology
increases in the world wide, it also requires for each country to equip their growth with adequate skills
e. g ICT Centres and Computer in schools. This also applies to the teachers must know how or be
aware to all changes to move with signs of time.

3. To Promote Individual and Self-development

Education should promote opportunity to individual’s talents and personality. It should assist learners
to develop their potential interest and ability. To be learners of dependence and to learn some skills and
to be self-employed.

4. Promote Respect and Development for Kenyans Alert and varied Cultures

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Education should instill in the youth of Kenya on understanding about the past and present cultures in
the contemporarily society. Children should be able to blend the best of traditional values with the
changed requirement that follows rapid development in order to build a stable and modern society.

5. Education should also Encourage non-formal curricular activities e.g. music, sports among the

schools in the country or cultural integration.

6. Education should aim at holistic development of the people namely social, economic,
intellectual, spiritual, psychological and emotional (material and spiritual).
This development can be created through the development of various programmes like science
education, geography work-experience, Technical and management education, mass media and
educational technology, sports and physical education, environmental education and value education.

7. Development of society through empowered Human Resource

Education should aim at the development of man-power or human resource for fitting into different
layers of economy for their fabulous and enriched contribution to the development of nation. Equip
them with leadership skills important for the growth of the nation. Inculcating the feeling of
international co-operation and peaceful co-existence in the minds of students

8. Education should therefore make students self-confident and self-dependent

Develop the character of the person. Bring out the full potential of the person and prepare them for life.
Promote social and national development. Producing transformative citizens who would work for
desirable changes in the society.

MEANING AND SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY

Thus, the scope of philosophy of education includes following.
a). Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy: Education critically evaluates the different aims and
ideals of education. These aims and ideals have been prorogated by various philosophers in different
times. They are character building, man making, harmonious human development, preparation for
adult life, development of citizenship, utilization of leisure, training for civic life, training for
international living, achieving social and national integration, -scientific and technological
development, education for all, equalizing educational opportunities, strengthening democratic
political order and human source development. Thus, philosophy of education critically evaluates
different aims and ideals of education to arrive at.

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b). Interpretation of Human Nature: A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the
synthesis of the facts borrowed from all the human science with the values discussed in different
normative, sciences. The philosophical picture, therefore, is broader as compared to the picture of man
drawn by biology, sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology and other human science.
c). Educational Values: Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract, integral
and universal. Philosophy-of education not only critically evaluates the values but also systematizes
them in a hierarchy. Educational values are' determined by philosophical values. Educational values
propagated by different philosophers have been derived from their own world, view and their outlook
on the purpose of human life. Therefore, a scrutiny of the world views, outlook, and beliefs is the
specific function of philosophy and it is necessary for the philosophical treatment of the values.
d). Theory of Knowledge: Education is related to knowledge. It is determined by the source, limits,
criteria and means of knowledge. The discussion of all these falls within the jurisdiction of
epistemology, one of the branches of philosophy, therefore, an important area of the functioning of
philosophy of education is related to theory of knowledge.
e). Relationship of education and various area of national life and various components of the
system of education: One of the most important contributions of the philosophy of education to the
cause of education is the provision of criteria for deciding the relationship of state and education,
economic system and education, curriculum, school organization and management, discipline etc.
These problems have led to the evaluation of different philosophies of education. The criteria of
judgment everywhere are determined by philosophy; therefore, philosophy of education provides the
criteria for critical evaluation and judgment in these fields.

Concept of Philosophy of Education

All human societies, past and present, have had a vested interest in education; and some wits
have claimed that teaching (at its best an educational activity) is the second oldest profession.
Education equips individuals with the skills and substantive knowledge that allows them to define and
to pursue their own goals, and also allows them to participate in the life of their community as full-
fledged, autonomous citizens. But this is to cast matters in very individualistic terms, and it is fruitful
also to take a societal perspective, where the picture changes somewhat. It emerges that in pluralistic
societies such as the Western democracies there are some groups that do not wholeheartedly support
the development of autonomous individuals, for such folk can weaken a group from within by thinking
for themselves and challenging communal norms and beliefs; from the point of view of groups whose
survival is thus threatened, formal, state-provided education is not necessarily a good thing. But in
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other ways even these groups depend for their continuing survival on educational processes, as do the
larger societies and nation-states of which they are part. Education equips individuals with the skills
and substantive knowledge that allows them to define and to pursue their own goals, and also allows
them to participate in the life of their community as full-fledged, autonomous citizens. John Dewey put
it in the opening chapter of his classic work Democracy and Education (1916), in its broadest sense
education is the means of the social continuity of life.
Dewey pointed out that the primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the
constituent members in a social group make education a necessity, for despite this biological
inevitability, the life of the group goes on. The great social importance of education is underscored,
too, by the fact that when a society is shaken by a crisis, this often is taken as a sign of educational
breakdown; education, and educators, become scapegoats. It is not surprising that such an important
social domain has attracted the attention of philosophers for thousands of years, especially as there are
complex issues aplenty that have great philosophical interest.
The following are some issues that philosophers have deeply thought about and philosophy is
still in the process of answering these questions. Is Education as transmission of knowledge versus
education as the fostering of inquiry and reasoning skills that are conducive to the development of
autonomy (which, roughly, is the tension between education as conservative and education as
progressive, and also is closely related to differing views about human perfectibility issues that
historically have been raised in the debate over the aims of education); the question of what this
knowledge, and what these skills, ought to be part of the domain of philosophy of the curriculum; the
questions of how learning is possible, and what is it to have learned something two sets of issues that
relate to the question of the capacities and potentialities that are present at birth, and also to the process
(and stages) of human development and to what degree this process is flexible and hence can be
influenced or manipulated; the tension between liberal education and vocational education, and the
overlapping issue of which should be given priority education for personal development or education
for citizenship (and the issue of whether or not this is a false dichotomy); the differences (if any)
between education and enculturation; the distinction between educating versus teaching versus training
versus indoctrination; the relation between education and maintenance of the class structure of society,
and the issue of whether different classes or cultural groups can justly be given educational programs
that differ in content or in aims; the issue of whether the rights of children, parents, and socio-cultural
or ethnic groups, conflict and if they do, the question of whose rights should be dominant; the question
as to whether or not all children have a right to state-provided education, and if so, should this

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education respect the beliefs and customs of all groups and how on earth would this be accomplished;
and a set of complex issues about the relation between education and social reform, centering upon
whether education is essentially conservative, or whether it can be an (or, the) agent of social change.
It is here that that philosophy of education plays an important role in providing direction to
education on the following issues as well as providing a theory of knowledge for education to work
upon. Philosophy of education is essentially a method of approaching educational experience rather
than a body of conclusions. It is the specific method which makes it philosophical. Philosophical
method is critical, comprehensive and synthetic. Therefore, 1) Philosophy of education is the criticism
of the general theory of education. 2) It consists of critical evaluation and systematic reflection upon
general theories. 3) It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values. In brief, it is a
philosophical process of solving educational problems through philosophical method, from a
philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions and results. Thus, it aims at achieving
general as well as comprehensive results

General Philosophy versus Technical Philosophy

The philosopher’s world is very curious and odd because it consists of two worlds: the wide world of
general philosophy and the smaller world of philosophers.
Technical philosophy
This is referred to as formal/academic philosophy. In this sense, it is an academic discipline
comprising of specialized content, methods and specialists known as philosophers. In a technical sense,
philosophy refers to process and product. As a process, it refers to the activity of vigorous thinking
concerning perplexing questions/issues of life. Product refers to the outcome of such thinking i.e.,
established systems of thought, views and ideas. Technical philosophy applies to few people;
individuals who are committed to scrutinizing issues, problems going beyond the surface common
sense aspects to their logical composition. This small world has evolved from the large world of
philosophy characterized by the following factors:
i) Formalization: It is a process whereby a definite form is given to a variety of human activities; form
refers to the presence of a structure, pattern or system. Formalization in our context in philosophy
refers to formalization of thought.
ii) Westernization: Western civilization has greatly influenced the field of learning to an extent that
philosophy is attributed to Western philosophers. As a result of this, Western philosophy is assumed to
be the standard of technical philosophy.

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iii) Specialization: Refers to the acquisition of exceptional knowledge of, or skills in a given
discipline/subject as a result of constant and intensive study. In ancient Greece, a philosopher was a
scholar who specialized in the exploration of the nature of man and the world.
General Philosophy
Universality of philosophy means that philosophy as a human response can be found in every period of
history in every culture/society on earth. Doing philosophy is not a preoccupation of scholars only but
all humanity because they all question their humanity, human condition and experiences of life.
Africans expressing their traditional thought through stories, riddles and proverbs is as much part of
philosophy as books by renown philosophers e.g., Plato in The Republic. One’s philosophy of life e.g.
to be a farmer, teacher, carpenter etc. is as much philosophy as national philosophies e.g. Kenya’s
Nyayo Philosophy, Tanzania’s Ujamaa philosophy. All these belong to the wide word of general
philosophy because they express man’s response to life though quite varied and with limitations. A
thought is considered philosophical in character because of its authenticity of thought. The term
authenticity comes from Greek ‘authentes’ meaning one who does things himself (autos). It thus
implies thinking that is independent, genuine, original, critical and sincere giving a personal answer to
a personal question through a personal struggle.

What is Educational Philosophy?

Educational philosophy is philosophy applied to education as a specific area of human
endeavor. It involves bringing those critical reflections which characterize philosophy in general to
influence and direct the range of experiences and possessions that may be referred to as education.
Functions of Philosophy of Education
Philosophy of education performs various functions such as:
a). Determining the aims of education: Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all
aspects of education particularly educational aims. It is said that educational philosophy gives different
views, but this situation is not harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to the need of
society. The difference in view of philosophy of education reflects the multiplicity and diversities of
human life. Philosophy of education guides the process of education by suggesting suitable aims from
the diversities of life and selecting the means accordingly.
b). Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education: In the process of social
development the old traditions become outdated for the people. They are replaced by the new
traditions. But this process of replacement is not always smooth. It is faced with lots of opposition

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from certain orthodox sections of the society. At the same time it must be kept in mind that every 'old'
is not outdated and every 'new' is not perfect Therefore, there is a need of co-coordinating the two in
order to maintain the harmony between both. This function can be performed by philosophy of
education.

c). Providing the educational planners, administrators and educators with the progressive vision
to achieve educational development: Spencer has rightly pointed that only a true philosopher can
give a practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides the educational planners,
administrators and educators with the right vision which guides them to attain the educational goals
efficiently.

d). Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of the modern time: Social
commentators have given many labels to the present period of history for some it is the information
age and for others it is post modernity, later modernity, high modernity or even the age of uncertainty.
One more addition to this list may be that 'present age is an age of Globalization as a phenomenon
arrived on the economic scene in the 1990 in India. This watchword has had its implications in the
social political, economic fabric of the country of which education is a part. Philosophy of education is
a guiding, steering and liberating force that helps young people to and society at large to face the
challenges of the modern time.

WEEK 2: MODES/SYLES OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is an activity with three modes or styles namely: Speculative, Prescriptive and Analytic.
1. Speculative Philosophy
Speculative philosophy is a way of thinking systematically about everything that exists. It tries to
understand how all the different things that have been discovered together form some sort of
meaningful totality. Speculative philosophy is then a search for order and wholesomeness applied not
to particular items or experience. It is an attempt to find coherence in the whole realm of thoughts and
experience.
2. Prescriptive Philosophy
This seeks to establish standards for assessing values, judging conduct and appraising art. It examines
what we mean by good or bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly. It asks whether these qualities are
in things themselves or whether they are projections of our minds.

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 To the experimental psychologists the varieties of human conduct are orally either good or bad.
They are simply forms of behaviour to be studied empirically. But to the educator and the prescriptive
philosopher some forms of behaviour are worthwhile and others are not.
3. Analytic Philosophy
Analytic philosophy focuses on words and meaning. The analytic philosopher examines such notions
as “causes”, “mind”, “academic freedom”, “quality of opportunity”, etc. in order to assess the different
contexts, he shows how inconsistencies may arise when meanings appropriate in certain contexts are
imported into others. The analytic philosopher tends to be sceptical, cautious and disinclined to build
system of thought.

UNIT CODE: 301 UNIT NAME: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION (WEEK 3-5)

MAJOR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY AND THEIR APPLICATION TO EDUCATION

The Main Branches of Philosophy are divided as to the nature of the questions asked in each
area. The integrity of these divisions cannot be rigidly maintained, for one area overlaps into the
others.

1: Axiology:

Axiology is the study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. More
often than not, the term "value theory" is used instead of "axiology" in contemporary discussions even
though the term “theory of value” is used with respect to the value or price of goods and services in
economics.

