INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF © LITERATURE-IN-ENGLISH 1.1 WHATIS LITERATURE? Literature, in its broadest sense, is any written work; etymologically, the term derives from Latin which terms literature as “writing formed with letters”, although some definitions include spoken orsung texts. Morerestrictively, it is writing that possesses literary merit, and language that foregrounds literariness as opposed to ordinary language. Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non- fiction, and whether it is poetry or prose; it can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorised according to historical periods, or according to their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre). There is also general agreement that literature foregrounds language, and uses it in artistic ways. Terry Eagleton throws some light towards a definition of literature and its relationship to language. According to him, “Literature transforms and intensifies ordinary language, deviates systematically from everyday speech”. Just as architecture is the art form that arises out of the human ability to create buildings, literature is the art form that arises out of the human ability to create language. Etymologically, literature has to do with letters, the written as opposed to the spoken word, though not everything thatis written down is literature. Asa classification, it doesn’ treally have any firm boundary lines. Inexploring ideas about what literature is, it is useful to look at some of the things that literature does. Literature is something that reflects society, makes us think about ourselves and our society, allows us to enjoy language and beauty, it can be didactic, and it reflects on “the human condition”. Itreflects ideology and changes ideology, just like it follows generic conventions as well as changing them. Ithas social and political effects. Literature is the creation of another world, a world that we can only see through reading literature. Literature is a term that does not have a universally accepted definition, but which has variably included all written work; writing that possesses literary merit; and language that foregrounds literariness, as Opposed to ordinary language. Taken to mean only written works, literature was first produced by some of the world’s earliest civilisations ~ those of Ancient Egypt and Sumeria—as early as the 4th millennium BC; taken to inchude spoken or Sung texts, it originated even earlier, and some of the first written works may have been based on an already-existing oral tradition. As urban cultures and societies developed, there was a proliferation in the forms of literature. Developments in print technology allowed for literature to be distributed and experienced on an unprecedented scale.— As far as we are concerned, “Literature” is any work of art, written or spoken, out of imagination, We are not interested in its true value. Therefore, we are not interested in science Literature, Hisory books, etc. We are concemed about works that though mirror the society, they are not real facts. 1.2 THEORIGINS OF LITERATURE The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry which attempts to provide entertainment, enlightenment, or instruction to the reader/hearer/observer, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all writings Constitute literature. Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data (e.g.,a check register) are not considered literature. Literature and writing, though connected, are not synonymous. The very first writings from ancient Sumer by any reasonable definition do not constitute literature — the same is true of some of the early Egyptian hieroglyphics or the thousands of logs from ancient Chinese regimes. Scholars have often disagreed conceming when written record-keeping became more like “literature” than anything else; the definition is largely subjective. Moreover, given the significance of distance as a cultural isolator in earlier centuries, the historical development of literature did not occur at an even pace across the world. The problems of creating a uniform global history of literature are compounded by the fact that many texts have been lost over the millennia, either deliberately, by accident, or by the total disappearance of the originating culture. Much has been written, for example, about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the Ist century BC, and the innumerable key texts which are believed to have been lost forever to the flames. The deliberate suppression of texts (and often their authors) by organisations of either a spiritual or a temporal nature further shrouds the subject. Certain primary texts, however, may be isolated which havea qualifying role as literature’s first stirrings. Very early examples include Epic of Gilgamesh, in its Sumerian version predating 2000 BC, and the Egyptian Book of the Dead written down in the Papyrus of Ani in approximately 1250 BC but probably dates from about the 18th century BC. Ancient Egyptian literature was not included in early studies of the history of literature because the writings of Ancient Egypt Were not translated into European languages until the 19th century when the Rosetta stone was deciphered, Many texts handed down by oral tradition over several centuries before they were fixed in written form are difficult or impossible to date. The core of the Rig-Veda may date to the mid 2nd millennium BC. The Pentateuch is traditionally dated to the 15th century, although modem scholarship estimates its oldest part to date to the 1 0th century BC at the earliest. