13 KEC151P 251P Electronics Engg Lab

GALGOTIA COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
Academic Content File

KEC-151P/251P – ELECTRONICS LAB
ODD/EVEN
SEMESTER
2021-2022
Vision of Institute
To be a leading educational institution recognized for excellence in engineering education

and research producing globally competent and socially responsible technocrats.
Mission of Institute
IM1: To provide state of the art infrastructural facilities that support achieving academic
excellence.
IM2: To provide a work environment that is conducive for professional growth of faculty
and staff.
IM3: To collaborate with industry for achieving excellence in research, consultancy and
entrepreneurship development.
Vision of Department
To be recognized as a center of excellence in Electronics and Communication Engineering
for the quality and global education, interdisciplinary research and innovation, to produce
committed graduates who can apply knowledge and skills for the benefit of society.
Mission of Department
DM1: To provide quality education by providing state of the art facility and solutions for
global challenges.
DM2: To provide a framework for promoting the industry-institution collaboration and
empower the students in interdisciplinary research.
DM3: To transform students into socially responsible, ethical and technically proficient
engineers with innovative skills and usage of modern tools.
DM4: To make the students corporate ready with spirit and necessary interpersonal skills.
Program Educational Objectives

PEO 1 Graduates will excel in their career by acquiring knowledge in the field of
Electronics and Communication Engineering with the usage of modern tools
and emerging technologies.
PEO 2 Graduates will have the capability to analyze real life problems of the society
and produce innovative solutions.
PEO 3 Graduates exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, communication skills and

team work in core engineering, academia and research organizations through
professional development and life-long learning.
Program Outcomes
PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis
of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Program Specific Outcomes

By the completion of Electronics & Communication Engineering program the student
will be able to:
PSO1: Design and develop models for analog & digital electronic circuits and systems.
PSO2: Design, develop and test electronic and communication systems for applications
with real time constraints.
Course Outcomes
Semester I
Course Code KEC-151P/251P

Course Name ELECTRONICS LAB
Course Outcome Statement (On completion of this course, the student will be able to)
CO1 Demonstrate the behaviour of various applications PN junction diode.
CO2 Conduct experiments illustrating the characteristics of BJT and

applications of OPAMP.
CO3 Implementation and truth table verification of various logic gates.
Mapping of CO PO and PSO

Semester I
Course KEC-151P/251P
Code
Course ELECTRONICS LAB

Name
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO PO P PO PO PO PSO PSO2

7 8 O 10 11 12 1
9
CO1 3 2 2 2 3 - - - 1 2 - 3 3 2
CO2 3 2 2 2 3 - - - 1 2 - 3 3 2
CO3 3 3 3 2 3 - - - 1 1 - 3 3 2
Average 3 2.3 2.3 2 3 - - - 1 1.6 - 3 3 2
SYLLABUS
Part A
1. Study of various types of Active & Passive Components based on their ratings. 2.
Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques.
3. PCB Lab: a. Art work & printing of a simple PCB. b. Etching & drilling of PCB 4.
Winding shop: Step down transformer winding of less than 5VA.
5. Soldering shop: Soldering and disordering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and disordering of IC
in PCB. Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.
Part B
1. Study of Lab Equipments and Components: CRO, Multimeter, and Function

Generator, Power supply- Active, Passive Components and Bread Board.
2. P-N Junction diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode - Static and dynamic
resistance measurement from graph.
3. Applications of PN Junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of Vrms,
Vdc, and ripple factor.
4. Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I characteristics of zener diode, Graphical measurement
of forward and reverse resistance.
5. Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.
6. To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor
7. Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.
8. Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both SOP and
POS forms.
Class/Laboratory Schedule:
Lab: Two 50-minute practical hours per week.
Experiments available on virtual lab
P-N Junction on diode: Characteristics http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp5/index.html
of Junction diode - Static and dynamic
resistance measurement from graph.
Applications of PN Junction diode: Half http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp6/index.html

& Full wave rectifier-Measurement of http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp7/index.html
V rms, Vdc,
and ripple factor
Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp10/index.html

characteristics of Zener diode,
Graphical measurement of forward
and reverse resistance.
Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp11/index.html

configuration.
To study Operational Amplifier as http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html

Adder and Subtractor http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp18/index.html
Verification of Truth Table of Various https://de-iitr.vlabs.ac.in/digital-electronicsiitr/
Logic Gate
exp/truth-table-gates/
Implementation of the given Boolean https://de-iitr.vlabs.ac.in/digital-electronicsiitr/

function using logic gates in both SOP exp/realization-of-logic-functions/
and POS forms.
Part A
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
AIM: To Study of Active and Passive Components based on their ratings.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Apparatus / Components Specification Quantity
1. CRO 1
2. Function Generator 1
3. Multimeter 1
Active and passive
components (Diode,
Transistor, Resistance , 1no. each
4. Capacitance) 1
Power supply & Bread Board
THEORY:
Introduction:
In the designing of any electronic circuit, three most important considerations are:
(i) Circuit components like resistors, Capacitors, Transistors and Diodes. (ii)
Power sources like dc power supplies and signal generators
(iii) Measurement and analysis instruments like multi meters and Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO).
This experiment deals with familiarization of basic components like resistors, Capacitors and
diodes.
Basic Components: Basic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light emitting
diode (led) and transistors can be divided into 2 categories: (i) Passive components like resistors
and capacitors and (ii) Active components like diodes and transistors. The difference between the
above two categories is that active components can generate energy whereas passive
components can not generate energy. In other words active components can increase power of a
signal whereas passive components often cause the power to be lost.
Some components like resistors have their values marked on them whereas others like
transistors do not have any value marking but have a type number on them. One has to refer to
datasheets to get to know the value of the unmarked component. Besides component values, they
are also characterized by their ratings for e.g. maximum current value that a component can
stand without being burnt out.
Resistors: Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors. The formula
for resistance is given by: R = ρ l / A where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A is area of
crossection. Different value resistors can be manufactured by changing the length and area of
crossection or the material itself which changes the resistivity. Materials generally used for
fabrication of resistors are nichrome (80 % Ni and 20 % Cr), constatntan (55% cu and 45 % Ni
) and Manmganin (85 % Cu and 10 % Mn and < 5 % Ni). Metals are not used as they have a
very high temperature coefficient of resistance. Three main methods of fabrication are (i) a slab
or a rod of suitable resistivity, (ii) Material using thinner crossection and longer length. The
length is doubled and then wound in such a way that inductance effects are cancelled out. (iii)
Thin films of material on insulating substrate. Each resistor has a current carrying capacity.
Current more than the prescribed wattage may damage the resistor.
Colour Code for Resistors

Band colour Band colour & its
& its value tolerance
Black = 0 Gold = + - 5%
Brown = 1 Silver = + - 10 %
Red = 2 No colour means 20 %
Orange = 3
Yellow = 4
Green = 5
Blue = 6
Violet = 7
Grey = 8
White = 9
The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits, digit corresponding to 3rd band is the
power of 10 to be multiplied and fourth band indicates tolerance as mentioned in the table. Refer
fig 1, where brown = 1, black = 0, red = 2 and silver = 10 % tolerance. Hence its value is 10 x 10
2
Ω = 1 k Ω.
Most commonly used resistors in lab are fixed value resistors which exist for standard values
according to E12. Other ranges are E24 and E48 Ranges.

