Optical Fiber

Communication
(TC-315)

Lecture # 06
Optic Fiber Theory
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber- Modes

• In a Single mode step index fiber,

• The V number (normalized frequency) is kept in the range

0 ≤ V < 2.405.

• In a Single mode fiber there are in fact two modes having orthogonal
polarization. The two modes are the Vertical (V) and Horizontal (H)
modes (also called independent degenerate propagation modes).

• The term single mode applies to the light propagation of a particular

polarization. Either one of these modes constitutes the fundamental
mode.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber- Modes

• Consider one mode has its transverse electric field polarized along x-
direction and the other orthogonal mode along the y-direction. The
propagation constants are kx and ky respectively.

• Assuming perfect fiber rotational symmetry, the two degenerate modes

will have kx = ky.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Fiber Birefringence

• Ideally, When kx=ky (as the fiber has perfect rotational symmetry), the
polarization state injected into the fiber will remain unchanged during
propagation throughout the fiber.

• However, practically there are imperfections in the circular symmetry of

the fiber or variations in refractive index profiles. Hence kx ≠ ky.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Fiber Birefringence

• Now that kx ≠ ky. The modes propagate with different phase velocities.

• The difference between their effective refractive indices is given the

name Fiber Birefringence (Bf).

• Bf = ny – nx, or,

• β = k0(ny - nx), Where, k0 = 2π/λ is the free space propagation

constant. β = phase propagation constant.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Fiber Birefringence

• If light is injected into such fiber, such that both modes are excited, then
one mode will be delayed in phase compared to the other mode.

• If the phase difference is 2π or an integral multiple of it then the two

modes will ‘beat’ i.e. the original input polarization state will be
reproduced a this point.

• Since we are talking in wavelengths which has a unit of distance eg cm, m

etc, there has to be a ‘beat length’ associated with this.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Fiber Birefringence

• This beat length is called the Fiber Beat Length and is denoted by Lp.

• Lp = 2π / β

• Typical Birefringence values of optical fibers range from,

• Bf = 1 x 10-3, which is a high birefringence fiber.

• Bf = 1 x 10-8, which is a low birefringence fiber.

In-Class Exercise
Q) We are given a single mode fiber which has a beat length of 8cm at an
optical wavelength of 1300nm. Determine the fiber birefringence. Given the
average range of fiber birefringence, where would you categorize this fiber
i.e. high-birefringence, intermediate-birefringence or low-birefringence?
In-Class Exercise
Q) We are given a single mode fiber which has a beat length of 8cm at an
optical wavelength of 1300nm. Determine the fiber birefringence. Given the
average range of fiber birefringence, where would you categorize this fiber
i.e. high-birefringence, intermediate-birefringence or low-birefringence?
Answer
We are given,
Lp = 8cm or 8x10-2 m,
λ = 1300nm or 1.3x10-6 m

1.3 x 10−6
Bf = nx – ny = λ / Lp = = 1.63 x 10-5
8 x 10−2
From the value of Bf obtained above, it’s an intermediate type fiber.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Cutoff Wavelength

• We note that for 0 ≤ V < 2.405, There also exist a cutoff wavelength
denoted by λc.

• This theoretical value of λc denotes the value of wavelength above which a

particular fiber becomes a single mode fiber.

2𝜋𝑎𝑛1
• λc = (2∆)(1/2)
𝑉𝑐
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Cutoff Wavelength
2𝜋𝑎𝑛1
• λc = (2∆)(1/2)
𝑉𝑐

• Here,
• λc = cutoff wavelength.
• a = radius of the fiber core.
• n1 = refractive index of the core.
• Δ = core-cladding index difference.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Cutoff Wavelength

• The V-number formula is given by ,

2𝜋𝑎𝑛1
• V= (2∆)(1/2)
𝜆

• Here,
• λ = wavelength of light.
• a = radius of the fiber core.
• n1 = refractive index of the core.
• Δ = core-cladding index difference.
Step index Single Mode Optical Fiber-
Cutoff Wavelength

• Comparing both formulas we can conclude that,

𝜆𝑐 𝑉
• =
𝜆 𝑉𝑐

• For a step index fiber Vc = 2.405, the cutoff wavelength can hence be given
by,

𝑉𝜆
• 𝜆𝑐 =
2.405
In-Class Exercise
Q) We are given a step index fiber having an index difference of 0.25%. The
core’s refractive index and radius is of 1.46 and 4.5µm respectively.
Determine the cutoff wavelength.
In-Class Exercise
Q) We are given a step index fiber having an index difference of 0.25%. The
core’s refractive index and radius is of 1.46 and 4.5µm respectively.
Determine the cutoff wavelength.

Answer)
2𝜋𝑎𝑛1
The formula λc = (2∆)(1/2) will give the cutoff wavelength.
𝑉𝑐

Here,
a = 4.5x10-6m, n1 = 1.46, Δ = 0.0025 and Vc = 2.405.
λc = 1214nm.
Graded Index Optical Fiber

• In a Graded index optical fiber,

• The refractive index of the core is made to vary as a function of the

radial distance (r) from the center of the Fiber (or the fiber axis).

• The refractive index gradually decreases inside the core till it reaches a
value that is equal to that of the refractive index of the cladding (n2).
i.e. at only r = 0 (near the core’s center), we have n(r) = n1 and at r = a,
we have n(r) = n2.

• The refractive index is highest at the center of the core.

Step Index Optical Fiber

Figure: Step index (Multimode) Optical fiber.

Graded Index Optical Fiber

Figure: Graded index (Multimode) Optical fiber.

Graded Index Optical Fiber

• The refractive index of the cladding is generally constant but can also be
made to vary if required.

• Multimode Graded index fibers have reduced intermodal dispersion than

multimode step index fiber. Hence they allow greater bandwidth
(information carrying capability) .

• The index profile of a graded index fiber is,

Graded Index Optical Fiber

• The index profile of a graded index fiber is,

1/2
𝑟 𝛼
𝑛1 1 − 2∆ 𝑟 < 𝑎 (𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒)
•𝑛 𝑟 =൞ 𝑎
1
𝑛1 1 − 2∆ 2 = 𝑛2 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

• n1 = refractive index of the core.

• n2 = refractive index of the cladding.
• α = shape of the index profile (α -profile).
Graded Index Optical Fiber

• The α-profile of a graded index fiber can have different values each
corresponding to a specific shape of the index profile.

• If α = ∞ (infinitely large) then n(r) = n1 and the step index profile is

exhibited by the fiber.

• If α = 2 then a parabolic index profile is exhibited by the fiber.

• If α = 1 then a triangular index profile is exhibited by the fiber.

Graded Index Optical Fiber-
Index Profile figure

Different types
of index profile
Graded Index Optical Fiber-
Index Profile figure

Different values
of index profile α
In-Class Exercise

Q) Which commercial fabrication methods results in the formation of a

preform having a smooth graded index profile.
In-Class Exercise

Q) Which commercial fabrication methods results in the formation of a

preform having a smooth graded index profile.

Answer)
Modified chemical vapor deposition method.
Plasma activated chemical vapor deposition method.
Graded Index Optical Fiber

• The index difference Δ for a graded index fiber is,

𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛1 −𝑛2

•Δ= ≅
2𝑛12 𝑛1
Week 02 Reading Exercise
• Chapter 2 of Optical fiber communication: Principles and Practice by John
Senior.