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey date to the 8th century BC and mark the beginning of Classical Antiquity, They also stand in an oral tradition that stretches back to the late Bronze Age, Indian ceruti texts post-dating the Rig-Veda (such as the Yajurveda, the Atharvaveda and the Brahmanas), as well as the Hebrew Tanakh and the mystical collection of poems attributed to Lao Tze, the Tao te Ching, date to the Iron Age, but their dating is difficult and controyersial, The great Hinduepics were also transmitted orally, likely predating the Maurya period. Other oral traditions were fixed in writing much later, such as the Elder Edda, written down in the 12th or 13th century. 1.3 THEIMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE Literature, besides being an art form used for expression, also preserves cultural ideals, customs and morals. The written word gives us a deeper context into the lives and livelihood of people distinct from ourselves - this can be true of historical literature but is equally true of modem literature. We can learn as much from William Shakespeare’s time through his plays as we can from authors froma different mindset or place. Besides this detailed and nuanced window into another person’s or people’s world, literature also challenges the reader to profoundly ponder the art form itself. Through metaphor, allusions, themes, foreshadowing and other literary devices, the reader has the opportunity to analyse a work beyond the written words. Literature is a way for man to express his thoughts, beliefs and ideas. It is an excellent way to educate the masses and is also a great way to escape from ordinary life. Literature is important in a society so that people have an outlet to reduce stress, learn about topics such as history, and be able to use their imagination to see a story from the narrator’s perspective. There are many references in everyday life to works of literature so knowledge of them helps to better understand the world around us. It also helps one better understand the past. Literature is aso didactic, that is, itteaches morals. It is educative, therapeutic, and satiric; it mirrors the society and helps to improve one’s vocabulary. 1.4 ENGLISH LITERATURE AND LITERATURE-IN-ENGLISH Note that, English Literature and Literature-in-English are not the same. What students leam or study in the primary and secondary schools is not English Literature but Literature-in-English. While English Literature refers to literature of the English people especially in Britain: England, Scotland, Wales and Northem Ireland, Literature-in-English refers to the literatures that are written in no-other language except the English language. Note that we have Literature-in-Hausa (Literature written in Hausa language); Literature-in-Yoruba (Literature written in Yoruba language); Literature-in-Igbo (Literature written in Igbo language), etc. Note also that as we have English Literature (Literature of the English people), we have Yoruba Literature (Literature of the Yoruba), American Literature (Literature of the Americans), Japanese Literature (Literature of the Japanese), Hausa Literature (Literature of the Hausa), etc. The literature can be written in any language, so far it deals with the specified people. 15 GENRES, FORMS OR TYPES OF LITERATURE The three main types or genres of literature include poetry, prose and drama. Poetry is one of the Oldest forms of literature. Prose is defined as any form of text that isnot poetry especially that tells a Story, Drama are plays.ry Other Types of Literature Literature can be categorised as oral or written and the common types of literature are ballads, myths, jokes, biographies, autobiographics, fantasy, folktales, etc. Literature is more recent than oral literature, since speech was developed before writing.LITERARY GENRES: DRAMA 3.1 WHATIS DRAMA? ‘Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes froma Greek word meaning “action”, which is derived from the verb meaning “to do” or “to act”. The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception. 3.2. TYPES OF DRAMA 1. Tragedy Tragedy is one of the oldest forms of drama; however, its meaning has changed since the earliest days of staged plays. In ancient times, a tragedy was often an historical drama featuring the downfall ofa great man. In modern theatre, the definition is a bit looser. Tragedy usually involves serious subject matter and the death of one or more main characters. These plays rarely have a happy ending, It isa play that ends sorrowfully. Inatragic play, we havea tragic hero (the protagonist who falls as a result of circumstances beyond his immediate control), a tragic figure (a character who falls because of his own faults) and tragic flaw (hubris), the mistakes made by the protagonist that lead to his downfall. 2. Comedy When we talk about comedy, we usually refer to plays that are light in tone, and that typically have happy endings. The intent of a comedic play is to make the audience laugh. In modem theater, there are many different styles of comedy, ranging from realistic stories, where the humour is derived from real-life situations, to outrageous slapstick humour. 3. Farce Farce is a sub-category of comedy, characterised by greatly exaggerated characters and situations. Characters tend to be one-dimensional and often follow stereotypical behaviour. Farces typically involve mistaken identities, lots of physical comedy and outrageous plot twists. 4. Tragi-comedy ; : Tragi-comedy isa play that ends both: happily and sorrowfully. An example is Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice.5. Melodrama -enplified and Melodrama is another typeof exaggerated drama. Asin fare, the characters tend t0DESIOD J one-dimensional. The formulaic storyline of the classic melodrama typically involves a villain, and a hero who must rescue the heroine from the villain. 