Some significant questions in axiology include the following:

 Nature of value: Is value a fulfillment of desire, a pleasure, a preference, a behavioral

disposition, or simply a human interest of some kind?
 Criteria of value: There's no accounting for tastes or do objective standards apply?
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  Status of value: How are values related to (scientific) facts? What ultimate worth, if any, do
human values have?
It is the philosophical/rational study of values. The term is derived from Greek words logia (study) and
axia (values). It is subdivided into the following sub branches:

i) Ethics or Moral Philosophy: The study of values in human behaviour or the study of moral
problems: e.g., the rightness and wrongness of actions, the kinds of things which are good or desirable,
and whether actions are blameworthy or praiseworthy.

Consider this example analyzed by J. O. Urmson in his well-known essay, “Saints and Heroes”:

"We may imagine a squad of soldiers to be practicing the throwing of live hand grenades; a grenade
slips from the hand of one of them and rolls on the ground near the squad; one of them sacrifices his
life by throwing himself on the grenade and protecting his comrades with his own body. It is quite
unreasonable to suppose that such a man must be impelled by the sort of emotion that he might be
impelled by if his best friend were in the squad."

Did the soldier who threw himself on the grenade do the right thing? If he did not cover the grenade,
several soldiers might be injured or be killed. His action probably saved lives; certainly, an action
which saves lives is a morally correct action. One might even be inclined to conclude that saving lives
is a duty. But if this were so, wouldn't each of the soldiers have the moral obligation or duty to save his
comrades? Would we thereby expect each of the soldiers to vie for the opportunity to cover the
grenade?

ii) Aesthetics: The study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or standards of
beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with judgments of sense, taste, and
emotion. Philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty, art.

Example, Is art an intellectual or representational activity? Does art represent sensible objects or ideal
objects? Is artistic value objective? Is it merely coincidental that many forms in architecture and
painting seem to illustrate mathematical principles? Are there standards of taste? Is there a clear
distinction between art and reality?

iii) Social and cultural philosophy: Study of values related to societies and cultures.
iv) Political philosophy: Deals with study of politics, governance etc.
The philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values fall under three
categories:
Objective: Values considered to be universal e.g., good, truth, beauty, freedom, love.
Relative: Values that depends on personal preference.
Hierarchical: Ordering values from the least desirable to the most desirable.
Philosophical reflection on values becomes necessary when people are no longer certain about what is
important, worthwhile valuable for one’s life. It’s applied when people are faced with conflicting
moral standards or confronted with radically opposed ideologies that call for the need for one to think
about the foundation of morality and the society. Ethics/moral philosophy have a great link with
education.
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Contributions of Axiology to Education

Axiology is the study of value and value in turn is what we want, cherish, desire, need,
appreciate or our preference. Viewed in this perspective, education is a value, both intrinsic and
extrinsic. It is intrinsic because it is preferred rather than lack of it. It is positive and implies a positive
state of mind, it is commendatory. To say that one is educated is to imply that one has attained high
position of honour and respect not for any material thing or instrumental thing. Education is also a
value extrinsic when viewed for its material end. It elevates one, gives recognition, prestige, provides
avenue for social mobility, status, fat salary and a host of material benefits associated with education.
The most important however, is the intrinsic value of education for according to Peters (1966) it is a
worthwhile activity. The importance of education to man cannot be over emphasized. This explains
why it is linked with human survival, as man cannot survive without some form of education.
One of the distinguishing features of man from other lower animals is the acquisition of
education as man is the only animal that receives education. Man has so many attributes, which include
being a social animal, a rational being which has implications for axiology. It is through education man
gets fulfillment of these qualities of humanness. It does not follow as of necessity that man will always
behave rationally or take into consideration others in the society. This brings about the role of
education. The chief and most fundamental function of education is to shape man by drawing out and
developing what is distinctively human in him. Education aims at the perfection of the individual
through the location, manifestation and development of his potentialities as a human being.
Axiology Values abound everywhere in education. They are involved in every aspect of school
practice, basic to all matters of choice and decision making. Using values, teachers evaluate students
and students evaluate teachers, Society evaluates courses of study, school programmes and teaching
competence. The society itself is evaluated by educators. When we pass judgment on an educational
practice, when we estimate the worth of an education policy, we are making value judgment
Ethics views education as a moral enterprise. Teachers are always drawing attention to what
ought to be said and done and how students ought to behave. They are concerned with imparting moral
values and improving individual and social behaviour.
Aesthetics being the study of values and realm of beauty, aesthetic values are difficult to access
because they are likely to be personal and subjective. However, aesthetics can be applied to the process
of teaching and learning. In so far as aesthetics is concerned, the teacher should select materials that
are attractive to the general class. The teacher himself should not look clumsy. Unattractive class
learning makes the learners unable to learn.

In terms of content philosophy is concerned with four distinct areas of study, which are usually called
the four branches of philosophy. These are Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic, and Axiology.

2: Logic

It refers to the study of correct reasoning. Logic is the study of correct reasoning. However, the
subject is grounded, the task of the logician is the same: to advance an account of valid and fallacious
inference to allow one to distinguish. It deals with the structure and principles of sound arguments. On
our daily basis, individuals are engaged in various forms of arguments, where premises/statements are
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made and conclusions drawn. In most cases, wrong conclusions are arrived at involving wrong
premises and undue generalizations. Logic is essential because it stipulates how arguments should be
constructed and how fallacies (erroneous beliefs or myths) can be detected and avoided. Within logic,
two forms of reasoning can be distinguished: deductive, inductive, and Symbolic logic.

a). Deductive logic

This involves reasoning from general to particular instances. In this case, a conclusion is
inferred or deduced from general premises/statements/propositions. For example:
i. All PGDE students are untrained teachers
John is a PGDE student
John is an untrained teacher
ii. All human beings are liable to make mistakes
Mike is a human being
Mike makes mistakes
iii. All human beings have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God
Mary is a human being
Mary has sinned and fallen short of the glory of God
The above reasoning has been expressed in syllogism form: the first two statements need to be
stated before the third can follow logically. This type of reasoning is prevalent in philosophy, religion
and mathematics.
b). Inductive logic
This is a process whereby general law or conclusion is inferred from particular instances. It
starts from the particular and reasons to the general. In other words, inductive reasoning proceeds from
a particular to a general idea. If an event or a process is repeated several times and consistently, then
conclusions are drawn. For example, it has been established that for an object to float in water, its
density should be less than one gram per cubic centimetre. Therefore, all objects with such density
must float in water. This law has been held without further inquiry. In modern philosophy, logic is
expressed in two main dimensions:
Symbolic logic: Symbolic logic involving mathematical symbols, application of symbols to explain
phenomena e.g., a + b = 4: b= 4 – a.
Analytic logic: Analytic logic prevalently used by analytic philosophers who emphasize the logical
analysis of language to arrive at clear meanings of terms/concepts. Students studying science, arts or
education should be familiar with the basic rules of logic so as to enable one reason correctly and use
language meaningfully.
Contributions of Logic to Education

Logic may be applied to the act of teaching where teaching is understood to be a special way of
making things known to others. Here teaching is considered as a system of actions varied in form of
content but directed towards learning. It is in the performance of these actions and in the interactions of
the teacher with the learners that learning takes place.

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 These actions and interactions are of course personal but they are also logical, in that they have
a certain structure, a certain order, such that no matter where in the world teaching takes place, it does
so in accordance with operations that reflect the very nature of teaching – learning situation.
What then, are the logical operations and how can they be analyzed? The action of teaching
involves three variables; The teacher’s behaviour which is independent variable. The learner’s
behaviour which is the dependent variable. Various postulated entities, such as memories, beliefs,
needs and inferences which are intervening variables.
The integration of these variables brings about teaching and effective learning. Logic is a
theory of reasoning: the branch of philosophy that deals with the theory of deductive and inductive
arguments and aims to distinguish good from bad reasoning.

3: Epistemology

Epistemology: This the philosophical study of knowledge. In particular, epistemology is the study of
the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek words:
episteme (knowledge) and logia (study). It deals with philosophical reflection on issues related to
knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual knowledge such as that which socio-sciences are
involved. empirical sciences like Psychology and sociology study issues by describing in a factual
manner what they have observed about human knowledge e.g., in cognitive development, a
psychologist will talk about how it differs in relation to age, individual and the society.

 Epistemology investigates the origin, structure, methods, and integrity of knowledge.

 Consider the degree of truth of the statement, "The earth is round." Does its truth depend upon
the context in which the statement is uttered? For example, this statement can be successively
more accurately translated as:
 "The earth is spherical"
 "The earth is an oblate spheroid" (i.e., flattened at the poles).
 But what about the Himalayas and the Marianas Trench? Even if we surveyed exactly the shape
of the earth, our process of surveying would alter the surface by the footprints left and the
impressions of the survey stakes and instruments. Hence, the exact shape of the earth cannot be
known. Every rain shower changes the shape.
 (Note here as well the implications for skepticism and relativism: simply because we cannot
exactly describe the exact shape of the earth, the conclusion does not logically follow that the
earth does not have a shape.)
 Furthermore, consider two well-known problems in epistemology:

Russell's Five-Minute-World Hypothesis: Suppose the earth were created five minutes ago, complete
with memory images, history books, records, etc., how could we ever know of it? As Russell wrote in
The Analysis of Mind, "There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into
being five minutes ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that "remembered" a wholly unreal
past. There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore nothing
that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis that the world began
five minutes ago." For example, an omnipotent God could create the world with all the memories,
historical records, and so forth five minutes ago. Any evidence to the contrary would be evidence
created by God five minutes ago.

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Suppose everything in the universe (including all spatial relations) were to expand uniformly a
thousand times larger. How could we ever know it? A moment's thought reveals that the mass of
objects increases by the cube whereas the distance among them increases linearly. Hence, if such an
expansion were possible, changes in the measurement of gravity and the speed of light would be
evident, if, indeed, life would be possible.

Russell's Five-Minute-World Hypothesis is a philosophical problem; the impossibility of the objects in

the universe expanding is a scientific problem since the latter problem can, in fact, be answered by
principles of elementary physics.

Types of knowledge are;

a). Revealed knowledge
Revealed knowledge may be described as knowledge that God has disclosed to man. In his
omniscience, God inspired certain men to write down truths that he revealed to them, so that these
truths might be known thereafter by all mankind. For Christians and Jews, the word of God is
contained in the Bible, for Muslims in the Qur’an, for Hindus in the Bhagavad-Gita and the
Upanishads. Because it is the word of God, it is true forever.
b). Intuitive knowledge
This refers to knowledge that a person finds within himself in a moment of insight. Insight or
intuition is the sudden eruption into consciousness of an idea or conclusion produced by a long process
of unconsciousness work. All of a sudden, we see the solution to a problem with which our
unconsciousness has been at grip for days, months or even years.
Intuitive knowledge is also described as knowledge that is proposed and accepted on the strength of the
imaginative vision or private experience of the person proposing it. The truths embodied in the works
of arts are a form of intuitive knowledge. All great writers like Homer, William Shakespeare, Ngugi
wa Thiong’o etc tell us truths about the heart of man.
Note: Epistemology seeks to answer such basic questions as "What is true?" and "How do we know?"

c). Rational knowledge

This is the knowledge we obtain by the exercise of reason alone unaccompanied by observation
of actual states of affairs. The principles of formal logic and pure mathematics are paradigms of
rational knowledge. The truth is demonstrated by abstract reasoning alone, e.g., if ‘A’ is greater than
‘B’ and 'B' is greater than ‘C’, then we conclude that ‘A’ is greater than ‘C’. The principles of rational
knowledge may be applied to sense experience, but they are not deducted from it. Rational truths are
valid universally.
d). Empirical knowledge
This knowledge is acquired through senses. By seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling, and tasting
we form our conception of the world around us. Empirical knowledge therefore is composed of ideas
formed in accordance with observed or sensed facts.
e). Authoritative knowledge
This is knowledge that has been accepted because it was vouched for by authorities in the field.
It is made up of facts that have been accepted as true. It is not subject to questioning or criticism. For
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example, we accept that Nairobi is the capital city of Kenya, Washington is the capital city of the
United States of America, light travels in a straight line, the battle of Adowa took place in 1986, etc.
we feel no need to work out for ourselves for example the table of logarithms.
Some views of leading schools of philosophy about knowledge in general and its relation to education.
These leading schools of thought are: Idealistic epistemology, Realist epistemology and Pragmatist
epistemology.
a). Idealist epistemology
The major proponents of idealist epistemology include the African sages namely, Priests from
Egyptian Mystery System those who taught Plato, Socrates and other Greek philosophers. Other
Idealists are Hegel and Immanuel Kant. Plato and Socrates argued that knowledge acquired through
senses must always remain uncertain and incomplete since the material world is only a distorted copy
of a more perfect sphere of being. True knowledge is the product of reason alone for reason is the
faculty that discerns the pure spiritual forms of things beyond their material embodiments.
Hegel argued that knowledge is valid only in so far as it forms a system. Since ultimate reality
is rational and systematic, our knowledge of reality is true to the extent that is too, is systematic. Most
modern idealists uphold the assertions of Immanuel Kant that the essence of knowing is the
composition of meaning and order on information gathered by the senses. The purpose of teaching is to
help the learner to impose order and meaning on the information he is presented with. The learner
should relate this information to his own previous experiences so that what he learns is significant to
him personally.
b). Realist epistemology
Realist epistemologists assert that true knowledge is the knowledge that corresponds to the
world as it is. In the course of time the human race has put together a stock of knowledge whose truth
has repeatedly been confirmed. The most important task of the school is to impart a selection of this
knowledge on the person. The teacher has to decide what subject matter should be studied in class and
transmit it to the learner. To instruct the learner in the knowledge that matters most is the true goal of
education.
c). Pragmatic epistemology
Pragmatic epistemology presents a quite different view from the idealist and realists.
Pragmatists believe that the mind should be active and exploratory. The proponents of pragmatic
epistemology like William Peirce and John Dewey assert that knowledge is produced by a transaction
between man and his environment. An idea can only be true if it is proved to work. According to them
the teacher should construct learning situations around particular problems whose solution will lead his
pupils to a better understanding of their social goal and physical environment.
Contributions of Epistemology to Education

i. Since the business of education is concerned with imparting knowledge, as teachers, we need to
be clear over what knowledge is and how it is related or different from beliefs and opinions. As
we get to appreciate the conceptual differences between knowledge and these related terms, it
will help us to determine what to expect from students.