E12 Range: Table 1 is for the values of resistors of E12 range. Topmost row defines the basic
Value units of resistors in ohms. Every following row is 10 fold of the upper row. Table 1:
Table for E12 range values of resistors.
1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3. 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2 Ω
Ω 3
10 Ω 12 . . . . 68 82 Ω
100 Ω 680 820

Ω
1k 1.2k 6.8k 8.2k
10k 82k
100k 820k
1M 1.2M 6.8M` 8.2M
10M 12M 68M 82M
Variable resistors Besides the fixed value resistors, there also exist variable resistors. The
resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also an
example of continuously varying resistor
Special purpose resistors Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are examples of
special purpose resistors. Thermistor is a resistor whose value depends on its temperature. It is
also called a heat sensor. LDR is a resistance whose resistance depends upon the amount of light
falling on it.
Capacitors
Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit
to another and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated by
a dielectric. The capacitance is defined as : C = Єo Єr A / d, where A is the area of plates, d is
plates separation, Єo is permittivity of free space and Єr is relative permittivity. An important

parameter for capacitors is its voltage handling capacity beyond which the capacitor dielectric
breaks down.
The value of a capacitor depends upon the dielectric constant (K = Єo Єr.) of the material. There
are three main classes of capacitors: (i) Non electrolytic or normal capacitors and (ii) electrolytic
capacitors and (iii) variable capacitors. Normal capacitors are mostly of parallel plate type and
can have mica, paper, ceramic or polymer as dielectric. In the paper capacitors two rectangular
metal foils are interleaved between thin sheets of waxed paper and the whole system is rolled to
form a compact structure. Each metal foil is connected to an electrode. In mica capacitors
alternate layers of mica and metal are clamped tightly together. Refer fig 3.
In electrolytic capacitor mostly a then metal-oxide film is deposited by means of electrolysis on
axial electrode. That’s how it derives its name. During electrolysis the electrode acts as anode
whose cathode is a concentric can. Since the dielectric layer is very thin hence these require
special precaution for their use: i.e. they have to connected in the right polarity failing which the
dielectric breaks down. Besides these fixed value capacitors we also have variable capacitors
whose value depends upon the area of crossection. They have a fixed set of plates and a movable
set of plates which can be moved through a shaft. This movement changes the area of overlap of
the two sets of plates which changes its capacity. Refer fig 3.
Colour and Number code of capacitors. Different marking schemes are used for electrolytic and
non-electrolytic capacitors. Temperature coefficient is of minor importance in an electrolytic
filter capacitor, but it is very important in ceramic trimmers for attenuator use. One never finds
temperature coefficient on an electrolytic label, but it is always present on ceramic trimmers.
(i) Electrolytic Capacitors: There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) Axial where
the leads are attached to each end (220µF in picture) and (ii) Radial where both leads
are at the same end (10µF in picture) Refer fig 4.
(iii) Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1µF): Small value capacitors have their values printed but
without a multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in
between 2 digits indicating a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code : A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is
difficult: the 1st number is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the
power of ten to be multiplied., to give the capacitance in pF. Any letters just indicate tolerance
and voltage rating. For example: 102 means 10 X 10 2 pF = 1nF and 472J means 4700pF =
4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code: Sometimes capacitors just show bands like resistors when printing is
tough on them. The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands
giving the value in pF. The 4th band and 5th band are for tolerance and voltage rating
respectively. For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF.
Available Values of Capacitors: Like resistors capacitors are also available for only
particular values. Following are 2 series defined for capacitors
The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22, 47, then it continues 1to100, 220, 470,
1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100,
150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Inductors: Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used
to vary the impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning. The value of an inductor depends
upon the total number of turns (N), area of crossection of the core (A) and length of the core
(l).The formula is L = μ o μr N2 A / l. Its unit is in Henry.
Diode: A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is to
rectify an ac signal although other special purpose diodes like Zener and LED’s are used for
other purposes. A normal diode comes in a black casing whereas a zener diode has a transparent
casing. Their pictures and symbols are given in fig. 7.

Other diodes may be made by a p type and n type materials or between a semiconductor and a
metal. If the junction is made between a metal and semiconductor then it is called a Schottky
diode whose application is in rectifying and non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices. If the
pn junction is made between very heavily doped materials then it forms a Zener diode. These are
used for voltage regulation in power supplies. and have breakdown voltages which are very low.
The normal diode has a breakdown voltage of greater than 100 V.
Some of the diode specifications are: Maximum reverse voltage (Vbr), rated forward current (If) ,
maximum forward voltage drop (Vf) and package style. Table 3 gives some of the most
commonly used diodes with their specifications.
Table 3 Diodes Names & Their Rating

Device Material IF (mA) VF(V) VBR
Number used. (V)
OA91 Ge 50 2.1 115
In 4148 Si 100 1.0 75
In 4149 Si 100 1.0 75
IN 4007 Si 1000 1.6 1000
To test whether a given diode is O.K. or not, a simple multimter test can be
performed. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED’s are p-n junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction. The
semiconductor material used for these junctions is a compound semiconductor like AlGaAs whose band
gap corresponds to a particular wavelength according to equation Eg = 1.24 / λ where Eg is the band gap in
ev and λ is the wavelength in microns. (e.g. red ~ 0.7 μ hence corresponding E g = 1.24 / 0.7 = 1.77 ev).
When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons are excited to conduction band and when they fall
to the valence band, they give out energy in the form of radiation corresponding to the Eg of the material
Conventional led’s are made from the materials like AlGaAs, GaAlP, GaAsP, GaP and GaN which emit
Red, green, orange, yellow and blue colours respectively. Led’s come in a special transparent casing as
shown in fig 8..Dual colour led’s are also available where two junctions are encapsulated on the same
chip. It has three leads where cathode is common whereas normal leds’ have two leads one for cathode
and other for anode. A very important precaution while using an led is the amount of current being passed
through it. For most leds the maximum allowable current is 20 mA beyond which the led can burn out.
Hence in most of the circuits a resistor is used to limit the current. Some important specifications before
using an led are: LED colour, peak wavelength, viewing angle, optical power output, luminous intensity,
forward current and forward voltage.
Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages, current and are
also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal device made of three layers
of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and
(ii) npn. Their most important specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe and Power rating. They come in different
casings like TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etc Given below is a table of most commonly used transistors with
their specifications (approximate) and casings. Datasheets from the companies can be referred to to know
the exact specifications.
Code Structur Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible

e style max. max mi max. (typical use) substitutes
. n.
BC107 NPN TO18 100m 45V 110 300m Audio, low power BC182 BC547
A W
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA General purpose, BC108C

mW low power BC183
BC548
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA General purpose,

C mW low power
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA Audio (low BC184 BC549

mW noise), low
power
BC182 NPN C General purpose, BC107 BC182L

A 50V mW low power
BC182 NPN A General purpose, BC107 BC182

L 50V mW low power
BC547 NPN C Audio, low power BC107B

B A 45V mW
BC548 NPN C General purpose, BC108B

B A 30V mW low power
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW Audio (low noise),
low power BC109
2N305 NPN TO39 700mA 50 500m General purpose, BFY51
3 W low power
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800m General BC639

W purpose,
medium power
BC639 NPN TO92 1A 80V 40 800m General BFY51

A W purpose,
medium power
TIP29 NPN TO22 1A 60V 40 30W General purpose,
A 0 high power
TIP31 NPN TO22 3A 60V 10 40W General purpose, TIP31C TIP41A

A 0 high power
TIP31C NPN TO22 3A 100 10 40W General purpose, TIP31A TIP41A

0 V high power
TIP41 NPN TO22 6A 60V 15 65W General purpose,

A 0 high power
2N305 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W General purpose,

5 high power
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA Audio, low power BC477

mW
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA General purpose, BC478

mW low power
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA Audio (low

mW noise), low
power
BC477 PNP TO18 150m 80V Audio, low power BC177

A mW
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA General purpose, BC178

mW low power
TIP32 PNP TO22 3A 60V 25 40W General purpose, TIP32C

A 0 high power
TIP32C PNP TO22 3A 100 10 40W General purpose, TIP32A

0 V high power
Fig 9 gives some of the transistors with the symbols. for npn and pnp. and fig 10 illustrates some of the
casings. with the configurations for emitter , base and collector leads
Integrated Circuits (IC)
Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have IC’s in them. Integrated circuit is a name given to
a package which can hold more than 10 and up to millions of electronic components. They can give
various functions like : (i) the function of a full microprocessor circuit (eg 8085), (ii) a memory chip, (iii)
a voltage regulator (LM 7805) or (iv) Can contain just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400). They come in a black
bench like casing with a notch on one side and with electrical legs for connections, which are called pins.
The size is usually around 1 cm2 X 1 cm2. Refer to the picture. Its name is always written on top which
contains a few letters with numerals, according to its type, make and company. For example an IC with
name LS 7400 would mean LS series with And gates, LM741C - mA741C is an operational amplifier
(opamp). Datasheets can be referred to, to know the details of pin configurations and make etc. The pins
are usually read starting from left of notch and going anticlockwise as shown in picture for 555 timer IC.
Fabrication of an IC is a highly sophisticated and expensive process requiring clean rooms and very
expensive equipments like photolithography, metallization and diffusion etc. But because of their bulk
manufacture and requirement the cost of each IC is very low.
Results: All Active & Passive components have been identified and tested ,all results are
indicated in Tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

All the active and passive components have been identify and measured successfully.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make all electrical connections should be tight.