6. Musical In musical theatre, the story is told not only through dialogue and: Musicals are often comedic, although many do involve serious sul cast and lavish sets and costumes. acting but through musicand dance. ject matter. Most involve a large 7. Playlet ‘This isa short play, often with one act and does not exceed fifteen minutes of action. 3.3. IMPORTANCE OF DRAMA 1. Drama encourages kids to work collaboratively. They take part in activities where they must rely on each other and lear to trust. 2 Drama is a wonderful way for children to interact with, and interpret literature, or text of any sort. They get opportunities to analyse how a character’s personality, motives and actions influence plot. Some kids who think they don’t like books will find their way to reading by dramatising a story or poem. 3, Dramadevelops communication skills. People leam how to use their face, voice and body movements to get a message across to any audience, whether it be at a job interview, on stage, orwith a group of friends. 4. Dramaallowsone to practice many of the higher order thinking skills ina playful context. They must think critically, apply knowledge to new situations, analyse, solve problems, make decisions, collaborate —all skills that will benefit not just their reading and writing, but every core subject at school. 5. Drama prepares one for real life. In our rush to have children acquire academic learning, we often forget their personal and social development. The emphasis in drama is on beinga team rember and working collaboratively rather than hogging the limelight for yourself. Kids are expected to be active, reflective, flexible, responsible and responsive —all skills that will benefit them in every facet of their lives. 6. Drama gives kids an outlet for their creativity. Notevery child can wield a paintbrush to thei own satisfaction or play an instrument likea virtuoso, Dramaisa level playing field, 7. Dramaencourages self-discipline. Itmight look and sound messy and noisy, butt isn’t mayhem. It’s not about putting yourself first. It’s about working as a group. maatybe 8. Drama gives us a way to gain understanding of others. ‘We leam tolerance by walking a mile in another’s shoes, and drama is away to do that, «= 7 Re 3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF DRAMA: 1 Meant to be acted on stage. 28] 2. Action. 3. Written in acts and scenes. 4 Audience watch the play. 3.5 ELEMENTS OF DRAMA 1, Dialogue Dialogue isa literary and theatrical form consisting of a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people. 2. Action The process or state of acting or of being active; something done or performed; act. 3. Comic Relief Comic relief usually means a release of emotional or other tension resulting from a comic episode interposed in the midst of serious or tragic elements in a drama. Comic relief often takes the form ofa bumbling, wisecracking sidekick of the hero or villain ina work of fiction. A sidekick used for ‘comic relief will usually comment on the absurdity of the hero’s situation and make comments that would be inappropriate for a character who is to be taken seriously. Other characters may use comic relief as a means to irritate others or keep themselves confident. 4, Soliloquy A soliloquy is a device often used in drama when a character speaks to himself or herself, relating thoughts and feelings, thereby also sharing them withthe audience. Other characters, however, are not aware of what is being said. A soliloquy is distinct from a monologue oran aside: a monologue isa speech where one character addresses other characters; an aside is a (usually short) comment byone character towards the audience. 5. Aside An aside is a dramatic device in whicha character speaks to the audience, Byconvention, the audience is to realise that the character’s speech is unheard by the other characters on ‘Stage. It may be addressed to the audience expressly (in character or out) or represent an unspoken thought. An aside. is usuallya brief comment, rather than a speech, such asa monologue or soliloquy. Unlike public announcement, it occurs within the context of the play. An aside is, by convention, a true statement ofa character's thought; a character may be mistaken in an aside, but may not be dishonest. 6. Suspense Suspense is a feeling of pleasurable fascination and excitement mixed with apprehension, tension, and anxiety developed from an unpredictable, mysterious, and rousing source of entertainment. The term most often refers to an audience’s perceptions in a dramatic work. Suspense is not exclusive to fiction, It may operate whenever there is a perceived suspended drama or a chain of cause is left in doubt, with tension being a primary emotion felt as part of the situation. In the kind of suspense described byoe P mething bad to film director Alfred Hitchcock, an audience experiences suspense ee eee hierarchy of happen and have (or believe they have) a superior perspective on event's knowledge, yet they are powerless to intervene to prevent it rom happening. 7. Prologue . 4 3 is ing to a story that A prologue, from the Greek word ‘pro’ (before) and ‘Iégos’ (word), is an opening r establishes the setting and gives background details, often some: earlier story that ties into the main one, and other miscellaneous information. The Greek ‘prologos” included the modern meaning of prologue, but was of wider significance, more like the meaning of preface. 