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 ii. If the central task of education is imparting knowledge, teachers will greatly improve on their
methods of teaching once they understand the different sources of knowledge. Furthermore,
since, as it will be found, no type or source of knowledge is perfect and a combination of
several improves our grasps of what knowledge is. Teachers may apply this in their teaching by
always employing more than one method where possible.
iii. As the teacher in his classroom imparts various types of knowledge, according to his
disciplines, it will be appropriate for the teacher to know the type of knowledge he imparts, the
sources and how much relevance can be placed on them. It is also important that the teacher
should be aware of the ways of cognition (knowing) in his particular subject since every type of
knowledge has its source. Different aspects of epistemology will be examined and attempt to
relate each of them to the study of education.
1. Metaphysics

Metaphysics: Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the
nature of ultimate reality. It asks questions like, What is real? What is the origin of the world? What is
beyond the stars? Metaphysics deals with the so-called first principles of the natural order and "the
ultimate generalizations available to the human intellect." Specifically, metaphysics seeks to identify
and establish the relationships between the categories, if any, of the types of existent things. It asks
questions such as:

 What kinds of things exist? Do only particular things exist or do general things also exist? How
is existence possible? Questions as to identity and change of objects, are you the same person
you were as a baby? as of yesterday? as of a moment ago?
 How do ideas exist if they have no size, shape, or color? (My idea of the Empire State Building
is quite as "small" or as "large" as my idea of a book. I.e., an idea is not extended in space.)
What is space? What is time?
 E.g., Consider the truths of mathematics: in what manner do geometric figures exist? Are
points, lines, or planes real or not? Of what are they made?
 What is spirit? or soul? or matter? space? Are they made up of the same sort of "stuff"?
 When, if ever, are events necessary? Under what conditions are they possible?

Traditionally, metaphysics has been subdivided into four areas namely;

a). Cosmology

Cosmology is the study of the universe or cosmos. The early Greek philosophers were interested in
explaining rationally the origin and nature of the universe. At the time, there existed many myths such
as the ones found in African societies. Thus philosophers addressed themselves to problems related to
time and eternity, to the necessity of the laws of nature etc.
Note: Cosmology is a scientific study of the universe.
b). Theodicy
Theodicy developed gradually out of cosmology. It is closely related to theology, which deals
with religious matters, such as the nature of religious beliefs, the meaning of the supernatural, the
existence of god etc. Theodicy also deals with the religious sphere and inquiries into the ultimate
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meaning of ‘being’, be it God, an absolute spirit or the supra-sensible which cannot be directly
perceived but which can be thought of. This is called pure metaphysics.
Note: Theodicy is defence of God’s goodness. It is an argument in defence of God’s goodness despite
the existence of evil
c). Ontology
This is the philosophical study of ‘being’ of whatever is. According to philosophers, all things,
both living and non-living have one thing in common, ‘being’. Despite this common element, all things
or beings participate in being in different ways.
d). Rational or philosophical psychology
This branch of metaphysics is also referred to as the philosophy of mind. One of its starting
points is the awareness that we perform certain activities such as perceiving, imagining, remembering,
feeling, understanding and willing. These activities are attributed to what is commonly called the
‘mind’ as opposed to the body. A question is raised in this context, with regard to the relationship
between mind and body e.g. whether they are two totally different types of entity. This question
pertains to the famous mind-body problem, which is connected rationally with trying to determine
whether the mind survives the destruction of the body. Attempts to answer questions in this area of
metaphysics are rendered difficult by the complexity of the concepts in order and by the fact that often
there are no clear criteria for determining the meaning of the concepts used by different thinkers.
Contributions of Metaphysics to Education
They border on human existence, conceptions of the world, the essence and purpose of the
world, the purpose of man’s existence in the world. In what way do these metaphysical issues shape
and affect education? This is now what we turn our attention to in this section. Before Socrates’
philosophy, philosophers did not pay great attention to man and his destiny, what he can become and
the purpose of his life in this world. It was Socrates who first recognized that more than the stars,
moon, sun, trees and other inanimate objects; the subject worthy of study is man. Since then, man
became the centre of philosophical studies. In the same vein, the metaphysical issues raised make
meaning only to man. It is man that speculates about the problem of being, substance, essence, reality,
appearance, unity and diversity, etc. with a view to building a coherent picture of the world and his
place in it.
These metaphysical issues pose challenges to man which call for solutions by man himself to
enthrone him as the monarch on the earth. Education is the best instrument for development. As such,
man’s concepts about the universe and its essence or purposes are the ones that he translates into
education in order to better his life. Educational policy, curriculum of study and teaching methodology,
all have their manifestations in metaphysical beliefs. The metaphysical nature of man makes him the
only creature that requires some form of education for survival. This explains why man lives more by
certainty and other lower animals live by chance. There has never been any society that failed to
develop some form of education for its survival. Even long before the advent of colonial masters in
Africa, there existed the traditional African Education system through which societies developed men
and women. Modern nation states enshrined education in their constitutions as fundamental right of
man by virtue of being born human.

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 Metaphysics as a school of thought was developed by early philosophers such as; The African
philosophic sages, John Locke, Galileo, Plato, Thales, and Immanuel among others. To them learning
involves observing things in nature and act according to the observations. A human being is able to
grow, act and learn according to the environment he is brought up in. For example, one might be
bothered with a metaphysical question whether human life has any purpose or whether God exists?
What is the origin of the universe? Failure to answer such questions may lead the learner to conclude
that life has no meaning or like the Biblical philosopher who said that life is useless, it is like chasing
the wind.
Man, through metaphysics search for coherence in the realm of knowledge and experience.
Through knowledge and education, man earns for himself a unique position on earth as the most
favoured of all creatures who live more by certainty than by chance like lower animals. The
metaphysical beliefs of man are translated into education policy, curriculum content and teaching
methodology with a view to capturing the essence or purpose of his life, universe and the type of life
man should live and his role here on earth. · Whereas metaphysics raise unsettled issues in its quest for
reality and its nature, man through his ingenuity has used education to pursue his metaphysical beliefs.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The first foundations of educational philosophy were crafted by hundreds of scholars who
perceived education as significant both to persons and societies to take them over those inevitable
hurdles of convention on one hand and unavoidable human inertia on the other.
Among these philosophical pioneers, a few were always in the vanguard, and the trail they
marked turned out to be an indelible one for their successors to follow. A chronological summary of
the most important and influential western and third world country educational philosophers follows;
Plato (427 – 347 BC)
Aristotle (384 – 322 BC)
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 Rousseau (1712 – 17178)
John Dewey (1859 – 1952)
Rudolf Steiner (1861 – 1925)
B.F Skinner (1904 – 1990)
Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952)
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)
Paulo Freire (1921 – 1997)
John Locke (1632 – 1704)
Julius Nyerere (1922 – 1999)

PLATO (427 – 347 BC)

Though is not the concern of this unit, nevertheless it is worth mentioning that Plato was a
student in Africa from Africans. He studied under the Egyptian Priests in Egypt. Plato is the earliest
important educational thinker. He saw education as the key to creating and sustaining his “Republic”.
He advocated extreme methods i.e. removing children from their mothers’ care and raising them as
wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes,
the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the
less able. According to Plato, Education should be holistic including facts, skills, physical discipline
and rigidly censored music and art.
For Plato, the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Plato believed
that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born to all classes. He
therefore insisted that those suitable gifted children are to be trained by the state so that they may be
qualified to assume the role of the ruling class. What this establishes is essentially a system of selective
public education premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population are by virtue
of their education and inborn educability, sufficient for healthy governance. Plato is considered
foundational for democratic philosophies of education both because later key thinkers treat him as
such, and because, while his methods are autocratic and his motives meritocratic, he nonetheless
prefigures much later democratic philosophy of education. This is different in degree rather than kind
from most versions of, say, with democratic education which has usually assumed that only some
students should be educated to the fullest, while others may, acceptably fall by the wayside. Until
Kings become philosopher or philosophers become kings, there could not be a peaceful society.

ARISTOTLE (384 – 322 BC)

Aristotle wrote a “treatise of education” which only survives through fragments that have come
down to us. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other
works. Aristotle considered nature, habit and reason to be three equally important forces to be
cultivated in education. Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key to develop good habits.
The teacher was to lead the student systematically. This differs, for example, from Socrates’ emphasis
on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (through the comparison is perhaps unfair
since Socrates was dealing with adults).

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 Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects
taught. He explicitly mentions some subjects as being important. These include reading, writing,
mathematics, music, physical education, literature, history and a wide range of science. He also
emphasizes the importance of play. One education’s primary mission according to Aristotle was to
produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. That is why he said, ‘all who have mediated on the art
of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of
youth’.
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712 – 1778)
All that we lack at birth and need when grown up is given, to us by education. This education
comes to us from nature, from men or from things. The internal development of our faculties and the
organs are the education of nature. The use we learn to make of this development is the education of
men. (Cahn 155). These are the words of a man (Jean Jacques Rousseau) who has had a propound
influence on the field of education.
Though Rousseau paid his respect to Plato’s philosophy, he rejected it as impractical due to the
decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development. Whereas Plato
held that people are born with skills appropriate to different caste, Rousseau held that there was one
development process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the
primary manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke’s ‘tabular Rasa’ in that it was an active
process deriving from the child’s nature which drove the child to learn and adopt to its surroundings.
As Rousseau wrote in his book “Emile” all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn
from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults. But, due to the malign influence of corrupt
society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of
removing the child from society, i.e. to a country home, and ultimately conditioning them through
changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.
Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized the potential of a problem of legitimating for teaching. He
advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact
that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion, “I’m bigger than
you”, once children reached the age of reason i.e. about 12 years they would be engaged as free
individuals in the on-going process of their own.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau his contribution to modern education and practice

Influence of Rousseau on education is evident even today. If it is accepted that the child should be
imparted education, while treating him as a child and conservatism should have no place in education,
it is all due to Rousseau. If we talk of vocational or craft being taught to children, the credit goes to
Rousseau. He also laid emphasis on educating the heart along with the mind and hands. In fact, he
brought about a new era in education (Rai 251). His contributions include:

Natural Setting: The essence of Rousseau’s philosophy of education lies in providing natural
environment to the child. It is in this setting that proper development of the child can take place.

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Child-Centeredness: Naturalism gives central position to the child. Accordingly, the teacher should
understand child psychology and guide the educand according to his/her needs and attitudes. Children
should be treated as children and not as miniature adults.

Maximum freedom to the child: Freedom is the watchword of naturalistic education. It is through
freedom that the child-growth takes a natural direction. Children should have a free choice of activities
to gain first-hand experiences.

Happiness and Healthy Mood: Happiness and healthy mood go hand in hand. Happy childhood is an
essential factor in healthy growth. Rousseau believes that education should generate happiness and
healthy mood for the growing child.

Senses – the Gateways of Knowledge: Senses are the gateways of knowledge. For effective learning,
adequate sensory experiences should be provided to the child.

Instincts – the basis of education: Rousseau’s education regards instincts as the basis of all
education. The teacher should fully exploit child’s instincts and try to modify this behaviour. It is
through education that the child’s animal behaviour should be transformed into human behaviour.

Education as a process: Thus, for Rousseau, education is no longer a harsh, artificial, unsympathetic
procedure, by which a child as a little man is made into a big man through the hands of his teacher. It
is through allowing natural forces to have their way, that this process becomes an enjoyable, rational,
and harmoniously balanced one. For Rousseau, the end is reached, not with adult life, but with each
succeeding day, whenever life has its natural activities, its appropriate duties and its corresponding
satisfactions.