2. All the Measurements observations should be take carefully.
3. Switch off all equipment power supply after completed experiments.
4. Use all Equipment carefully and don’t rotate knobs of equipment unnecessary.
EXPERIMENT NO-2
Aim:- Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering
Techniques.
Introduction:
The acronym of the printed circuit board is PCB, it is a self contained board with
interconnected electrical and electronic components found in various devices ranges from
beepers to pagers, radios, radar and computer systems. The circuits are produced by a slight layer
of conducting material deposited on the outside of an insulating board called as the substrate.
Separate components are located on the surface of the substrate & soldered to the connected
circuits. The construction of the PCB can be done in three ways, namely single sided, double
sided and multi layered. The components on a PCB are connected electrically to the circuits by
two different methods such as hole technology and surface mount. In hole technology, every
component consists of thin leads, which are pressed through tiny holes in the substrate &
soldered to connection boards in the circuits on the reverse side.In surface mount technology, J
shaped or L-shaped terminals on every component get in touch with the PCB directly. A solder
paste includes a glue, solder and flux are applied at the contact point to grip the components in
position until the solder is liquefied.
Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards

PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are located They
are specially designed for each and every circuit and build construction very easy. Though,
making the PCB necessitates special tools. The different types of printed circuit boards mainly
include the following
• Single Sided PCBs

• Double Sided PCBs
• Multilayer PCBs
• Rigid PCBs
• Flex PCBs
• Rigid-Flex PCBs
Single Sided PCBs
This single sided printed circuit board includes just one layer of base material or substrate. One
end of the substrate is coated with a thin layer of metal, usually copper because it is a good
electrical conductor. Generally, a protecting solder mask be seated on the peak of the copper
layer, and a last silkscreen coat may be applied to the top to mark elements of the board.
This PCB consists of various circuits and electronic components on the only single side. This
kind of module works most excellent for easy electronics, and beginners often design and build
this type of board first. These boards tend to cost less to mass-produce than other types of boards.
But although this low cost, they’re used rarely because of their intrinsic design limitations.
Double Sided PCBs
This type of PCBs is much more familiar than single-sided boards. Both sides of the board’s
substrate include metal conductive layers, and elements attach to both sides as well. Holes in the
PCB let circuits on a single side to attach to circuits on the other side.
These kind of circuit boards used to connect the circuits on every side using one of two
techniques: through-hole & surface mount technology. Through-hole technology engages feeding
small wires, called as leads through the holes & soldering every end to the suitable component.
Surface mount technology is different from through-hole technology, it does not utilize wires. In
its place, many little leads get soldered straight onto the board. Surface mount technology
permits many circuits to be complete in a lesser space on a board, meaning the board can execute
more functions, typically at a lesser weight and at faster speeds than through-hole boards let.
Multilayer PCBs
These PCBs further enlarges the density and complexity of PCB designs by adding extra layers
beyond the top & bottom layers seen in a configuration of double sided. With the accessibility of
over many layers in multilayer printed circuit board configurations, multilayer PCBs let
designers to make very thick and highly compound designs.
The extra layers used in this design are power planes, which both provide the supply to the
circuit with power and also decrease the levels of electromagnetic interference which are emitted
by designs. Lower EMI levels are attained by placing signal levels in the middle of power planes.
Rigid PCBs
In addition to having different numbers of layers & sides, Printed circuit boards can also come in
changing inflexibilities. Most customers usually think of inflexible PCBs when they image a
circuit board. Rigid printed circuit boards use a solid, rigid substrate material like fiberglass that
remains the board from twisting. A motherboard within the tower of a computer is the best
example of an inflexible PCB.
Flex PCBs
Generally, the substrate in a flexible board is a flexible plastic. This fundamental material
permits the board to fit into forms that inflexible boards cannot & to turn or shift during use
without harmful the circuits on the printed circuit board. Though flex boards tend to charge more
to intend and create than rigid PCBs, they come with a number of advantages. For instance, they
can restore heavy or bulky wiring in superior gear like satellites, where weight & space matter.
Flex boards can also come in three formats, namely single sided, double-sided or multilayer
formats.
Rigid-Flex PCBs
Rigid flex boards merge technology from both flexible and rigid circuit boards. An easy rigid flex
board comprises of a rigid circuit board those joints to a flex circuit board. These boards can be
more compound if design requests demand.
Thus, this is all about different types of printed circuit boards, which includes Sided PCBs,
Double Sided PCBs, Multilayer PCBs, Rigid PCBs, Flex PCBs, Rigid-Flex PCBs, etc. We hope
that you have got a better understanding of this concept Single. We hope that you have got a
better understanding of this concept or to implement bread board projects, please give your
valuable suggestions by commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you,
what are the softwares are available for PCB design?
Soldering Techniques for Building Printed-Circuit Boards
(PCBs)
Printed-circuit board (PCB) design is important not only to evaluate circuit ideas
before integrating them onto a chip but also because the performance of integrated prototype
chips is highly dependent on the evaluation board used to test them. Consequently, developing
PCB-building and soldering skills are important, which is why the purpose of this document is
to review some basic soldering tools andtechniques.
Basic Soldering Tools:
• Soldering Iron – Used to melt solder and connect component pins to board pads. A
cheap soldering pencil may be sufficient, but a temperature-controlled solder station is
best for high performance boards.
• Solder – An alloy of tin and lead with a low melting point. Based on diameter and
metallic and core content, various soldering solutions are available. For example, thick
and thin solders are useful for connecting power devices and surface mount technology
(SMT) components, respectively.
• Flux or Rosin – A substance used to channel solder flow and prevent oxide formation.
Rosin was first used for this purpose, but it is a bit messy. Flux is better and therefore
more popular today.
• Solder Wick or De-soldering Braid – A tool used to extract solder and de-solder
components from the board, for which a pump is sometimes helpful, if large amounts
of solder arepresent.
• Flux Remover – A liquid used to remove flux residue.
• Hot Plate – A tool used to seamlessly solder SMT packages and multi-pin chip
components to the PCB.
• Pliers, Knife, Multi-Meter, and Magnifier – Pliers are used to cut, bend, and sometimes
strip component leads; a knife to strip wires and trim traces; multi-meters to test
electrical connectivity; and a magnifier for soldering small SMT chip components.
Rules of Thumb:
• “Practice makes perfect” – Patience, time, and training are important (Georgia Tech’s
IEEE student branch offers entry-level solder training annually).
• Order is important – Assemble small, flat, multi-pin, surface-mount (SMT) devices first
(there may be insufficient space left for them otherwise) and place visible labels
around the components to avoid mistakes and facilitate the debugging process during
the evaluation phase of the prototype.
• Immobilize components before soldering them – Use glue or any mechanical means to
stabilize the devices before soldering them (this frees both hands to handle the solder
and soldering pencil or gun).
• Heat the joint, not the solder – Heating the solder directly prevents it from flowing into
the joint, staying on the tip of the heat gun instead. Consequently, to avoid this, the
joint should be heated, not the solder, and because the joint is a good thermal conductor,
the solder will melt and adhere to the joint only.
• Use capillary forces – Molten solder naturally flows along metal-plated traces and pads
by capillary forces and applying flux facilitates this process, removing undesired
oxidants in the process.
• Test connectivity – Examine and evaluate solder connections both visually and
electrically (with a multimeter), especially for small joint connections.
EXPERIMENT NO. 3(a)
AIM:- PCB Lab (a) Art work & Printing of a Simple PCB.
(b) Etching & Drilling of PCB
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. A developer (Sodium Carbonate).
2. B developer (Butyl cell solution).
3. Fixer.
4. Motor.
5. Photo-cure machine.
PROCESS:-
Draw the circuit on transparency i.e. Artwork with error proof.
EXPOSURE TIME:-
Expose the lith film together with the transparent sheet for 5sec.
DEVELOPMENT:-
Use a development tray which is large enough to enable film handling with care. Put sufficient
developer in the tray so that the film can get completely covered with it. Now all the handling of
the film should be done by touching only the corners.
To start a development Procedure Slide the exposed film sheet with emulsion down through the
solution only. Start immediately to lift the tray rotationally each side by about 2cm.
STOPBATH:-
After development is over the film is gripped on one edge and lifted the developing tray for 3
sec. which enable the excess developer to draw .Now immediately thereafter the film is immersed
into the stop bath always with emulsion side. Upward to mechanical damages on the softened
emulsion. The stop bath stops effectively the development action.
FIXING BATH:-
The emulsion is properly fix after in the fixing solution for twice the time, it takes for the milky
appearance to clear completely.
FILM WASHING:-
After all underdeveloped silver halides have been removed the emulsion is
steel saturated with the chemicals of the fixing bathe and some desolved silver
compound. If they are not removed by washing so they will slowly decompose
and attack the image, causing stain and faided film.
The effectiveness of washing can be greatly improved if the film sheet after
fixing, gets a brief water rinse under the tap to remove the excess fixing solution
which otherwise would contaminated the washing tank.
DRYING:-
After washing, a dip in a wetting agent is the valuable aid for the drying process.
For good results, drying could take place slowly at room temperature.
LAYOUT PLANNING:-
1. Depending on the accuracy required artwork should be produced at a ratio of 1:1 or 4:1. 2.
Use of grid system in layout and artwork design is a commonly accepted practice. Use of
grid gives more convenience in placement of components and conductors. 3. Selection of
Board type-single sided.
4. MATERIAS AND AIDS:
(a) Simple approach and sketching of components.
(b) Layout sketching with puppets.
5. To prepare each and every PCB layout as viewed from component side. 6. Unless and
unstill absolutely cleared circuit diagram is available. Startingly the designing of layout is
not possible.
7. Complete the layout work and start with interconnection.
8. Develop the layout in direction of single flow.
9. Among the components the longer one is placed first then the space in between is filled
with smaller one.
10. Design and interconnection can be done by pencil line.
GENERAL ARTWORK RULE:-