8... Epilogue An epilogue or epilog is a piece of writing at the end of a work of literature, usually used to bring closure to the work. It is presented from the perspective of within the story; when the author: steps in and speaks indirectly to the reader, that is more properly considered an afterword. The opposite is a prologue —a piece of writing at the beginning of a work of literature or drama, usually used to open the story and capture interest. % Conflict Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising within a group when the beliefs or actions of one or more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more members of another group. Conflict can arise between members of the same group, known as intragroup conflict, or it can occur between members of two or more groups, and involve violence, interpersonal discord, and psychological tension, knownas intergroup conflict. Conflict in groups often follows a specific course. Routine group interaction is first disrupted by an initial conflict, often caused by differences of opinion, disagreements between members, or scarcity of resources. At this point, the group is no longer united, and may split into coalitions. This period of conflict escalation in some cases gives way to a conflict resolution stage, after which the group can eventually return to routine group interaction once again. 10. Protagonist A protagonist, from Ancient Greek (protagonistes), meaning “one who plays the first part, chief actor” is the main character, the central or primary personal figure ofa literary, theatrical, cinematic or musical narrative, who enters conflict because of the antagonist. The audience is intended to mostly identify with the protagonist. In the theatre of Ancient Greece, three actors played every main dramatic role in a tragedy; the protagonist played the leading role whereas the deuteragonist and the tritagonist played the others. ll. Antagonist An antagonist is known as “opponent, competitor, enemy, rival”, “to contend for a prize.” He is a character, group of characters, or institution that represents the opposition against which the protagonist or protagonists must contend. In other words, an antagonist is a person or a group of people who oppose the main character(s).In the classic style of stories wherein the action consists ofa hero fighting a villain/enemy, the twocan be regarded as protagonist and antagonist, respectively. Of course, some narratives cast the villain the protagonist role, with the opposing hero as the antagonist. The antagonist may: also Tepresent a major threat or obstacle to the main character by his very existence, without necessarily deliberately targeting him or her. Examples in both film and theatre include Sauron, the main antagonist in The Lord of the Rings, who constantly battles the series’ protagonists, and Tybalt, an antagonist in Romeo and Juliet, who slays Mercutio and whose later death results in the exiling of one of the play’s protagonists, Romeo. A convention of the antagonist in a story is that their moral choices are less savoury than those of the protagonist. This is often used by an author to create conflict within a story. However, this is merely a convention and the reversal of this can be seen in the character Macduff from Macbeth, who is arguably morally correct in his desire to fight the tyrant Macbeth. The antagonist is also known as the vilain, 12. Tragic Character Aristotle shared his view of what makes a tragic hero in his Poetics. Aristotle suggests that a hero ofa tragedy must evoke in the audience a sense of pity or fear, saying, “the change of fortune presented must not be the spectacle ofa virtuous man brought from prosperity to adversity.” He establishes the concept that the emotion of pity stems not from a person becoming better but when a person receives undeserved misfortune and fear comes when the misfortune befalls aman like us. This is why Aristotle Points out the simple fact that, “The change of fortune should be not from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad.” According to Aristotle, a tragic hero Ought to bea man whose misfortune comes to him, not through vice or depravity but by some error of judgment. For example, King Oedipus kills his father from impulse and marries his mother out of ignorance. Aristotle contests that the tragic hero has to be a man “who is not eminently good and just, whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty.” He is not making the hero entirely good in which he can do no wrong but rather has the hero committing an injury ora great ‘wrong leading to his misfortune. Aristotle is not contradicting himself saying that the hero has to be virtuous and virtuous. He still has to be - to some degree - good. Aristotle adds ‘another qualification to that of being virtuous but not entirely good when he says, “He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous.” He goes on to give examples such as Oedipus and Thyestes.” 13. Comic Character A comic hero is fictional trait in movies or narrative work which displays at least a negligible level of personal charm or worth of personality which takes to win the audience’s basic approval and support. Examples of comic heroes include Superman, Spiderman and Batman. 