The child as the positive factor in education: To Rousseau belongs the honour of deriving his
educational theories from the nature of the child. It is with Rousseau, that education finds its purpose,
its process and its means wholly within the life and experience of the child. An appropriate
development of childhood is the purpose of each particular stage of education. The child’s nature and
growth are to determine the process, and the child’s experience is to furnish the means (Monroe 295).

Lastly, in Rousseau’s teaching that education should prepare the individual to live in a society wherein
each should contribute by his own labour to his own support, should be bound by sympathy to all his
fellow men and by benevolence to all that needed his aid, he laid the sociological tendencies in
education.

We could go on; all we want to do is to establish what a far reaching gift Rousseau gave. We may well
disagree with various aspects of his scheme, but there can be no denying his impact then, and now. It
may well be, as Darling (1994: 17) has argued, that the history of child-centred educational theory is a
series of footnotes to Rousseau.

John Dewey (1859 – 1952)

John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer, whose
thoughts and ideas have been greatly influential in the United States and around the world. He, along

22
with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James is recognized as one of the founders of the
philosophical school of pragmatism. He was a leading representative of the progressive movement in
U.S schooling during the first half of the 20th century. He was born in Burlington, Vermont of modest
family origins. He graduated from the University of Vermont in 1879. After receiving his Ph.D from
the school of Arts and Sciences at John’s Hopkins University in 1884, he took a faculty position at the
University of Michigan with the help of George Sylvester Morris.
In 1894, Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago where he shaped his belief in
an empirically based theory of knowledge aligning his ideals with the newly emerging pragmatic
school of thought. His time at the University of Chicago resulted in four essays collectively entitled
“Thought and its subject – matter” which was published collected works from his colleagues at
Chicago under the collective title “Studies in Logical Theory” (1903).
During this time Dewey also founded the University of Chicago Laboratory schools where he
was able to actualize his pedagogical beliefs which provide material for his first major work on
education, “The school and society (1899). Disagreements with the administration ultimately led to his
resignation from the University at which point he left for the East Coast. From 1904, he was professor
of philosophy at both Columbia University and Teachers College; He was a long – time member of the
American Federation of Teachers.
Educational Philosophy
As seen in his “Democracy and Education” Dewey sought to at once synthesize, and expand
upon the democratic or proto – democratic educational philosophies of Rousseau and Plato. He saw
Rousseau’s Philosophy as over emphasizing the society in which the individual lived. For Dewey, this
distinction was by and large a false one. Like Vygotsky he viewed the mind and its formation as a
common process. Thus, the individual is only a meaningful concept when regarded as an inextricable
part of his or her society, and the society has no meaning apart from its realization in the lives of its
individual members. However, as evidenced in his later “Experience and Nature” Dewey recognizes
the importance of the subjective experience of individual people in introducing revolutionary new
ideals.
For Dewey, it was vitally important that education should not be the teaching of mere “dead
facts” but that the skills and knowledge which students learned be integrated fully into their lives as
persons, citizens and human beings. This practical element, learning by doing, sprang from his
subscription to the philosophical school of pragmatism. He then created his famous Lincoln School in
Manhattan that failed a short time later.
Dewey is often cited as creating the foundations for outcomes – based education and standards
– based education reforms and of which emphasize critical thinking over memorization of facts. The
central concept of John Dewey’s view of education was that greater emphasis should be placed on the
broadening of intellect and development of problem solving and critical thinking skills rather than
simply on the memorization of lessons. This is because Dewey saw the public schools’ relation to
society was much like a repair organ to the organism of society. One of the Dewey’s main theories was
the incorporation of the student’s past experiences into the classroom. This was a job of both the
educator and the caretaker. The quality of experience growing off prior ones, Education would not be
able to use these experiences to reflect the past work through the present and prepare for the future.
Dewey’s major Educational Ideas in Summary
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  Dewey says education is a process of developing problem-solving techniques.
 He says education should assist people to discover knowledge for themselves.
 The constructional process should be flexible with a concern for individual differences.
 Teachers are there to build on existing knowledge not to pour on empty vessels.
 The teacher has to identify the needs of the learner and to serve as a resource person.
 Knowledge is acquired through interaction with the environment.
 There should be democracy in the classroom (the classroom should not resemble a military
camp, where pupils feel they are in military discipline).
 The school should not be divorced from the home environment; it should be an extension of
the home.
 Teaching should be for the present since the future is uncertain and unpredictable.
 Education should be life itself not a preparation for life.
Dewey’s Ideas on the Role of the Teacher I Enhancing Participatory Learning in the Classroom
 The teacher should ensure that the individuals and groups move in harmony and acquire the
best and most positive habits.
 Having time to observe, plan and encourage the leaners rather than spending time on chalk-
and-talk instructions.
 Encouraging self-discipline and group discipline so that learners are willing to attain the goals.
 Involving the child in learning by doing and aiding the use of the senses in acquiring
knowledge.
 Guiding individuals to develop the habit of democratic cooperation and high intellectual
pursuit.
 Organizing learning situations for learners in order to help them learn more without forgetting.
 Giving learners’ individual attention.
RUDOLF STEINER (1861 – 1925)
Steiner, a philosopher and writer created a holistic educational impulse that has to be known as
“Waldorf Education”. He emphasizes a balance of developing the intellect (or head), feeling and
artistic life (or hands). The education focuses on producing free individuals and Steiner expected it to
enable a new freer social order through the creative, free human beings that it would develop. Waldorf
Education is based on Steiner’s philosophy, known as “anthrosophy” and divides education into three
discrete developmental stages which have close similarities to Piaget’s stages of child development.
Throughout education a great importance is placed upon having free and creative individuals as
teachers, thus schools. Should have an appropriate amount of freedom to shape their own curriculum
and teachers should have a corresponding freedom to shape the daily life of classroom. In order for
such a system to function, intensive work must take place both teachers and students within schools to
provide the necessary communication, training and development.
Waldorf education includes a respect for children’s physical nature, rhythmic life,
consciousness and individuality. Anthrosophy includes teachings about “reincarnation” and schools
often try to foster awareness that each human being and thus each child carry a unique being into this
earth life. As both an independent educational model and a major influence upon other educators such
as “Malaria Montessori” Waldorf education is currently both one of the largest and one of the fastest
growing educational movements in the world.
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BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER (1904 – 1990)
One of B.F. Skinner’s contributions to education philosophy is his text “Walden though” where
he details the failings of society and education, as one is intricately and intrinsically linked to the other.
The pedagogical methods “direct instruction” and precision teaching owe much to his ideas.
“Behaviorist” theories play largely in his proposed ideas of “social engineering”.
Precision teaching developed by skinners student. Ogden Lindsey uses the basic philosophy that “the
learner knows best” each learner is charted on a unique graph known as a ‘standard celebration chart’.
The record of the rate of learning is tracked by this charting and decisions can be made from these data
concerning changes in an educational program.
Note: Skinner conducted pioneering research and created his own school of Radical Behaviourism,
which seeks to understand behaviour as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing
consequences. He is known as the inventor of the operant conditioning chamber (or Skinner box), a
research tool used to examine the orderly relations of the behaviour of organisms (such as rats,
pigeons and humans) to their environment.
MARIA MONTESSORI (1870 – 1952)
Maria Montessori was an Italian Physician Educator, Philosopher, Humanitarian and a Devout
Catholic. She is best known for her philosophy and method of education of children from birth to
adolescence. Her educational methods are in use today in number of public as well as private schools
throughout the world.
Her life and work
Maria Montessori was born in Chiaravalle (Ancona) Italy to Alessandro Montessori and
Renilde Stoppani. Montessori was the first woman to graduate from the University of Rome La
Sapienza medical school. She was a member of the University’s psychiatric clinic and became
intrigued with trying to educate the “mentally retarded” and the “uneducable” in Rome. Because of her
success with these children, she was asked to start a school for children in a housing project in Rome,
which opened on January 6, 1907 and which she called “casa dei Bambini” or children’s house. The
success of this school sparked the opening of many more and a worldwide interest in Montessori’s
method of education.
Montessori’s Pedagogy
Maria Montessori made significant contributions to education and teaching. Among her premier
contributions are;
 Children should be viewed and treated as natural leaders.
 Children should be organized in 3 – year age groups corresponding to sensitivity periods of
development e.g. 0-3, 3-6, 6-9, 9-12-year-old.
 Children are competent beings and should be encouraged to make maximal decisions.
 Observations of the child in the environment should be the basis for the ongoing curriculum
development. This should enhance presentation of subsequence exercises for skill development
and inform accumulation.
 She advocated for the creation of small child sized furniture and a small child sized
environment (microcosm) in which each can be competent to produce a overall a self-running a
small children’s world.
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  Creation of scale of sensitive periods of development which provides a focus for class work
that is appropriate and uniquely stimulating and motivating to the child. Including sensitive
Perivale’s for language development, sensorial experimentation and retirement and various
levels 1 of social interaction.
 She emphasized the importance of the ‘absorbent mind’ the limitless motivation of the young
child to achieve competence over his or her environment and to perfect understanding as they
occur within each sensitive period. Thus phenomenon is characterized by the young child’s
capacity for repetition of activities within sensitive period categories.

JEAN PIAGET (1896 – 1980)

Jean Piaget was a Swiss Philosopher, natural scientist, and developmental psychologist. He is
well known for his work studying children, his theory of cognitive development and for his
epistemological view called ‘Genetic Epistemology’. He created in 1955 the international centre for
Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and directed it until 1980. According to Ernst Glaserfeld, Jean Piaget
is ‘the greater pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing’.
Piaget was born in Neuchatel in the French speaking part of Switzerland. His father Arthur
Piaget was a professor of medieval Literature at the University of Neuchatel. Piaget was a precious
child who developed interest in biology and the natural world, particularly Mollusks and even
published a number of papers before he graduated from high school. In fact his long career of scientific
research began when he was just eleven, with the 1907 publication of a short paper on the albino
Sparrow. Over the course of his career, Piaget wrote more than sixty books and several hundred
articles. Piaget received a PhD in natural sciences from the University of Neuchatel, and also studied
briefly at the University of Zurich. During this time, he published two philosophical papers, which
showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent work. His
interest in psychoanalysis, a strain of psychological thought burgeoning at the time can also be dated to
this period. In 1923, Piaget got married to Valentine Chatenay, one his students together the couple
had three children whom Piaget studied from infancy.

SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENT

The stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget served as professor of psychology at the University of Geneva from 1929 to 1975, and is
best known for reorganizing cognitive development theory into a series of stages: Infancy, Pre –
school, Childhood and Adolescence. Each stage is characterized by a general Cognitive structure that
affects all of the child’s thinking (a structuralist view influenced by philosopher Immanuel Kant). Each
stage represents the child’s understanding of reality during that period, and each but the last is an
inadequate approximation of reality. Development from one stage to the next is thus caused by the
accumulation of errors in the child’s understanding of the environment. This accumulation eventually
causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures, require reorganizing.
The four development stages are described in Piaget’s theory as;
Sensorimotor stage: From birth to age 2 years (children experience the world through movement and
senses and learn object permanence).

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Preoperational stage: From 2 to 7 (acquisition of motor skills).
Concrete operational stage: From 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically about concrete events).
Formal operational stage: After 11 (development of abstract reasoning).
These chronological periods are approximate, and in light of the fact that studies have
demonstrated great variation between children, cannot be seen as rigid norms.
These stages occur at different ages, depending upon the domain of knowledge under consideration.
The ages normally given for the stages then, reflects when each stage tends to predominate, even
though one might elicit examples of two, three or even four stages of thinking at the same time from
one individual depending upon the domain of knowledge and the means used to elicit it.
Despite this, thought, the principle holds that within a domain of knowledge, the stages usually
occur in the same chronological order. Thus there is a somewhat subtler reality behind the normal
characterization of the stages as described above. The reason for the invariability of sequence derives
from the idea that knowledge is not simply acquired from outside the individual, but it is constructed
from within. This idea has been extremely influential in pedagogy, and is usually termed
constructivism. Once knowledge is constructed internally, it is then tested against reality the same way
a scientist tests the validity of hypothesis. Like a scientist, the individual learners may discard, modify
or reconstruct knowledge based on its utility in the real world. Much of this construction is in fact done
subconsciously.
Therefore, Piaget’s four stages actually reflect four types of thought structures. The
chronological sequence is inevitable, then because one structure may be necessary order to construct
the next level which is simpler, more generalizable, and more powerful. It’s a little like saying that you
need to form metal into parts in order to build machines and them coordinate machines in order to
build a factory.
Piaget’s View of the Child’s Mind
Piaget viewed children as ‘little philosophers’ which he called ‘tiny thoughts – sacks’ and scientists
building their own individual theories of knowledge. Some people have used his ideas to focus on what
children cannot do. Piaget, however, used their problem areas to help understand their cognitive
growth and development.
Genetic Epistemology
According to Jean Piaget, genetic epistemology ‘attempts to explain knowledge and in
particular scientific knowledge, on the basis of its history, its sociogenesis and especially the
psychological origins of the notions and operations upon which it is based’ Jean Piaget has become a
reference for epistemology, and particularly for constructivist epistemology. According to Ernst Von
Glasserfeld, Jean Piaget is the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowledge.
Note: Piaget's theory, however vital in understanding child psychology, did not go without scrutiny. A
main figure in the ratification of Piaget's ideas was the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky
stressed the importance of a child's cultural background as an effect to the stages of development.
Because different cultures stress different social interactions, this challenged Piaget's theory that the
hierarchy of learning development had to develop in succession.
Genetic Epistemology

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According to Jean Piaget, genetic epistemology ‘attempts to explain knowledge and in particular
scientific knowledge, on the basis of its history, its sociogenesis and especially the psychological
origins of the notions and operations upon which it is based’ Jean Piaget has become a reference for
epistemology, and particularly for constructivist epistemology. According to Ernst Von Glasserfeld,
Jean Piaget is the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowledge.