1. In PCB artwork higher conductor density is an established practice.
2. To run the conductors on one side in given direction.
3. Where conductors have to be placed in other direction preference should be given to 48
direction or 30/60 direction.
4. It is a good rule, to begin and end the conductors in solder pad.
5. Where one or several conductors have to pass between pads or other conducting carrier,
spacing has to be equally distributed.
COMPONENTS POLARITY IDENTIFICATION:-
It is very essential when artwork is completed, a through check is carried out to prepare and
to prove its exact correspondence with circuit diagram.
DOCUMENTATION:-
1. Circuit diagram.
2. Legend.
3. Artwork
4. Drill Problem.
5. Soldier masks.
6. Green masks.
7. Component layout.
8. Component list.
THEORY:-
The manual artwork PCB design is the method used by most manufacturing of PCB with this
method extremely accurate, high density PCB can be constructed. This artwork is then
Photographed to produce a negative which can be used with sensitized printed circuit. Exposing
of the negative by contact with coated circuit board is done first and then developing and other
process are required for a PCB.
PROCESS:-
1. Clean the laminate:-Before the metal surface is coating with crescent photoresist. Clean
surface thoroughly so as to make a completely free of physical and chemical continuation.
2. Coating the laminate:-Crescent Photo-resist can apply precisely and economically be using
a dipping process, done by a photo-resist to coats.
3. Thinner:-The thinner is used to dilute the photo-resist as it tends to get the thick during non
use. The use of thinner will depend upon the method of coating.
4. Prefacing:-After coating the laminate allow it to dry naturally for 5 min. this helps to
evaporate the solvents completely.
5. Exposer:-The coated laminate is normally exposed in contact with photographic. Negative

and Positive crescent photo-resist is sensitive to U.V radiation and therefore U.V tube based U.V
exposer can be used for exposer.
6. Development:-The exposed plate should be placed into the solvents based developer. This
will remove unexposed area of the photo-resist and will produce colourless resist image which
has plastic like appearance.
7. Washing:-Immediately after developer is over, wash it on running water of natural pH. After
washing and drying, dying is carried out to improve the visibility of image.
8. Drying the Image:-Immense the dried that plate in the dye developer bath. The surface of
the board is coloured with the dye developer. The board is put under the running water of neutral
pH, in order to wash off the dye stain from unexposed area, which result into a clean dyed image
of photo-resist and the dry.
9. Post curing:-The post-baked surface will be stronger than the unbaked one. This process can
be done on PCB curing machine
RESULT:-
After this process, circuit resist has left on required part of PCB and now coated
or unprotected metal may be etched in etching solution to prepare PCB.
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Worktable, apparatus, tanks, traces should be completely free from dust and dirt
2. Use of thinner should be done carefully
EXPERIMENT-3 (b)
Aim:- Etching and Drilling of PCB.
Etchingmachine
Ferric chloride
DrillingMachine
THEORY:-
This is an important and critical step in chemical processing of direct etched boards. Although
basically this operation of chemical removal of unwanted copper portion ferric chloride is widely
used for copper and copper alloys. He removed the unwanted copper from laminate by photo
etching machine. In this machine laminate put in tank filled with chemical ferric chloride which
is agitated by a pump and a heater. The heater helps the chemical become to warm and help it to
etch PCB faster.
Fresh chemical is available to the surface area that dissolved the metal from surface is rinsed
away simultaneously. Sensor is provided for maintaining temperature.
DRILLING:-
After etching, drilling of PCB is done for making holes on the conductor pattern for inserting
the component leads to the solder of PCB.
RESULTS:-
PCB is fabricated according to the required circuit board.
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Clean and etch the board after completion of etching.
2. Drilling should be done carefully

EXPERIMENT NO-4
Aim: - To design a step-down transformer of less than 5VA.
Apparatus/Material used: -
Leatheraid Paper
Prespond oil paper
E type and I type cores
Coils of transformer
Primary winding conductor size of 33 SWG
Secondary winding conductor of 42 SWG
Connecting wires of two different colors.
Soldering Iron and soldering wire
Bobbin (12’’)
Hand driven winding machine
Theory: -
A transformer is a static or stationary piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one
circuit is transformed into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It con raise or
lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It
essentially consists of two winding (a) Primary (b) Secondary wound on laminated magnetic
core.
The winding connected to a.c source are called primary winding & that to load are secondary
winding.
If V2 >V1 (step up transformer)
V2< V1 (step down transformer)
Working principle: - When V1 applied in primary, an alternating flux is set up in core this
alternating flux links both the winding and induced e.g. and E1 and E2 in them. According to the
faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The e.g. E1 is termed as primary emf & E2 as
secondary emf.
E1 = -N1 dØ/dt
E2 = -N2 dØ/dt
E1/E2= N1/N2
Designing CF transformer: - Here we design a transformer of less than 5VA, so we take the 0/p
power of 4.5VA & hence we calculate the different parameter related to the transformer. We
select the conductor wire for primary and secondary winding according to the current rating.
The output power = 4.5VA

Input Voltage = 220V
Pin = Pout
V1 I1 =V2 I2
V1 = input voltage
V2 = output voltage
I1 = input current
I2 = output current
220 X I1 = 4.5
I1 = 4.5/220
I1 = Z Amp(assume)
V1 I1 =V2 I2
220 X Z =9 X I2
I2 = 220 X Z
I2 = __9________Amp
Cross section area of the core =√ P out
5.58
(Where 5.58 is a constant)
= .38
Turn per volt = 6/.38 = 15.78
(Where 6 is a constant
So, we select the wire for primary winding of 33 SWG and secondary winding of 42
SWG accordingly to the current rating.
Number of turns in –
Primary winding N1 = 220 X 15.78 = 3472
Secondary winding N2 = 9 X 15.78 = 142