14, Prompter The prompter in an opera house gives the singers the opening words of each phrase a few seconds early. Prompts are mouthed silently or hurled lyrically in a half-voice, audible (hopefully) only on Stage, (This is in contrast to the prompt in a spoken-drama theatre who aids actors who have forgotten their words or lines).rem 15. Stage , In theatre or performance arts, the stage is a designated space for the performance of productions. The Stage Serves as a space for actors or performers anda focal point for the members of the audience. As an architectural feature, the stage may consist ofa platform (often raised) or series of platforms. In some cases, these may be temporary or adjustable but in theatres and other buildings devoted to anal Productions, the stage is often a permanent feature. There are several types of stages that vary as to the usage and the relation of the audience to them. The most common form found in the West is the proscenium stage. In this type, the audience is located on one side of the stage with the Temaining sides hidden and used by the performers and technicians. Thrust stages may be similar to proscenium stages but with a platform or performance area that extends into the audience Space so that the audience is located on three sides. In theatre in the round, the audience is located on all four sides of the stage. The fourth type of stage incorporates created and found stages which may be constructed specifically for a performance or may involve a space that is adapted as a stage. 16. Props A property, commonly shortened to prop (plural: props), is an object used on stage or on screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct from the actors, scenery, costumes and electrical equipment. Consumable food items appearing in the production are also considered Properties. 17. Denouement ‘The denouement refers to the resolution of the complications of a plot in a work of fiction, generally done in a final act or section (often in the epilogue). The denouement generally follows the climax, except in mystery novels, in which the denouement and the climax may occur at the same time. 18... Resolution The resolution usually comes at the end of the story. The resolution will usually occur after the climax of the story. The resolution is where the overall conflict of the story is being resolved. 19. Climax In literature, the word ‘climax’ is used to describe the most intense and exciting part of story. In most instances, the term ‘climax’ in literature also brings in mind the decisive moment ina play. 20, Anti-climax It is the sudden transition in discourse from a significant idea to a trivial or ludicrous idea; also an event, period, or outcome that is strikingly less important or dramatic than expected. 21, Dramatic Irony Dramatic irony, in literature, is a plot device in which the audience’s or reader’s knowledge of events or individuals surpasses that of the characters. The words and actions of the characters take ona different meaning for the audience or reader than they have for the play’s characters. This mayhappen when, for example, a character reacts in an inappropriate or foolish way or when a character lacks self-awareness and thus acts under false assumptions. 22. Cast This has to do with the list of the characters in a play. Itis also known as dramatis personae, 23. The Producer Film producers prepare and then supervise the making of film before presenting the product toa financing entity or a film distributor. They might be employed by a production company or be independent, yet either way they help the creative people as well as the accounting personnel. The average Hollywood film made in 2013 had |just over 10 producers credits (3.2 producers, 4.4 executive producers, 1.2 co-producers, 0.8 associate producers and 0.5 other types of producers). 24. The Director A film director is a person who directs the making ofa film. Generally, a film director controls a film’s artistic and dramatic aspects, and visualises the script while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfilment of that vision. The director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of the play. 25. Tragic Flaw A tragic flaw isa literary term that refers to a personality trait ofa main character that leads to his or her downfall. In other words, a character witha tragic flaw is in need of some kind of attitude adjustment. The term usually comes up when you're studying a tragedy — that is, a piece of literature in ‘which the main character ends up dead or otherwise defeated. In this kind of play, the main character is sometimes also called the tragic hero. It is also known as hubris, 26. Complication A plot complication is something that puts a halt in the progression of the plot. Some examples are a natural disaster, financial problems, or death. 27. Dramatic Unities 5 The unities in drama are unity of time, unity of place and unity of action, By unity of time, it means the play’s events should not exceed one day (24 hours), 28. Playwright This is the writer ofa play, 29. Catharsis : saddae This is also known as “purgation of emotion”, coming immediately: after climax in the order of the plot, This is when the tension, suspense and fear calms down and the actors are free of their tensed: ‘motions,30. Plot This is the sequential arrangement of the events ina play. Aristotle suggests a play should have five acts and each act having a sequence. For example, Act 1 deals with exposition, that is the introduction of characters and others. Act 2 is catastrophe where conflict is introduced. It is also known as the Rising Action. Characters are in conflict with one another and this builds up to Act 3, the Climax. Here, tension and suspense rise to a peak. Act 4 is Catharsis, that is, purgation of emotions. The last act is Denouement, where all conflicts, problems, arguements, etc. are resolved. 31. Deux ex Machina This is an unexpected power or event that saves a siuation that seems without hope, especially in a play ornovel. It comes to play when an action is introduced in the middle of a conflict.