PAULO FREIRE (1921 – 1997)

Paulo Freire was a Brazilian who became committed to the cause of educating the
impoverished peasants of his nation and collaborating with them in the pursuit of their liberation from
oppression.
His contribution to the philosophy of education comes not only from the more classical
approaches stemming from Plato, but also from modern Marxist and anti-colonialist thinkers. In fact,
in many ways ‘pedagogy’ of the ‘oppressed’ may best be read as an extension of or reply to ‘Frantz
Fanon’s wretched of the Earth’ which laid strong emphasis on the need to provide native population
with an education which was simultaneously new and modern rather than traditional and anti-colonial,
that is, that was not simply an extension of the culture of the colonizer.
Critical (Liberatory) Pedagogy
Critical pedagogy is a philosophy of education described by Freire as an educational
movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students develop consciousness of freedom,
recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take
constructive action. Critical pedagogy is as well defined as habits of thought, reading, writing, and
speaking which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official
pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep
meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action, event, object,
process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse.
Banking System of Education
In terms of pedagogy, Freire is best known for his attack on what he called the "banking" concept of
education, in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. He notes
that "it transforms students into receiving objects. It attempts to control thinking and action, leads men
and women to adjust to the world, and inhibits their creative power. Of course, this is not really a new
move. Rousseau’s conception of the child as an active learner was already a step away from the ‘tabula
rasa’ which is basically the same as the ‘banking concept’ and thinkers like John Dewey and Alfred
North whitehead were strongly critical of the transmission of mere facts as the goal of education.
Characteristics of the Banking System according to Freire
According to him, Monologue-based education separates teacher and students and provides rare
opportunities for creating meaningful dialogue among them. In such a method, students have not
sufficient opportunities for asking questions and thinking about their learned contents. Indeed, their
singular function is to memorize contents. Monologue-based education prevents students from any
thinking, exploring, and self-actualizing opportunities. Indeed, following monologue method damages
teaching-learning process in the educational system and also prevent from social progress and critical
thinking among students. Freire imagines the negative image of such educational system as following:

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  The teacher teaches and the students are taught.

 The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing.

 The teacher thinks and the students memorize the content.

 The teacher speaks and the students listen modestly.

 The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.

 The teacher chooses and enforces his/her choice, and the students comply.

 The teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher.

 The teacher chooses the programme content, and the students (who were not consulted) adapt
to it.

 The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority,
which she/he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students.

 The teacher is the Subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.

More challenging, however, is Freire’s strong aversion to the teacher – student dichotomy. This
dichotomy is admitted in Rousseau and constrained in Dewey, but Freire comes close to insisting that
is should be completely abolished. Critics have argued that this is impossible. To them, there must be
some enactment of the teacher – student relationship in the parent – child relationship, but what Freire
suggests is that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student. Freire wants us to
think in terms of teacher – student and student – teacher, that is a teacher who learns and a learner who
teachers as the basic roles of classroom participation. This is one of the few attempts anywhere to
implement something like democracy as an educational method and not merely a goal of democratic
education. Even Dewey, for whom democracy was a touchstone, did not integrate democratic practices
fully into his methods. However, in its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been
criticized on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher’s authority.
Culture of Silence
According to Freire, the system of dominant social relations creates a 'culture of silence' that
instils a negative, silenced and suppressed self-image into the oppressed. The learner must develop a
critical consciousness in order to recognize that this culture of silence is created to oppress. A culture
of silence can also cause the "dominated individuals to lose the means by which to critically respond to
the culture that is forced on them by a dominant culture.
Note: Freire wants us to think in terms of teacher-student and student-teacher - that is, a teacher who
learns and a learner who teaches - as the basic roles of classroom participation. Freire however
insists that educator and student, though sharing democratic social relations of education, are not on
an equal footing, but the educator must be humble enough to be disposed to relearn that which he/she
already thinks she knows, through interaction with the learner. The authority which the educator
enjoys must not be allowed to degenerate into authoritarianism.

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JOHN LOCKE (1632 – 1704)
Locke’s contributions to the philosophy of education are seen in his works namely;
I. Essay concerning human understanding, 1690.
II. Two Treatises, on Government, 1690.
III. Some thoughts concerning Education, 1690.
IV. The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695.
Locke attempted a synthesis of Bacon and Descartes. He was not able to agree with Descartes’
rationalism and demand for the absolute validity of knowledge whiled Locke agreed with Bacon’s
empiricism particularly as to the requirement for the increase of our knowledge about the universe and
supplemented Bacon’s empiricism by his psychological explanation of the origin of our ideas.

The Origin of Ideas

Ideas are acquired, learned and obtained from our experience. In other words in general there are not
innate ideas. Locke held that the claim for the universal validity of knowledge does not justify the
existence of the innate ideas. Such ideas as logical principles (the principle of identify, that of
contradiction and that of excluded middle), moral laws, God can be developed by gradual use of
human reason, not innate ideas. The only exception to the rule is the desire for happiness which is
inborn to the human.
The Theory of Tabula Rasa
When we are born our mind is blank. All the knowledge comes from experience and learning.
All the experience is either external which is called sensation or internal which is called reflection.
Therefore, the ideas are either ideas of sensation or ideas of reflection. These dualistic understanding of
the faculties of perception (sensation and reflection) derives from the Cartesian influences of the
dualistic dichotomy of material and spiritual substance.
While Descartes’ held that the inner knowledge is immediately known therefore it is ‘prior’
known and the knowledge of the external world is vicarious thus ‘less well known’. Locke maintained
that the ideas of sensation are ‘prior’ in the sense that the ideas of reflection depends upon the ideas of
sensation. The significance and emphasis was reversed.
Three Degrees of Knowledge
Locke distinguishes three degree of knowledge as;
I. Knowledge by intuition: This is indubitable knowledge (without the mediating middle term).
II. Knowledge by demonstration: This is knowledge with mediation or ground.
III. Sensitive knowledge: Knowledge of natural sciences.
Limits of Knowledge
Knowledge of the world is distinguished from faith which is based on revelation while knowledge is
opinion, belief or assertion, the latter of which alone are highly probable, they have more reason to be
true.

JULIUS NYERERE (1922 – 1999)

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Nyerere is one of Africa’s respected figures. He was a politician of principle and intelligence. Know as
‘Mwalimu’ or teacher, he had a vision of education that was rich with possibility.
Julius Kambarage Nyerere was born on April 13, 1922 in Butiama, on the eastern shore of Lake
Victoria in Northwest Tanganyika. His father was the chief of the small Zanaki tribe. He was 12 before
he started school 26 miles to Musoma. Later he transferred for his secondary education to the Tabora
Government Secondary School. His intelligence was quickly recognized by Roman Catholic Fathers
who taught him. He went on with their help to train as a teacher at Makerere University in Kampala
(Uganda).
On gaining his certificate he taught for three years and then went on a government scholarship
to study history and political economy for his Master of Arts at the University of Edinburgh, hence
becoming the first Tanzanian to study at a British University and only the second to gain a University
Degree outside Africa. In Edinburgh, partly through his encounter with Fabian thinking, Nyerere began
to develop his particular vision of connecting socialism with African communal living. On his return to
Tanganyika, Nyerere was forced by the colonial authorities to make a choice between his political
activities and his teaching. He was reported saying that he was a schoolmaster by choice and a
politician by accident. Working to bring a number of different nationalist factions into one grouping he
achieved this in 1954 with the formation of the Tanganyika African National union, TANU. He
became president of the Union, a post he held until 1977. He entered the legislative council in 1958
and became a chief Minister in 1960. A year later Tanganyika was granted internal self-government
and Nyerere become premier. Full independent came in December 1961 and he was elected president
in 1962.
Nyerere and Philosophy of Education
As Yusuf Kassam (1995 – 250) has noted, Nyerere’s educational philosophy can be approached under
two main headings: Education for self-reliance and Adult education, lifelong learning and education
for liberation.
Education for self-reliance
His interest in self – reliance shares a great deal with Gandhi’s approach. There was a strong
concern to counteract the colonialist assumption. He saw it as enslaving and oriented to Western
Interests and norms. Kassam (1995 – 251) sums up his critique of Tanzanian and other former colonies
education system as follows;
Formal education is basically elitist in nature, catering for the needs and interests of the very
small proportion of those who manage to enter the hierarchical pyramid of formal schooling.
The Education system divorces its participants from the society for which they are supposed to be
trained.
The system breeds the notion that education is synonymous with formal schooling, and people
are judged and employed on the basis of their ability to pass examinations and acquire paper
qualifications.
The system does not involve its students in productive work. Such a situation deprives society
of their much-needed contribution to the increase in national economic output and also breeds the
students’ contempt for manual work.

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The Following Changes Were Proposed;

Nyerere set out his vision in ‘Education for self reliance’. Education had to work for the
common good, foster co-operation and promote equality. Further, it had to address the realities of life
in Tanzania. The following changes were proposed;
It should be oriented to rural life.
Teachers and students should engage together in productive activities and students should participate
in the planning and decision – making process of organizing these activities.
Productive work should become an integral part of the school curriculum and provide meaningful
learning experience through the integration of theory and practice.
The importance of examinations should be downgraded.
Children should begin at age of 7 so that they would be old enough and sufficiently mature to engage
itself – reliant and productive work when they leave school.
Primary education should be complete in itself rather than merely serving as a means to higher
education.
Students should become self – confident and co – operative, and develop critical and inquiring
minds. According to Samoff (1990) the education reforms proposed by Mwalimu Nyerere were met
with some success and some failure. The policies were never fully implemented and had to operate
against a background of severe resource shortage and a world orientation to more individualistic and
capitalist understandings of the relation of education to production. However, primary education
became virtually universal; Curriculum materials gained distinctively Tanzanian flavours and schools
used local language forms.
Education for liberation (Adult Education, lifelong learning and learning)
The concept of liberation stands for: Being freed from what appears inhibiting/constraining,
being freed to be able to undertake, empowerment or freedom to become, Education for liberation
implied in Nyerere’s context: Removal of constraints and limitations that stood in the way of
Tanzanians to become self-reliant: this is namely colonialism and post colonial conditions that were in
the interest of colonial powers. Liberation is not a once for all events: it is an ongoing process
involving systematic eradication o physical and mental impediments to freedom. Liberation is both
physical and mental – the total emancipation of man. Education should release liberating ideas and
skills to the mind of learners. This is likely to increase control over themselves, their lives and their
environment. Education for liberation should employ rational approaches to educating in the sense that
educating should arose curiosity and provoke inquiry. The product of education for liberation is likely
to be a self-reliant individual.
Note: The formal education system divorces its participants from the society for which they are
supposed to be trained.

APPROACHES IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

1. The Implications Approach (1930-1960)

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 In reaction to Dewey’s progressive Philosophy of Education, the traditionalist’s proposed two
new ‘philosophies of education’; this became known as Essentialism and Perennialism

Essentialism: State the role of the teacher as the centre of authority in the educational process; it also
emphasized the importance of scientific knowledge. The pupils must accept the established facts of
life, as provided by science, on the authority of the teacher.

Perennialism: Stressed the perennial of everlasting values of life, which must be transmitted without
change from generation to generation. Perennialists maintained that education must foster the training
of the mind and of character; hence emphasis must be placed on the traditional Arts Subjects which
foster the well-established values of life, rather than on the modern.

According to the implication approach, the starting point for any philosophy of education is a
particular system of thought, a philosophical world view or a set of basic principles, from which one
derives implications for educational theory and practice. It is thus possible to derive many philosophies
of education from equally many philosophical systems; it is even possible to derive several
philosophies of education from one particular philosophical system. The inevitable result of this
approach was the multiplication of ‘philosophies of education.

Dewey had initiated this approach by taking ‘Pragmatism’, a particular philosophical system as
a definite starting point; the traditionalists followed his example but took a different philosophical
system as their starting point. Essentialism made the ancient philosophy of ‘Realism’, first formulated
by Aristotle, its point of departure, whilst, Perennialism derived its inspiration from ‘Idealism’, a
philosophical theory that goes back to Plato (Ancient Egyptian Mystery System).