Procedure: We select the wire for primary and secondary winding according to the current
rating. First we take the 3472 turns for primary winding and covered the bobbin with Leathered
paper 3 or 4 strip then take 142 turns same bobbin on primary winding which is insulated by
Leatheraid paper further we cover the secondary winding with the help Persephone paper 2 or 3
strip. Then we insert the E – core in the bobbin to fill the gap. Between the E – core we insert the
I – cores and test the continuity of transformer’s winding with the help of Millimeter.
Result: After these processes, we have designed a step down transformer of 9V
output. Precautions:
The winding should be done uniformly. Work table, apparatus tanks, trays should be completely
free from dirt and dust.
There should not be spacing between E & I core laminations.
33
EXPERIMENT-5
Aim:- Soldering shop: Soldering and disordering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and disordering
of IC in PCB. Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.
Soldering Equipment , DE soldering pump, Solder , Solder remover braid
SOLDERING THEORY:
1. Soldering is defined as "the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys, which have relatively
low melting points". In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to
adhere the surfaces to be soldered together. Soldering is more like gluing with molten
metal than anything else. Soldering is also a must have skill for all sorts of electrical and
electronics work. It is also a skill that can only be developed with practice. The steps
involved with soldering will be explained later in the document.
2. Soldering Equipment:
Soldering requires two main things: a soldering iron and solder. Soldering irons are the heat
source used to melt solder. Irons of the 15W to 30W range are good for most electronics/printed
circuit board work. Using anything higher in wattage and you risk damaging either the
component or the board. Note that you should not use so-called soldering guns. These are very
high wattage and generate most of their heat by passing an electrical current through a wire.
Because of this, the wire carries a stray voltage that could damage circuits and components. The
choice of solder is also important. One of the things to remember is to never use acid core solder.
Acid core solder will corrode component leads, board traces and form conductive paths between
components. The best solder for electronics work is a thin rosin core solder1
34
Soldering Procedure:
1. Surface Preparation
A clean surface is very important if you want a strong, low resistive solder joint. Since you
already have a PCB design, you don’t have to worry about your board being clean. But, make
sure that your component leads are clean.
2. Component Placement
Bend the leads as necessary and insert the component through the proper holes on the board. To
hold the part in place while you are soldering, you may want to bend the leads on the bottom of
the board at a 45 degree angle, refer to figure 3 below.
35
3. Apply Heat
Apply a very small amount of solder to the tip of the iron. This helps conduct the heat to the
component and board, but it is NOT the solder that will make up the joint. Now you are ready to
actually heat the component and board. Lay the iron tip so that it rests against both the
component lead and the board. Normally, it takes one or two seconds to heat the component up
enough to solder, but larger components and larger soldering pads on the board can increase the
time. Refer to figure 4 for a picture [1]. As a general rule of thumb, you should solder passive
components (resistors, capacitors, diodes etc.) first. The reason is that passives can be more
easily mounted as compared to transistors and integrated circuits (ICs). Make sure you solder
polarized capacitors and diodes correctly. You should also use sockets for ICs when available.
4. Apply Solder and Remove Heat
Once the component lead and solder pad has heated up, you are ready to apply solder. Touch the
tip of the strand of solder to the component lead and solder pad, but NOT the tip of the iron. If
everything is hot enough, the solder should flow freely around the lead and pad. Once the surface
of the pad is completely coated, you can stop adding solder and remove the soldering iron (in
that order).
Don't move the joint for a few seconds to allow the solder to cool. If you do move the joint, you
36
will get what's called a "cold joint". A cold joint is a joint in which the solder does not make
good contact with the component lead or printed circuit board pad. Cold joints occur when the
component lead or solder pad moves before the solder is completely cooled. Cold joints make a
really bad electrical connection and can prevent your circuit from working.
Cold joints can be recognized by a characteristic grainy, dull gray color, and can be easily fixed.
This is done by first removing the old solder with a desoldering tool or simply by heating it up
and flicking it off with the iron. Once the old solder is off, you can resolder the joint, making
sure to keep it still as it cools. Refer to figure 5 for a picture of correctly applying solder.
Desoldering
At some stage you will probably need to desolder a joint to remove or re-position a wire or
component. There are two ways to remove the solder:
1. With a desoldering pump
Also known as a 'solder sucker'. It is best to use one with an ESD (electrostatic discharge)
nozzle to protect some ICs which can be damaged by static electricity.
1. Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks. 2.
Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint. 3.
Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
4. Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten solder into
the tool.
5. Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.
37
6. The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.
2. With solder remover braid

The copper braid acts as a wick for the molten solder which readily flows onto the braid,
away from the joint.
1. Apply both the end of the copper braid and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
2. As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the braid, away from the joint. 3.
Remove the braid first, then the soldering iron.
4. Cut off and discard the end of the braid coated with solder.
After removing most of the solder from the joint(s) you may be able to remove the wire or
component lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool). If the joint will not come apart
easily apply your soldering iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at the same time as pulling
the joint apart, taking care to avoid burning yourself.
Result:
Precautions:
1. Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. They are very hot (about 400°C)
and will burn.
2. Hold wires to be heated with tweezers or clamps.
3. Keep the cleaning sponge wet during use.

4. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
5. Turn unit off or unplug it when not in use.
1. Always return your soldering iron to its stand immediately aft
• Alwaysreturn your soldering iron to its stand immediately after use. • Allow joints
and components a minute or so to cool down before you touch them. • Never touch
the element or tip of a soldering iron unless you are certain it is cold.
38
Part B
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
1. AIM: To Study of lab equipment and components: CRO, Multimeter, Function

Generator, Power supply- Active, and Passive Components & Bread Board.
2. APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Apparatus / Software Used Specification Quantity
1. CRO 1
2. Function Generator 1
3. Multimeter 1
4. Resistance & Capacitance 1
5. Power supply & Bread Board 1
3. THEORY:
CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for making circuit
measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the oscilloscope screen. The
oscilloscope provided with Multisim Electronics Workbench is a dual trace oscilloscope that
looks and acts like a real oscilloscope. A dual trace oscilloscope allows the user to display and
compare two time-varying voltages at one time.
The controls on the oscilloscope are as follows:
1. The TIME BASE control adjusts the time scale on the horizontal axis in time per division
when Y/T is selected. When B/A is selected, the horizontal axis no longer represents time. The
horizontal axis now represents the voltage on the channel A input and vertical axis represents the
voltage on channel B input. When A/B is selected, the horizontal axis represents the voltage on
the channel B input and the vertical axis represents the voltage on the channel A input. The
X_POS control determines the horizontal position where the curve plot begins. 2. The
CHANNEL A control adjusts the volts per division on the vertical axis for the channel A curve
plot. The Y-POS control determines the vertical position of the channel A curve plot 39
relative to the horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel A vertical
input and the circuit testing point. Selecting “0” connects channel A vertical input to ground. 3.
The CHANNEL B control adjusts the volts per division of the vertical axis for the channel B
curve plot. The Y-POS determines the vertical position of the channel B curve plot relative to the
horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel B vertical input and the
circuit test point. Selecting “0” connects the channel B vertical input to ground. 4. The trigger
settings control the conditions under which a curve plot is triggered (begins to display).
Triggering can be internal (based on one of the input signals) or external (based on a signal
applied to the oscilloscope external trigger input). With internal triggering AUTO, A, or B. If A
is selected, the curve plot will be triggered by channel A input signal. If |B is selected, the curve
plot will be triggered by channel B input signal. If you expect a flat input waveshape or you want
the curve plot displayed as soon as possible, select AUTO. The display can be set to start on
positive or negative slope of the input by selecting the appropriate EDGE selection. The trigger
LEVEL control determines the voltage level of the input signal waveform, in divisions on the
vertical axis, before the waveform will begin to display.
Function Generator
The function generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage functions.
The Multisim Electronics Workbench can supply sine wave, square wave, and
40
triangular wave voltage functions. The wave shape, frequency, amplitude, duty cycle, and dc
offset can be easily changed. It has three voltage output terminals. Connect the COM
terminal to ground symbol. The +ve terminal provides output voltage that is positive with
respect to the COM terminal and the –ve terminal proves an output voltage that is negative
with respect to the COM terminal.
The controls on the function generator are as follows:
1. You can select a wave shape by clicking the appropriate wave shape on the top of the function
generator.
2. The frequency control allows you adjust the frequency of the output voltage up to 999 MHz.
Click up or down arrow to adjust the frequency, or click the frequency box and type the desired
frequency.
3. The AMPLITUDE control allows you to adjust the amplitude of the output voltage measured
from the reference level (common) to peak level. The peak to peak value is twice the amplitude
setting.
4. The OFFSET control adjusts the dc level of the voltage curve generated by the function
generator. An offset of 0 positions the curve plot along the x-axis with an equal positive and
negative voltage setting. A positive offset raises the curve plot above the x-axis and a negative
offset lowers the curve plot below the x-axis.
Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters (AMM) and digital
multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on a
41
micro ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements
that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of a length
proportional to the quantity being measured. A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for
basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very
high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of
industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
Power Supply
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term
is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another,
though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical,
solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or
current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either
load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source
.
42
Active Elements & Passive Elements
"The elements within a circuit will either control the flow of electric energy or respond to it.
Those elements which control the flow of electric energy are known as active elements and those
which dissipate or store the electric energy are passive elements."
"The three linear passive elements are the Resistor, the Capacitor and the Inductor. Examples of
non-linear passive devices would be diodes, switches and spark gaps. Examples of active devices
are Transistors, Triacs, Varistors, Vacuum Tubes, relays, solenoids and piezo electric devices."
Bread Board
A breadboard (protoboard) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term is
commonly used to refer to solderless breadboard (plugboard). Because the solderless breadboard
does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary
prototypes and experimenting with circuit design.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Study of lab equipments- CRO, Multimeter, Function Generator, Power supply- Active, and
Passive Components & Bread Board has been studied successfully.
5. PRE EXPERIMENT Q.B:

43
Q1. What is CRO?
Ans. The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for making
circuit measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the oscilloscope
screen.
Q2. What do you mean by active element and passive element ?
Ans. The elements within a circuit will either control the flow of electric energy or respond to
it. Those elements which control the flow of electric energy are known as active elements and
those which dissipate or store the electric energy are passive elements.
6. POST EXPERIMENT Q.B:
Q1. What is multimeter?

Ans. A multimeter also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may
include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Q2. What is function generator?

Ans. The function generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage
functions. The Multisim Electronics Workbench can supply sine wave, square wave, and
triangular wave voltage functions. The waveshape, frequency, amplitude, duty cycle, and dc
offset can be easily changed. It has three voltage output terminals.
44
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
1. AIM: To study P-N Junction Diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode-Static

and dynamic resistance measurement from graph.
1. Diode Kit 1
2. Multimeter 1
3. Connecting leads
3. THEORY:
A diode is the basic electronic component. It’s property is that it can conduct only in one
direction. A diode can be made by joining a p type semiconductor and an n type semiconductor.
At the junction point there will be a voltage drop due to the migration of carriers. The voltage at
this barrier is known as barrier potential. Ideally the barrier potential is zero. But in practical case
there will be a drop of 0.7 Volts. When the P side of diode is connected to the positive of power
supply and N region is connected to the negative of supply, the diode is said to be in forward
biased condition. At this condition, if the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of
the diode, it starts conduction. After the diode is arrived in the conduction mode, the drop across
it remains at 0.7 V. After the conduction starts, if the voltage is increased further, current trough
it increases linearly with voltage.
When the supply voltage is reversed the diode is said to be in reverse biased condition. Here
there is no conduction at lower voltage values .If we increase the voltage value further ,it is
observed that at a voltage the current sharply increases due to the breakdown of the P-N junction.
This damages the device. So care is to be taken while connecting diode in a circuit.
45
4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
5. PROCEDURE
Forward biased diode:
1. Connect the diode with supply terminals as shown in fig.1. The diode’s anode should be
connected to +terminal of the supply.
2. Select the meter range switches (both) towards forward bias side. Keep both supply control to
minimum.
46
3. Switch on the power. Gradually increase the forward bias supply (0-15V) in small steps. Note
the volt and current readings from the panel meters as forward voltage VF and corresponding
current IF in mA.
4. Take the readings till mA meter approaches near maximum deflection . Switch off the power,
turn supply control back to minimum. Prepare the table between VF and IF from the
observations.
5. Plot the forward biased diode graph taking VF readings along the x-axis and IF readings along
the y-axis. Find the slope of the line from the linear part of the curve as shown in fig3a. Calculate
the dynamic resistance of the diode as
RF = δ VF / δ IF
Reverse biased diode:
1. Keep both meter range select switches towards the reverse bias side. Connect diode as shown
in fig2, such that its cathode is connected with the +dc terminal of the supply.
2. Switch on the power. Increase the reverse bias supply (0-90V) in small steps and note reverse
voltage as –ve volts and corresponding current from the panel meters.
3. As breakdown appears, the reverse currnet will rise rapidly at this point at small increamnet of
reverse bias voltage , note the reading and bring reverse supply back to minimum.
4. Switch off the power and tabulate the results as –VR and -IR . Plot the graph as shown in
fig3b. Calculate the reverse resistance in constant region.
5. Comparing result from both observations, shows that the forward resistance of the diode is
very much less than the reverse resistance. This property allows to flow the current in one
direction only.
47
6. OBSERVATION:
For forward bias For reverse bias

S.No. Voltage (V) Current (mA) S.No. Voltage (V) Current (µA)
7. CALCULATION:
The dynamic resistance of the diode as
RF = δ VF / δ IF
The static resistance of the diode as
RF = VF / IF
The V-I characteristics (forward and reverse biased) is plotted on the graph which is true
according to theory.
Q1. What is diode?
Ans. A diode is the basic electronic component. It’s property is that it can conduct only in one
direction. A diode can be made by joining a p type semiconductor and an n type semiconductor.
Q2. What do you mean by dynamic forward resistance?
Ans. The resistance offered by the PN junction under a.c. condition is called dynamic forward
resistance and given as RF = δ VF / δ IF.
48
Q1. What is knee voltage for Si and Ge diode respectively?
Ans. Knee voltage for Si= 0.7V and for Ge = 0.3V.
Q.2. What do you mean by PIV?
Ans. It is defined as the maximum value of reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without
destroying the junction.
11. PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment, do not exceed the rating of the diode. This may lead to damage of
the diode.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
49
EXPERIMENT NO. 03
1. AIM: Applications of PN junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of
VRMS, VDC, and ripple factor.
1. Diode Kit 1
2. CRO 1
3. Connecting leads
3. THEORY:
A diode is using to pass current in a single direction. Alternating current is a current which
flows in both directions. In some applications we need dc power supply. A method to obtain dc
supply is by using batteries. But it is not economical at all times. It is possible to obtain dc from
ac supply .That process is known as rectification. Rectification is of two types: 1.half wave
rectification 2.full wave rectification
HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS
In a half wave rectifier only one half cycle of ac voltage is taking. The circuit is given. Here only
one diode is using. During the positive half cycle of ac voltage the diode conducts. So current
flows through load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased .So no current
flows through the diode. This type of rectification needs only one diode. But the efficiency is not
so good as that of full wave rectifier
FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS
Unlike a half wave rectifier, a full wave rectifier conducts in both half cycles of ac voltage.
50
.
full wave rectifier can be implemented in two ways
a) Full wave bridge rectifier
In full wave bridge rectifiers 4 diodes are using. During positive half cycle, D1 and D4 are in
forward biased condition. In the negative half cycle of ac D3 and D2 are in forward biased
condition. So in both the half cycles current through the load is in single direction. Thus
rectification can be done. This circuit does not need a centre tap rectifier. But it requires more
number of diodes than centre tap and half wave rectifiers.
b) Full wave centre tap rectifier

This is another method to obtain full wave rectification. In this method only two diodes are
using. But it requires a center tap transformer. During the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts.
In the negative half cycle diode D2 conducts. So in both half cycles current flowing through load
in same direction. Thus rectification can be obtained.
4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig.1 Connection diagram for half wave rectifier.
51
Fig.2. Connection diagram for full wave rectifier.

5. PROCEDURE:
For half wave rectifier circuit:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1. It becomes a half wave rectifier circuit since only
diode D1 is in circuit, note L is short circuited and C open.
2. Switch on the power.
3. Measure AC across the transformer secondary.
4. Note the reading of dc voltage from filter meter as VDC .Calculate the theoretical value
and compare it with found value, where theoretical value VDC={ VAC(RMS) * √2/ᴨ} .
5. Connect the AC voltmeter at the dc output socket fitted at +ve of R L side.
Note the AC ripple voltage as V R. Calculate the ripple factor as
Ripple factor R= VR / VDC .
For full wave (centre tapped) rectifier circuit:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig2, this will bring diode D3 in the circuit and it becomes a
full wave rectifier circuit.
52
2. Remaining steps as same as before.
6. OBSERVATION:
For half wave and full wave rectifier

S.No. Input AC VDC (V) VRMS at dc out (V) Ripple factor
7. CALCULATION:
DC output voltage, VDC={ VAC(RMS) * √2/ᴨ}
Ripple factor, R= VR / VDC .
Measurement of VRMS, VDC, and ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier is
done successfully.
Q1. What is a half wave rectifier?
Ans. In a half wave rectifier only one half cycle of ac voltage is taking. The circuit is given. Here
only one diode is using. During the positive half cycle of ac voltage the diode conducts. So
current flows through load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased .So no
current flows through the diode. This type of rectification needs only one diode. But the
efficiency is not so good as that of full wave rectifier
Q2. What is a full wave rectifier?