The philosophical systems of Realism and Idealism served as basis for the new philosophies of
education, known as Essentialism and Perennialism. What made them ‘new’ was the fact that old ideas
were newly applied to contemporary situations. Thus Realism, which emphasized the importance of
sense-experience in the acquisition of knowledge, was said to favour the Science subjects, whereas
Idealism with its emphasis on the human mind as the main source of knowledge was judged to
encourage academic learning and the idea of liberal education.

The first, Kneller’s book, deals initially with three major philosophical systems, namely
Realism, Idealism and Pragmatism. Kneller presents four contemporary philosophies of education,
namely Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism and Reconstructionism, which are then analyzed in
the light of the three major philosophical systems so as to identify the educational implications derived
from them.

Hamm deals with five philosophical systems which are Idealism, Realism, Thomism,
Pragmatism and Existentialism; all are examined for their educational implications and different
educational theories of education are derived from each one of them. Kneller deals with two recent
trends in modern philosophy, Existentialism and Analytic Philosophy and indicates the possible
implications for educational theory and practice in each case.

2. Contemporary Approaches (1960-1980)

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 Till the 1960s the state of Educational Philosophy was such that it was not only confusing to
the ordinary student of education but also to educationists, including a few educational philosophers
themselves. These people, particularly the experts, have since then reacted to this confusing state of
affairs in different ways, that is, both in a general and in a more specific manner. This reaction comes
from a number of educationists including psychologists, sociologists, educational administrators,
educational practitioners, whose main orientation is either empirical or highly practical.

They strongly advocate the immediate abolition of Educational Philosophy as an educational

discipline and as a subject to be taught in Teacher Education programmes. They insist that the
Philosophy of Education is not only confusing but also impractical and largely irrelevant. Instead, they
maintained and said that emphasis must be put on more ‘practical’ subjects, like Child Psychology,
Educational Management, Educational communication and Technology.

Students in education must be taught the techniques and skills of teaching in the classroom, and
the principles of school management. The immediate abolition of educational philosophy does not
actually solve the problem; for a more meaningful solution we now turn to the more specific reactions
by educational philosophers themselves.

During the last twenty years the Philosophy of Education has been enriched and renovated by
various new approaches. If all men were well off, if poverty and disease had been reduced to their
lowest possible point, there would still remain much to be done to produce a valuable society; and even
in the existing world the goods of the mind are at least as important as the goods of the body. It is
exclusively among the foods of the mind that the value of philosophy is to be found; and only those
who are not indifferent to these goods can be persuaded that the study of philosophy is not a waste of
time.

3. The Analytical approach

The Analytic Philosophers proposes a more practically-oriented Philosophy of Education. They

contend that the Implications Approach must be abandoned for various reasons, the main reason being
that it tends to be too speculative and too idealist. Instead they proposed the Analytical Approach.
They advocate a revolution in the Philosophy of Education, which reduces the task of Educational
Philosophy to one single function- logical analysis. The Philosophy of Education they maintain should
take a lead from Analytic Philosophy, a trend in modern philosophy which is primarily concerned with
the logical analysis of language. The chief preoccupation or task of Educational Philosophy must
analyze the language of education. That is to examine educational concepts and statements, and to
define their precise meaning.

Educational philosophers must then try to clarify the language of education which is sometimes
ambiguity and confusion. Logical/linguistic/conceptual analysis becomes a useful tool for the
educationist and for the student of education who are well equipped with clear and well-defined
concepts. This approach helps individuals to handle issues of education more efficiently and more
effectively. This new Philosophy of Education its main concern is with a detailed, rational analysis of
educational language.

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 The British educational philosopher, R.S. Peers, has been one of the most prominent and
outspoken advocates of this new trend. In cooperation with other educational philosophers in Britain
such as Hirst, Dearden, Wilson, and others in America has advocated this new Philosophy of
Education in the English-speaking world, particularly in Britain, America, Canada and Australia. The
writings of these educational philosophers, as published by ‘The International Library of the
Philosophy of Education’, have since then become widely known, also in English speaking Africa.

‘Philosophy of Education’ and the Implications Approach; both tend to be largely ignored in
the Analytical Approach. Simultaneously, one avoids possible confusion and encourages clarity of
thought. Today, the Analytical Approach has been widely recognized as a very useful approach, both
for educational philosophers and for students of education. Although useful, it has been criticized in
recent years for being too rationalistic and too academic in orientation, as it tends to ignore socio-
political realities that affect the educational process. The Analytical Approach clearly needs to be
supplemented by other approaches, if the Philosophy of Education is to be meaningful and relevant in
the world of today. For this reason, i.e. to widen our scope, we must now turn to the existential and
critical approaches, as advocated by modern philosophers of education.

Some of the contributions made by the modern analytic movement in philosophy could help
educators, and particularly educational philosophers, to deal with some of the confusing terms and
concepts which existed in the field of education.

4. The Existential Approach

Another reaction to the Implications Approach came from a group of educational philosophers
originating mainly from Continental Europe. Like the Analytic Philosophers, they do not accept the
Implications Approach as the only valid approach. Instead they propose an approach that is
phenomenological and existential in character. This approach is obviously very closely linked to the
phenomenological function of Technical Philosophy. Existential Approach is the act that it does not
start from a set of principles or form a system of thought, i.e. from theory, as it does with the
Implications Approach, but it begins from human existence, that is, from concrete, existential
situations in education, which are then described and interpreted in a philosophical manner.

These philosophers rely heavily on the methods and insights of Existentialism and
Phenomenology, two modern trends in technical philosophy. The existential or phenomenological
approach was originally developed by German-speaking educational philosophers, notably Strasser,
Langeveld, Bollnow, et. al., during the 1950s-and 1960s.

The Existential Approach has only become known in the English-speaking world during the
1970s. Since then it has been adapted by a number of American educational philosophers, e.g. Denton,
Vandenber and Greene. Of special significance to this approach is the book of essays, edited by D.
Denton, Existentialism and Phenomenology in Education (1974). During the 1980s the Existential
Approach has started to make an impact among educational philosophers elsewhere, notably in Britain,
Canada and Australia.

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 Particular mention must be made here of the philosophical writings of the Brazilian educator
Paulo Freire, who uses the Existential Approach in his well-known book Pedagogy of the Oppressed
(1970). Whereas Freire addresses himself to the third World situation, C.A. Bowers presents a
similarly existential perspective on teaching and curriculum in Cultural Literacy for Freedom (1974)
within the context of western technocracy. The main concern of the Existential Approach is not with
implications but with explications, whereby specific situations in educational practice are explained in
existential terms, as they affect our existence, our lives, our whole being. Existential Approach is the
fact that it does not start from a set of principles, but begins from human existence.

5. The Critical Approach

The most outspoken proponents of this new trend are those known as the radical school-critics
or ‘De-Schoolers’, notably Illich, Holt, Kozol, Reimer, Goodman, whose writings began to appear
during the early 1970s. Thus, Illich in Deschooling Society (1971) maintains that schools have become
a serious social problem; he argues that schooling has become the world religion of a modern
proletariat, given the futile promises it makes to the poor of a technological age.

Illich advocates the abolition of schools; so does Reimer in School is Dead (1971). It must be
noted that the educational thought of the radical school-critics is not always strictly philosophical as it
displays a definite sociological and political orientation. In this respect, it resembles Critical Pedagogy
as it has emerged in Western Europe, particularly in German, during the 1970s. Less radical and less
ideological are a number of educationists who are concerned about the world educational crisis, such
as Coombs, Curl, Riohmond, Husen, and who address themselves particularly to the educational crisis
in the Third World.

Characteristic of the Critical Approach is that its advocates view education primarily as socio-
political phenomenon. In doing so they do not always clearly distinguish between philosophy and the
social sciences but the actual relevance of their thought is, however, beyond dispute. Deschooling
Society (1971) is a book that brought Ivan Illich to public attention. It is a critical discourse on
education as practised in "modern" economies. Full of detail on programs and concerns, the book's
assertions remain as radical today as they were at the time. Illich posited self-directed education which
supported by international social relations.

Three major philosophical systems, namely Realism, Idealism and Pragmatism are explained as
follows:

a). Idealism School of Thought on education

Idealism is a belief in a perfect life or situation etc. even when it is likely that such a situation
can never be achieved. This school of thought believes that “ultimate reality is spiritual rather than
physical, mental rather than material.” In its radical form, idealism believes that reality is nothing but
an activity of an individual’s mind and thoughts. The philosophers believe, exists in the world of ideas.
They regard the belief that the universe is real as basically a religious point of view. They believe in
the dualism of nature i.e. that spirit and matter constitute the universe that this dualism exists in
everything. Thus, all that exists in the universe is a manifestation of the spirit. The proponents believe
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that man is a spiritual being who exercises free will and is responsible for all his actions and inactions.
Man can therefore not be studied simply as an object because he is a spiritual being.

Some of The Philosophers That Postulated Idealism

1. Plato (428 – 347 BC) who maintained that objects in the physical world are mere resemblance
of the perfect forms in the ideal world. These perfect forms are the objects of true knowledge. Thus,
the aim of the teacher is to recognize these perfect forms and instruct others in that line.

2. George Berkeley, the 18th century Irish philosopher, postulated that the human soul is
immortal and is created by God, to whom it finally returns after its earthly sojourn.

3. Immanuel Kant, the 18th century German philosopher was of the view that man is both free
and determined. That man should act as though his actions were to become natural laws and applicable
to all men in similar circumstances.

4. George Hegel, a 19th century German philosopher, regarded man as a fragment of the
“absolute”, and thus there is something divine about man.

Educational Implications of Idealism

Idealism has a broad rather than detailed view of education. It only suggests general aims, attitudes and
values for education but does not prescribe how these may be achieved.

1. Idealism sees the pupil as a spiritual being whose purpose in life is to express his own nature and to
develop in accordance with his own rate of potentiality. The mind of the child therefore is conceived as
something towards which reference should be made.

Education should therefore cater for the child. He should be allowed his personal freedom, because
man is a fragment of the universe.

2. The teacher is very vital and has an important place in the proper education of the child. He is worth
emulating. Teachers should therefore be role models.

3. The teacher draws and brings out approved knowledge for the pupil i.e. knowledge that is approved
to be true.

4. True knowledge lies in the idea of reason (Plato).

5. Hegel is of the opinion that knowledge is valid only to the extent that it forms a system- this
statement is regarded as the Hegelian Coherent Theory of Truth i.e. knowledge is unified not
fragmented. Thus, teaching must be systematic and unified. This has implications for curriculum
development.

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6. The purpose of teaching is to stimulate the pupil to discover the meaning of the information he is
given.

7. To the idealist, values are absolute and unchanging. The child should learn to live by internal
principles, which put him in harmony with the greater spiritual home to which he belongs.

8. The good life is possible only within a highly organized political environment. The school should
therefore be democratic.

b). Realism School of Thought on Education

Realism, also known as materialism, is the direct opposite of idealism. It is a school of

philosophy which believes that all that exist, is resolvable into matter or has the characteristics of
matter, which is the ultimate reality. It argues that the universe is not an illusion but actually exists in
concrete form, independent of being known. As against the idealist theory, the Realists maintain that
something is real when it is experienced thus they say “seeing is believing”. Realism with time has
developed into three categories called Aristotelian, Thomism and Scientific Realism.

The Philosophical Position of Realism

This philosophical position holds that:

1. The real world exists independently of any experience to it.

2. Propositions are true only if they can correspond with the known facts, laws, and principles of the
objective world external to us.

3. The universe is composed of matter in motion.

. It is the physical world in which we live that makes up reality. We can, on the basis of our
experiences recognize certain regularities in it which we generalize about and call laws.

5. The vast cosmos rolls on despite man. Matter continues in motion whether man concerns himself
with it or not.

6. The orderly nature and composition of the world exist independent of consciousness, but which man
has come to know a great deal about.

Some of the well-known philosophers who contributed immensely to the development of these theories
of realism are

1. Aristotle (384 – 322 BC), a Greek Philosopher, regarded as the father of Realism was a product
of Plato.

He is believed to have originated the philosophical thought called Realism in which he expressed that
human experience and materials in the universe exist in themselves independent of man’s
thoughts/mind or perception.

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He developed what is now known as Aristotelian Realism, which focuses on the existence of God and
Spirit.

This theory also argues that causality and the order of nature are features of things and not the
imagination/thoughts of the mind.

2. St Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274 AD) reconciled the Aristotelian Philosophy with the theology
of the church and later created a new Christian philosophy known as “Thomism” which maintains that
material world is real and that both matter and spirit were created by God.

3. Natural/Scientific Realism, whose proponents are John Locke, David Hume, etc. was developed
between the 15th and 16th centuries.

The philosophers uphold that the world is real and that science could be used to investigate the reality.

They also admitted that change is real and takes place according to natural laws.

The Scientific Realists do not believe in the existence of free will since according to them, the
individual’s actions are determined by the immediate physical and social environment.

Realism and Education

The significance of Realism to education can be summarized thus:

1. Education should enable the child to be intellectually well balanced in harmony with his physical
and social environment.

2. Education should make provision for the child’s interests and curiosity i.e. education should be child
centred.

3. Education should be geared towards assisting the child in discovering reality.

4. The role of the teacher in the training of the child is very crucial. Since the teacher determines what
the child should learn, the teacher himself must be knowledgeable and be a role model.

5. Value is permanent and objective established by reason or sanctioned by God to whom all must give
account.

c). Existentialism School of Thought on Education

Existentialism ordinarily implies a theory, which emphasizes that human beings are free and
responsible for their actions in a world without meaning. In other words, the world has no order, no
meaning and no purpose. The only essence to him is his existence. Therefore, what the individual
thinks or does should be decided by himself.

This determination involves the individual himself in thinking e..g in reflecting, calculating, and all
other activities in the individual’s endeavour. It submits that an individual exists in concrete form. This
being, has freedom to choose or not to. This freedom entails commitment and responsibility. Thus, if
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an individual makes a choice he is responsible for this choice, if he fails to make a choice, he will of
necessity take the risk and responsibility following his inaction.

The existentialists believe that reality is what the human being experiences and that through human
beings; the fundamental truths of existence can be discovered. Thus, the human being must make a
deliberate and serious examination of his existence on earth. He should also recognize that life has its
beauty, its joy and sorrow, happiness and sadness, success and failure, growth and decay etc and that
man must make the best out of any situation. Notable earliest proponents of this great movement are
the 17th century French philosopher, Blaise Pascal, the 19th century philosophers Soren Kierkegaard
(Danish), Friedrich Nietzsche (German) and the 20th century German philosopher, Martin
Heidegger.

Educational Implications of Existentialism

1. Education should provide for an individual to be able to be responsible for himself and the greater
society.

2. Education should be able to equip the individual to be able to adapt to the natural phenomena of life.

3. Education should create in the individual an awareness, which stimulates him to explore the nature
of his being.

4. Education should develop in the child, the spirit of uniqueness.

5. Education should develop in the child, moral obligations which create awareness for him to
recognize the vanity and nothingness of being.

d). Pragmatism School of Thought on Education

Pragmatism, which was developed by the America philosophers Charles Sandes Peirce and William
James in the 19th century, has its central focus on the practical and scientific utility of knowledge.
Pragmatism has been known by various names and time as instrumentalism, functionalism,
experimentalism and progressivism. Pragmatism as a theory holds that knowledge is only meaningful
if our senses can experience it. In other words, this theory believes in practical ideas and
experimentation. Basically, pragmatism addresses the following about man and nature:

(1) That nothing is permanent and the only thing that is permanent is change.

(2) That values are relative.

(3) That man has both biological and social nature.

(4) That man is very intelligent and calls for the use of his critical intellectual ability.

Some of the 20th century philosophers who worked tirelessly to develop this theory further include:
John Dewey (American), Ferdinand Canning and Scott Schiller (British), Henri Bergson (French)
etc.
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The relevance of pragmatism to education

1) Education should serve as an end and a means i.e. Education should improve man and serve as a means of
doing things. In other words, education should serve as a tool for mobility and instrument for practical and
successful living.

2) Education is life, hence it should be sort for/ and provided at all times adequately.

3) Teachers should always develop relevant scientific and practical approach/ methodology in imparting
knowledge in their students.

4) Educational system should constantly reflect the rapid changes in the world of knowledge.

5) Education, which should be child-centred, should be systematically provided in such a way that it constantly
challenges the intellectual ability of the learner through experiments.

6) Since man is a social animal and unique in nature, education should provide democratic setting to
accommodate the individual differences in human nature.

Four contemporary philosophies of education, namely Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism and

Reconsructionism, are explained as follows:

Educational Value of Perennialism

Perennialists have given to education six basic principles on which they operate:

1. Man is a rational animal so as individuals develop their minds, they can use reason to control
appetites, passions, and actions.

2. Knowledge is universally consistent; therefore, there are certain basic subject matters that should be
taught to all people.

3. The subject matter, not the child, should stand at the center of the educational endeavor.

4. The great works of the past are a repository of knowledge and wisdom which has stood the test of
time and are relevant in our day.

5. Human nature is consistent, so education should be the same for everyone.

6. The educational experience is a preparation for life, rather than a real-life situation.

Essentialism School of Thought on Education

Educational Essentialism is a theory that states that, children should learn the traditional basic subjects
and these should be learned thoroughly and rigorously. An essentialist program normally teaches
children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex. William Bagley (1874-1946) was
the founder of the Essentialist Movement.

Throughout his life, he supported both the academic disciplines and certain basic tenets of Progressive
education. Essentialism is a uniquely American philosophy of education which began in the 1930‘s
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and 1940‘s as a reaction to what was seen as a overemphasis on a child-centered approach to education
and a concern that students were not gaining appropriate knowledge in schools. Essentialist believes in
a critical core of information and skill that an educated person must have.

Basic Principles of Essentialism

1. First, they recognized the right of an immature student to the guidance of a well-educated, caring,
and cultured teacher.

2. Second, they proposed that an effective democracy demanded a democratic culture in which
teachers impart the ideals of the community to each succeeding generation of the children.

3. Third, they called for a specific program of studies that required thoroughness, accuracy,
persistence, and good workmanship on the part of the pupils.

Underlying Philosophical Basis

Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy that accepts the social, political, and economic
structure of American society. It contends that schools should not try to radically reshape the society.
Rather, essentialists argue, schools should transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual
knowledge that make the students model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instill such
traditional virtues such as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others,
and practicality.

Chief Exponents of Existentialism

Soren Kierkegaard (1813 – 1855) is regarded as the father of modern existentialism and is the first
European Philosopher who bears the existentialist label. In his view, subjectivity and intensity should
be priced as the criteria of truth and genuineness. We touch reality in intense moments of existence
especially moments of painful decision. These moments are characterized by deep anxiety, and life is
known in such moments and cannot be reduced to just system of ideas.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) is regarded as a key figure in the rise of existentialism.

According to him Christianity is to be overcome by putting in its place the doctrine of Superman, that
is, man surpassing himself.

Martin Heidegger (1889 – 1976) in his book Being and Time, gave a very impressive analysis of
human existence, the prominence of the important themes of existentialism like care, anxiety, guilt and
above all death is brought out here.

Jean – Paul Sarte stressed that man ‘s existence precedes his essence. ―Man is nothing else but what
he purposes, he exists only in so far as he realizes himself, he is therefore nothing else but the sum of
his actions, nothing else but what his life is

Some Recurring Themes in Existentialism

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Themes such as freedom, decision, and responsibility are prominent in all existentialist philosophers.

These matters constitute the core of personal being. It is the exercise of freedom and the ability to
shape the future that distinguishes man from all other beings that we know on earth. It is through free
and responsible decisions that man becomes authentically himself. Another group of recurring
existentialist themes includes such topics as finitude, guilt, alienation, despair, moods, changing
feelings, emotional life of man and death. For the existentialist man is never just part of the cosmos but
always stands to it in a relationship of tension with possibilities for tragic conflict.

Educational Philosophy of Existentialism

The object of education is to give man the unity of truth. In the field of education the contribution of
existentialism is as follows:

1. The aim of Education

Existentialists believe that the most important kind of knowledge is about the human condition and the
choices that each person has to make, and that education is a process of developing consciousness
about the freedom to choose and the meaning of responsibility for one‘s choices. Hence, the notion of
group norms, authority, and established order – social, political, philosophical, religious, and so on –
are rejected. The existentialists recognize few standards, customs to traditions, or eternal truths; in this
respect, existentialism is at odds with the ideas of idealism and realism.

2. Total Development

The existentialists have aimed at total development of personality through education. Education should
aim at the whole man. It should aim at character formation and self – realization. In the existentialist
classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students understand and appreciate
themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and
actions. Since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making, the existentialist demands the
education of the whole person, not just the mind.

3. Subjective Knowledge

The present age of science has made too much of objective knowledge, so much so, that the term has
come to mean unreal, non-sense, ignorant and irrelevant. The existentialists rightly, point out that
subjective knowledge is even more important than objective knowledge. They rightly hold that truth is
subjectivity. It is a human value and values are not facts. Reduction of values to facts has led to
widespread loss of faith in values. Therefore, along with the teaching of science and mathematics, the
humanities, art, literature should be also be given suitable place in curriculum at every stage of
education. Most of the ills of the modern man are due to over – objective attitude. This requires a
subjectivist correction in the light of existentialist ideas.

4. Importance of Environment

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The existentialists seek to provide an environment proper to self – development and self –
consciousness. This environment in the school requires contribution from humanities, arts and
literature. These will help in the development of individuality in the education and so that he may
cease to become a cog in the social wheel. Rather he should develop to a self – conscious and sensitive
individual.

5. Child – Centred Education

Existentialist education is child – centred. It gives full freedom to the child. The teacher should help
the child to know himself and recognize his being. Freedom is required for natural development.
Education should convert imperfection into perfection. Education should be according to the individual
‘s needs and abilities of the child. The relation of the child to himself should be strengthened by
education.

6. Curriculum

Existentialists prefer to free learners to choose what to study and also determine what is true and by
what criteria to determine these truths. The curriculum would avoid systematic knowledge or
structured disciplines, and the students would be free to select from many available learning situations.
The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to possess. The humanities are commonly given
tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing students with vicarious experiences
that will help unleash their own creativity and self – expression. For example, rather than emphasizing
historical events, existentialists focus upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides
possible models for the students ‘own behaviour.

Existentialist ‘s approach to education is almost an inversion of the realist approach. In the field of
curriculum while the realists exclusively emphasize science, the existentialists find out that science and
objective education severs our relation with ourselves. Science cannot help in inner realization and
achievement of peace. This, however, does not mean that science education should be ignored.

It only means besides science the curriculum must include humanities, ethics and religion. In keeping
with this viewpoint contemporary engineering colleges have included some philosophy, ethics and
social studies, in their curriculum. Without this synthetic approach to curriculum the aim of character
formation and personality development will be defeated.

7. Learning Experiences

An existentialist curriculum would consist of experiences and subjects that lend themselves to
philosophical dialogue and acts of choice making. Because the choice is personal and subjective,
subjects that are emotional, aesthetic and philosophical are appropriate. Literature, drama, film –
making, art, and so on, is important, because, they portray the human condition and choice – making
conditions.

The curriculum would stress self – expressive activities, experimentation, and media that illustrate
emotions, feelings and insights. The classroom would be rich in materials that lend themselves to self –

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expression and the school would be a place in which the teacher and students could pursue dialogue
and discussion about their lives and choices.

8. The student

The student should feel completely free for realizing his -self ‘. Under the guidance of the teacher, the
student should try to realize his -self ‘through introversion. The student accepts the discipline
prescribed by the teacher and does not become irresponsible. The purpose of freedom given to him
should be to enable him to affect the full development of his individuality.

9. Religious and Moral Education

The existentialists particularly lay emphasis upon religion and moral education. Religion allows a
person to develop himself. Religious education gives him an understanding of his existence in the
cosmos. It shows the religious path of self – realization. It also makes him capable of utilizing faith in
self – development. Moral education is closely related to religious education. Both develop the inner
self and help in the realization of the infinite within the finite.

Educational Value of Existentialism

Existentialism focuses on helping the child into a fuller realization of self-based on the following
propositions:

1. I am a choosing agent–unable to avoid choosing my way through life.

2. I am a free agent–free to set the goals of my own life.

3. I am a responsible agent–personally accountable for my free choices as they are revealed in how I
live my life

Essentialists have given three major principles to education:

1. The school’s task is to teach basic knowledge. Basic subject matters should be mastered at the
elementary and secondary school levels to eliminate illiteracy at the college level.

2. Learning is hard work and requires discipline. Memorization, drill, and problem solving methods
foster learning.

3. The teacher is the focus of the classroom activity. She decides what students ought to learn and is
responsible for presenting the subject matter in a logical sequence and has the right to discipline
students to create a conducive learning environment.

The Application of Reconstructionism to Education

Reconstructionism application to education is twofold:

(1) The identification of major problem areas of controversy, conflict and inconsistency in subject
areas such as economics, sociology, political science, psychology, and anthropology;
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(2) The use of methodologies, such as role plays, simulations and jurisprudential models to create
awareness of problems and openness to solutions.

EXPLORING AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY: THE VALUE OF UBUNTU IN EDUCATION

The word Ubuntu belongs to the Nguni group of indigenous languages, and has cognates in
other Bantu indigenous languages. 81It can best be translated into English as “humanness, or being
human”. 82There is no equivalent English term for Ubuntu, and that is why Desmond Tutu explains
posits that Ubuntu is very difficult to render into a Western language. It speaks of the very essence of
being human. 83When we want to give high praise to someone we say, “Yu, u no Buntu”; “Hey, he or
she
has Ubuntu.” This means they are generous, hospitable, friendly, caring and compassionate. They
share what they have. It also means my humanity is caught up, is inextricably bound up, in theirs. We
belong in a bundle of life. We say ‘umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu’ or ‘I am because you are, you are
because we are’, but it is also important to unpack this maxim for a deeper understanding.

In Southern Africa, the traditional understanding that one is truly human only as a member of a
community is expressed in terms of “ubuntu”. Ubuntu is simultaneously the foundation and the edifice
of African philosophy. It is the basis of African communal cultural life, it functions as a unifying
factor, bringing people together regardless of their background or access to wealth.
One’s humanity cannot be separated from the humanity of those around him. It is an individual
existence of the self and the simultaneous existence for others. One becomes fully human to the extent
that he/she is included in relationships with others. Scholars of Ubuntu agree that it recognizes non-
material goods. The idea of Ubuntu differs from the materialist view of the world and persons that is
the dominant one in our scientific culture. African life emphasizes humanity and relationships over
material wealth. It is about being a good community member, living and enjoying life rather than the
46
acquisition of the material creature. Much has been written about the differences between African and
European philosophies. Any comparative analysis between traditional African philosophy with
European philosophy, the contrast is, indeed, striking.
Aristotle, who was one of the Greek students in ancient Egypt, comes close to it when he says,
“The excellent person is related to his friend in the same way as he is related to himself, since a friend
is another himself.” Moreover, explanations of Ubuntu agree that we attain self-realization through
interpersonal relationships.
Reconciling self-realization (which is Eurocentric) and communalism (Afrocentric) is as
important as trying to reconcile Western morality with African morality. Modern Western ethical
theories are confronted with, but have difficulty answering, the question: Why should I be ethical (if
doing so is not good for me)? If, however, I understand that benefiting other persons is also good for
me (even when, in the extreme, it leads to my death), then I automatically have a motive to act
ethically.
Embedding Ubuntu into Education System

The first step in developing the requisite theory of African Ubuntu philosophy, is to recognize
the school as a community, not a collection of individuals. Ubuntu provides a strong philosophical
base for the community, and we must view the school as a community.

When the school is understood as a community, then it becomes better to infuse ubuntu into the
system. To promote the good of a school is to promote the good of all its members, that is, the
governing body, teachers and students.

Collectivism associated with harmony and cooperation means working for the benefit of the
whole, based on a long-term vision, rather than the benefit of constantly changing individuals.
Applying the core values of Ubuntu such as humanness, caring, sharing, respect and compassion,
develops the humane character of the students, and thus become better leaders of tomorrow in our fast
globalizing world.

Ubuntu emphasizes the need to harness the solidarity tendency, because it knows neither colour
nor race (in today’s context), but only knows the human race as created by God. This does not mean
that we must discard other good exogenous values, but we need to coalesce all of them into one
harmonious strategy.

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 In short, Ubuntu is neither Afrocentric nor Eurocentric, but only humanistic, and humanism
knows neither colour nor race. It is neither African humanism nor European humanism, but only
humanism.

Positive Outcomes of Ubuntu in A School

Ubuntu in education is usually something that begins from the school leaders (principals and
teachers) because most of the successful schools or academically good schools are those schools that
are currently embracing ubuntu leadership for example; the school treat all learners equally or the
school practice the values of Ubuntu. Ubuntu in South African education is reflected by the school
discipline to ensure safety of the staff and learners’ and secondly creating the environment conducive
to teaching and learning. Sustainable development depends on harnessing the energy of the majority
meaning the school work together with community, staff and all the leaners to practice Ubuntu. The
focus in teaching, learning and professional development irrespective of field needs to be grounded on
notions of Ubuntu. Leadership through Ubuntu is perceived as of collective agency. This means an
adoption of a strong community-school partnership where all stakeholders such as teachers, learners,
school leaders, parents, community and local and central government co-participate in shaping and

implementing of learning programmes .

For example, the teacher and school staff should respect, care for themselves and then care for
all the learners in the school irrespective of their background or circumstances. The consequences of
Ubuntu when applied to the school context especially in areas of school discipline. The high
performing school is likely to be characterized by the presence of Ubuntu practice in it. Generally, the
level of school
discipline reflects the presence and the absence of Ubuntu in the school and the surrounding
community. When the schools embrace Ubuntu, we witness a disciplined student body. Consequently,
the type of leadership that leads to improved school performance is related to the presence or absence
of Ubuntu in them. The ill-disciplined student body, on the other hand, shows the failure and to
embrace and absence.

Ubuntu Values
Ubuntu in education is considered to provide indigenous knowledge which is actually important for
integrating into our African conception of inclusion which in turn promote inclusivity, equality and
social justice in our education system. The purpose of education is to free the minds of the oppressed

48
in order to destroy social classes and create one human consciousness within the society. Education is
aimed at developing a conception of education that contribute towards imagination, deliberation, and
responsibility an action that help towards enhancing justice in educative relations, specifically in
relation to African Education. Ubuntu in education make learners to acknowledge humanity in
themselves and others.
The school should encourage learners to work cooperatively through sharing and engaging with
others in the classroom. Ubuntu in schools or in education is described as an inclusive approach which
calls for dignity and respect in our mutual relationships with others in education, classroom or school.
The education or school as a whole reflects the values and beliefs that the society considers
worthy, so the school transmit those values, ethics at the school staff and learners are part of the
society. Values are the integral part of the society and society understand itself and judges its worth
through value system by taking education of individual into consideration. The core values of Ubuntu
in education provide a supportive basis or the frame of reference from which both teacher and learner
engage in the assessment process.
The whole education process centres around Ubuntu as a philosophy or set of ethical principles
that capture the belief system of the South Africans according to which people take responsibility to
others and accept the authority and guidance of others in order to progress. Ubuntu in education gives
learners the primacy to humanness and adopt more holistic view in learners instead of reducing their
abilities or potential. As identified by Government Gazzette. (NO. 20844) the teacher in the school that
practices Ubuntu should be competent, caring and dedicated to provide equal and respective education
to all learners no matter how is their background or circumstances (Letseka, 2011 Msila, 2008; Baken
Lefa, 2015)
Two leading African American scholars, Asante and Karanga, have made it a point that the
American education system is infused with the Maatian ethics, and their argument is that one is
cultivated to do good by instruction in the Seven Cardinal Virtues of Maat, that is,
 Truth,
 Justice,
 Propriety,
 Harmony,
 Balance,
 Reciprocity and
 Order.

49
 These all arise out of sacred Egyptian texts, and these are exactly the Principles of Ubuntu in
our situation. Thus, to speak truth, do justice, act properly, live in harmony, be balanced, practice
reciprocity and recognize and respect the divine, social and natural order are all Maat. The thrust to
cultivate the Maatian character, then, is a thrust to create a self-enriching process in which the Maatian
person and society, in a dynamic reciprocity, reinforce and sustain each other and foster each other’s
expansiveness. Maat then in its most expansive sense represents rightness in and of the world, giving
rightful attention to self, society and the world as an interrelated order. The ongoing quest, then, is to
maintain, renew, repair and enhance this order as self-conscious creators and bringers of the good
in the world in a process of restoring, repairing and renewing the world.

Ubuntu is a philosophy whose time has come, discuss this statement in relation to education in Africa.

ED 301 Weeks 6, 7 & 8 Revision ED 301 Exam for Aug-Dec

Qn 1.b) Differentiate between the following
i) Pragmatism and Progressivism (2 marks)
ii) Perennialism and Essentialism (2 marks) Pragmatism emerged in the 1870s that highlighted the importance
of practicality and experience over principles and doctrine.

 Progressivism emerged in the 1890s, it highlighted that human development or the improvement of
human conditions relied very much on scientific, technological, social and economical development.
 Pragmatists believed that philosophical thought should aim at instrumental usage. The key for The for
progressivism was in positivist knowledge
 However, the two traditions are related. Progressivism is a very student-centered philosophy of
education. Rooted in pragmatism, the educational focus of progressivism is on engaging students in
real-world problem- solving activities in a democratic and cooperative learning environment.
 Progressives, like pragmatists, believed that the social vices could be eliminated through the provision
of education, facilities, economical opportunities to the people

 ED 301 Exam for Aug-Dec 2018

Qn 1.b) Differentiate between the following
i) Pragmatism and Progressivism (2 marks)
ii) Perennialism and Essentialism (2 marks)
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  The main difference between essentialism and perennialism is that essentialist curriculum tends to be
fact-based while perennialist curriculum tends to be principal-based.

 Essentialism strives to ensure that students acquire a common core of knowledge in a systematic,
disciplined way. In contrast, perennialism states one should teach the things that are of everlasting
importance to all individuals everywhere.
 Similar to perennialism, Essentialism aims to develop students' intellectual and moral qualities.
Perennialist classrooms are also centered on teachers in order to accomplish these goals. The teachers
are not concerned about the students' interests or experiences.

 Question of Consideration
What is the difference between realism and pragmatism? Perhaps the most significant difference
is pragmatism's distrust of invocations of structural power in social explanations, whereas realism
encourages them, in interaction with other explanatory elements. The paper problematizes claims
that recent work in the study of value is predominantly pragmatist

 A pragmatist is someone who doesn't doggedly stick to principles and who is willing to
compromise. The ultimate goal, however, could still be to achieve some lofty ideal. A realist is
someone who doesn't believe in lofty ideals in the first place
• Realism is about the beliefs you hold. Unrealistic beliefs can be excessively optimistic or excessively
pessimistic.
• Pragmatism is about what you do and why you do it. Acting on the basis of expected consequences is
being pragmatic; acting on the basis of ideals is not.

ED 301 Exam for Aug-Dec 2015

Qn 1. d) How do progressive philosophies differ from traditional philosophies of education? (6 marks)
Traditional Philosophies in Education are Perenialism and Essentialism

 The traditional philosophy of education focuses on the skills, facts, and standards of behavior
deemed essential for each generation of students. These skills and facts are understood as being
important for personal success. The standards of behavior serve society in general.
 Whereas the traditionalist believes that the purpose of education is to pass on a body of knowledge (both
factual and cultural) to future generations, the progressive believes that the purpose of education is to
change attitudes and values to construct a politically correct, secular, socialist society.
 Traditional curriculum is a more linear approach to learning while progressive curriculum provides
more hands-on research, sudden program detours, and a chance to learn things in the field.

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  traditionalism values explicit instruction, memorisation and practice. Progressivism favours group work,
discussion between students, discovery learning and learning which is relevant to (or mimics) “real life”
Progressive Philosophies in Education are Progressivism and Reconstructivism
 Progressivists believe that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to one's education.
Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists
center their curricula on the needs, experiences, interests, and abilities of students.
 Traditional schools focus on the teacher and what they teach while progressive schools focus on
the students and how they can learn

ED 301 Exam for Aug-Dec 2015

How do progressive philosophies differ from traditional philosophies of education?

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Discuss the implications of the principles of pragmatism in education. (15 marks)
ED 301 Exam for Aug-Dec 2015
Qn 3. Discuss the implications of the principles of idealism in education. (15 marks)
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Idealism has a broad rather than detailed view of education. It only suggests general aims, attitudes and values
for education but does not prescribe how these may be achieved.

1. Idealism sees the pupil as a spiritual being whose purpose in life is to express his own nature and to develop
in accordance with his own rate of potentiality. The mind of the child therefore is conceived as something
towards which reference should be made.

Education should therefore cater for the child. He should be allowed his personal freedom, because man is a
fragment of the universe.

2. The teacher is very vital and has an important place in the proper education of the child. He is worth
emulating. Teachers should therefore be role models.

3. The teacher draws and brings out approved knowledge for the pupil i.e. knowledge that is approved to be true.

4. True knowledge lies in the idea of reason (Plato).

5. Hegel is of the opinion that knowledge is valid only to the extent that it forms a system- this statement is
regarded as the Hegelian Coherent Theory of Truth i.e. knowledge is unified not fragmented. Thus, teaching
must be systematic and unified. This has implications for curriculum development.

6. The purpose of teaching is to stimulate the pupil to discover the meaning of the information he is given.

7. To the idealist, values are absolute and unchanging. The child should learn to live by internal principles,
which put him in harmony with the greater spiritual home to which he belongs.

8. The good life is possible only within a highly organized political environment. The school should therefore be
democratic.

Discuss the implications of the principles of pragmatism in education. (15 marks)

1) Education should serve as an end and a means i.e. Education should improve man and serve as a means of
doing things. In other words, education should serve as a tool for mobility and instrument for practical and
successful living.

2) Education is life, hence it should be sort for/ and provided at all times adequately.

3) Teachers should always develop relevant scientific and practical approach/ methodology in imparting
knowledge in their students.

4) Educational system should constantly reflect the rapid changes in the world of knowledge.

5) Education, which should be child-centred, should be systematically provided in such a way that it constantly
challenges the intellectual ability of the learner through experiments.

6) Since man is a social animal and unique in nature, education should provide democratic setting to
accommodate the individual differences in human nature.

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