53
Ans. Unlike a half wave rectifier, a full wave rectifier conducts in both half cycles of ac voltage.
So output gets in both the half cycles.
Q1. What are the two schemes of full wave rectifiers?
Ans. 1. Centre tap rectifier
2. Bridge rectifier
Q2. What are the advantages of bridge rectifier over center tap rectifier?
Ans. It does not need a centre tap transformer
Q3. What is the disadvantage of bridge rectifier over centre tap rectifier?
Ans.4 diodes are needed.
11. PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment, do not exceed the rating of the diode. This may lead to damage of
the diode.
circuit diagram.
54
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
1. AIM: Properties of junctions Zener diode characteristics. Heavy doping alters the reverse
characteristics. Graphical measurement of forward and reverse resistance.
1. Zener diode BZX56 1
2. Voltmeter 1
3. Ammeter 1
4. Connecting wires
3. THEORY:
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It
is acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break down
voltage, at which the diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes the
diode damages at the break down voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the
reverse breakdown region.
The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s
depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there
will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes
place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.
So a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode,
after the break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across
it remains constant.
55
4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig.1a. Connection diagram reverse biased zener diode. Range 10V.

56
5. PROCEDURE:
For zener diode reverse breakdown characteristics of given zener diode BZX56.
1. Connect the given diode as shown in fig.1a. Identify the voltage polarity meter and diode
polarity. Select voltmeter range to 10V. Select mode switch towards VZ mode.
2. Keep supply control to minimum (fully counter-clockwise). Switch on the power.
3. Gradually increase the supply voltage in small steps and note the readings VZ, IZ with each
increament till mA meter approaches to maximum.
4. Bring supply control to minimum. Select mode towards VS. Now again increase the supply and
note the input voltage VS with current IZ.
5. Plot the reverse bias curve from the observations. Find out the knee of the curve at minimum
current.
For zener diode forward breakdown characteristics of given zener diode BZX56.
1. Connect the given diode as shown in fig.1b. Identify the voltage polarity meter and diode’s
polarity. Select voltmeter range to 1V. Select mode switch towards VZ mode.
2. Keep supply control to minimum (fully counter-clockwise). Switch on the power.
3. Gradually increase the supply voltage in small steps and note the forward breakdown voltage
.Increase the supply further and note the current IZF . Increase further supply till current meter
approaches to maximum.
st
4. Plot the forward bias curve with the reverse bias in 1 quadrent. From the curve it is
found that the zener diodes exhibit very low resistance after forward breakdown in
forward and reverse bias.
57
6. OBSERVATIO
N For circuit 1a.
7.
S.No. Iz (mA) Vz (V) Vs (V)
For circuit 1a.

S.No. IzF (mA) Vz (V)
The V-I characteristic of zener diode is plotted in graph which is true according to theory.
Q1. What is zener diode?
Ans. Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased
mode. It is acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as
break down voltage, at which the diode break downs while reverse biased.
Q1. What is zener breakdown?
58
Ans. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse
voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And
the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener
break down.
10. PRECAUTIONS:
1.Keep your hand away from the main supply.
circuit diagram.
59
EXPERIMENT NO. 05
1. AIM: Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration- Graphical measurement of h
parameters from input and output characteristics. Measurement of Av, AI, Ro and Ri of CE
amplifier with potential divider biasing.
1. Transistor NPN BC 147 1

2. Ammeter 1
3. Voltmeter 1
4. Connecting Leads
3. THEORY:
A transistor is a 3 terminal device. It can be considered as the combination of two diodes. In a

transistor there are 3 regions: 1.emitter 2.base 3.Collector. In an npn transistor the emitter and
collector are n types, and base is p type. In any transistor emitter is heavily doped, base is lightly
doped and collector is moderately doped. For the proper working of transistor the emitter base
junction should be forward biased and collector base junction should be reverse biased. In a
common emitter configuration, emitter is common to both input and output.
Transistor (bipolar transistor-BJT) is a current controlled device. The input characteristics

are a plot between the base current and base emitter voltage. The dynamic input resistance can be
calculated by taking the slope of the input characteristics by keeping the output voltage constant.
The output characteristics is a plot between collector current and collector emitter voltage by
keeping the input current constant..Now the common emitter current gain ß can be calculated as
a ratio between collector current and base current at a particular value of output voltage
(collector emitter voltage).
60
The input characteristics:
To draw input characteristic the input supply VBE is varied and corresponding current IB is noted
with each increamental step, while the output supply is kept constant throughout the step.
The input impedance, Ri = VBE / IB at VCE constant (1)
Fig.2 Input characteristic curve
The output characteristics:
To draw output characteristics the output supply VCE is varied and corresponding current IC is noted
with each incremental step, while the input current IB is kept constant throughout the step.
The output impedance, Ro = VCE / IC at IB constant (2)
The current gain, β = IC / IB at VCE constant (3)

61
4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
62
5. PROCEDURE:
To plot the input and output characteristics of given transistor in common emitter configuration.
(A) For input characteristics.(Fig.1)
1. Keep VCE supply at dc 5volt i.e. VCE =5V.
2. Slowly increase VBE supply in small steps. Note IB and VBE for each increamental step.
3. Tabulate all observations.
4. Plot the input characteristic curve from the observations between IB and VBE. Find
out the slope of the curves as given in relation see fig2.
(B) For output characteristics.(Fig.1)
1. Keep VCE =0. Adjust I B =40µA.
2. Slowly increase VCE supply in small steps. The µAmmeter deflects back as the VCE get
increased. This is due to reverse saturation current ICEO. Recorrect IB to determined
value 40µA. Note IC and VCE with each increamental step.
3. Repeat step2 for different values of IB say 80µA increament for each step. Care
should be taken to recorrect IB through the steps.
4. Tabulate the observations.
5. Plot the output characteristic curves from the observations , between IC and VCE. Fix an
operating point in the middle of the curves, find out the slope of the curve as given in
relation (2) and (3). See fig3.
63
6. OBSERVATION:
At constant, VCE =5V At constant, IB =40µA

S.No. VBE IB S.No. VBE IB
Thus the input and output characteristic of CE configuration is plotted.
9. PREEXPERIMENT Q.B:
Q1. What is transistor?

Ans. A transistor is a 3 terminal device. It can be considered as the combination of two
diodes. In a transistor there are 3 regions: 1.emitter 2.base 3.Collector. In an npn transistor the
emitter and collector are n types, and base is p type. In any transistor emitter is heavily doped,
base is lightly doped and collector is moderately doped.
Q2. What are the various configuration of transistor?
Ans. i. Common emitter configuration.
ii. Common base configuration.
iii. Common collector configuration.
Q1. What do you mean by current gain?
Ans. Current gain is defined as the ratio of output current to the input current.
64
11. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power supply voltage should be zero before starting the experiment.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
65
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
1. AIM: To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.
1.IC 741
2.Resistors (1KΩ)—4
3.Function generator
4.Regulated power supply
5.IC bread board trainer
6.CRO
7.Patch cards and CRO probes
3. THEORY: Output of adder Vo = - (V1+V2)
A . CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Circuit diagram of Adder
PROCEDURE OF ADDER:
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in circuit diagram choosing R1, R2, Rf = 10KΩ each.
Use 0- ±15V terminal output to provide supply to the IC.
2. Using 0 – 30V and 5V terminals of the power supply, apply two inputs at the inverting
terminal. Measure each input with multimeter.
3. Measure the output with multimeter for at least five input combinations.
4. Compare the output with the sum of the two inputs.
66
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. V1 (V) V2 (V) Vout (V) V2 - V1 (V)
1.
2.
3.
B . CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Circuit diagram of Subtractor
PROCEDURE OF SUBTRACTOR:
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in circuit diagram choosing R1, R2, R3, Rf = 10KΩ each.
Use 0- ±15V terminal output to provide supply to the IC.
2. Using 0 – 30V and 5V terminals of the power supply, apply two inputs, one at the inverting
and the other at the non-inverting terminal. Measure each input with multimeter. 3. Measure
output with multimeter for at least five input combinations.
4. Compare the output with the difference of the two inputs.
67
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. V1 (V) V2 (V) Vout (V) V1 + V2 (V)
1.
2.
3.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power supply voltage should be zero before starting the experiment. 2.
Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.
68
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
1. AIM: Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.

2. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Digital trainer kit, connecting wires, breadboard, TTL
IC’s-AND 7408, OR 7432, NAND 7400, NOR 7402, NOT 7404, XOR 7486.
3. THEORY: Logic gate is a device that implements a Boolean function. It performs a

logical operation on one or more logical inputs and produces a single output. The basic
logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates
perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion,
Exclusive-OR, Exclusive- NOR.
1. AND gate: - Function of AND gate is to give the output true when both the inputs
are true. In all the other remaining cases output becomes false. Following table
justifies the statement.
INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
69
Pin Diagram: IC 7408
2. OR gate: - Function of OR gate is to give output true when one of the either
inputs are true. In the remaining case output becomes false. Following table justify
the statement.
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

70
3. NOT gate: -Function of NOT gate is to reverse the input. It converts true input to
false and vice versa. Following table justifies the statement.
INPUT OUTPUT
1 0
0 1

Universal Gates
1. NAND gate: -Function of NAND gate is to give true output when atleast one
input or both the provided inputs are false. In the remaining case output is
false.
Following table justifies the statement.

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
71
2. NOR gate: - NOR gate gives the output true when both the two
provided inputs are false. In all the other cases output remains false.
Following table justifies the statement.

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
72
Advanced Gates
XOR gate: - The function of XOR gate is to give the output true if one and only one of
the inputs to the gate is true.
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
PROCEDURE:-
1. Get the components required for the experiment.

2. Fix the IC which is under observation between the half shadow line
of breadboard, so that there is no shortage of voltage.
3.Connect the wire to the main voltage source (Vcc) whose other end is
connected to last pin of the IC (14 place from the notch).
4 Connect the ground of IC (7th place from the notch) to the ground terminal
provided on the digital trainer kit.
73
5. Give the input at any one of the gate of the IC by using connecting wires (in
accordance to IC provided).
6. Connect output pins to the led terminals on digital trainer kit.
7. Switch on the power supply.
8. If led glows, then output is true else output is false, which is numerically
denoted as 1 and 0 respectively.
RESULT: -
All gates are verified. Observed output matches with the truth table values
PRECAUTIONS: -
1.All connections should be made neat and tight.
2. Digital lab kits and ICs should be handled with utmost care.
3. While making connections, main voltage should be kept off.
4. Never touch any live wires.
Sample Viva Questions:-
1. What is a logic gate?

2. What are universal gates?
3. What are basic gates?
4. State De-Morgan’s theorem.
5. Draw the truth table of EXOR gate.
6. What are the IC numbers for AND, OR and NOT gate?
74
EXPERIMENT NO. 08
1. AIM:- Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both SOP and
POS forms and Implementation of given Boolean functions:- SOP - A.B + A’.B’ POS - (A+B)
(B+C) (A+C’) 2. Components required:- Digital Trainer Kit, Connecting Wires, basic gate
ICs, breadboard.
3. Theory:-
SOP: - The sum-of-products (SOP) form is a method (or form) of simplifying the Boolean
expressions of logic gates. In this SOP form of Boolean function representation, the variables
are operated by AND (product) to form a product term and all these product terms are ORed
(summed or added) together to get the final function.
A.B. + A’B’
Truth Table for this SOP expression:
75
POS: - In POS form, all the variables are ORed, i.e. written as sums to form sum terms. All
these sum terms are ANDed (multiplied) together to get the product-of-sum form. This form is
exactly opposite to the SOP form. So this can also be said as “Dual of SOP form”.
(A+B) (B+ C) (A + C’)
Circuit diagram:
Truth Table for POS expression:
76
4. Procedure: -
For SOP form: - A.B + A’.B’
1. Place the Digital trainer kit at one place.

2. Take the one AND gate ICs i.e. IC no.7408, one NOT gate IC i.e. IC no. 7404 and one
OR gate IC i.e. IC no. 7432.
3. Place these three ICs in the breadboard one by one.
4. Now, make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
5. Give the input voltage Vcc and GROUND to all the ICs separately.
6. When all connections are ready, gently switch on the trainer kit and note the output function
values by applying different input combinations.
For POS form :- (A+B) (B+C) (A+C’)
1. Place the Digital trainer kit at one place.

2. Take OR, AND, NOT gate ICs.
3. Place these three ICs in the breadboard one by one.
4. Now, make the connections as per circuit diagram.
5. When the circuit is complete, switch on the trainer kit and note down the output
for different values of A, B and C.
5. Result:- Logic A.B + A’.B’ and (A+B) (B+C) (A+C’) are verified through
LEDs on trainer board. Hence, given Boolean Expression is implemented by the
Logic gates.
7. Precautions:-
1. Connecting wires should be rubbed with sand papers so that there is no rust. 2. Make
sure that the apparatus is switched off while placing ICs and connecting the wires. 3. The
connections should be tight.
4. ICs should be placed gently in a proper way in the breadboard.
77
8. Sample Viva Questions:-
1. What do you understand by

SOP? 2. What is Product of Sum
form?
3. What do you mean by min-term?
4. What do you mean by
max-term? 5. What are universal
gates?
6. How many basic gates are there?
78
GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY Lab records of safety checks and critical
installation
YEAR: 2020-21 Semester: I & II
Branch Name: Common to all Branches of First Year

Block: B Room no: ______206_________________ Lab name: - Electronics Lab
(First Year )
Nature of Lab: Development of Electronics Hardware, PCB Printing, Component Assembly
etc. Who uses the Lab: First year B.Tech. Students
No of hours spent in Lab per week: __________________
Lab safety rules: attached (Appendix-1)

(During labs and when not in use)
Lab safety measures: attached (Appendix-2)
Any past history of casualty in the Lab: NA
If any, furnish detail: NA

Branch/Block/ Lab Name
Room no
Date of Lapse Reasons Measures taken Faculty/Technici
an present
Lab waste disposal, if any:
1. Chemicals
2. PCB Plastic Board waste
3. E-waste
Lab Technical Staff:-
Mr. S.N. Mishra
DATE: HOD
(Name & Signature)
Branch: ____________________
79
GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Appendix-1
LAB SAFETY RULES
(Lab Rule of conduct, DO’s & DON’Ts)
1. Always wear the shoes with rubber sole.
2. Use sufficient long connection wires, rather than joining two or three small one.
3. Use the fuse /mcb of proper ratings only.
4. Make sure that all the electrical connections are right and tight.
5. The circuit should be switched off before changing any connection. 6.
Maintain silence, be attentive and switch-off your mobile phones in the lab. 7.
Students must get components only after submitting their i.d. card. 8. Return
all the issued items to lab technician before leaving the lab. 9. Don’t forget to
switch off the power supply before leaving the lab. 10. Do not touch any
terminal or switch without supervision of lab staff. 11. Keep away from all
moving parts as far possible.
12. Don’t carry any lab items/material outside the lab.
13. Don’t write anything on lab manuals.
14. Don’t leave the lab without permission.
15. Uses of chemicals carefully, don’t spread it over the any parts of body, it may be
harmful.
16. Dark room door should be closed while performing pcb printing & art work.
80

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GALGOTIA COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

Academic Content File

To be a leading educational institution recognized for excellence in engineering education

Program Educational Objectives

PEO 3 Graduates exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, communication skills and

PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

Program Specific Outcomes

Course Code KEC-151P/251P

CO1 Demonstrate the behaviour of various applications PN junction diode.

CO2 Conduct experiments illustrating the characteristics of BJT and

CO3 Implementation and truth table verification of various logic gates.

Mapping of CO PO and PSO

Course ELECTRONICS LAB

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO PO P PO PO PO PSO PSO2

Average 3 2.3 2.3 2 3 - - - 1 1.6 - 3 3 2

1. Study of Lab Equipments and Components: CRO, Multimeter, and Function

Applications of PN Junction diode: Half http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp6/index.html

Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp10/index.html

Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp11/index.html

To study Operational Amplifier as http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html

Implementation of the given Boolean https://de-iitr.vlabs.ac.in/digital-electronicsiitr/

AIM: To Study of Active and Passive Components based on their ratings.

Power sources like dc power supplies and signal generators

signal whereas passive components often cause the power to be lost.

stand without being burnt out.

for resistance is given by: R = ρ l / A where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A is area of

Colour Code for Resistors

& its value tolerance

according to E12. Other ranges are E24 and E48 Ranges.

Table for E12 range values of resistors.

100 Ω 680 820

1k 1.2k 6.8k 8.2k

1M 1.2M 6.8M` 8.2M

10M 12M 68M 82M

resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also an

example of continuously varying resistor

a dielectric. The capacitance is defined as : C = Єo Єr A / d, where A is the area of plates, d is

plates separation, Єo is permittivity of free space and Єr is relative permittivity. An important

In electrolytic capacitor mostly a then metal-oxide film is deposited by means of electrolysis on

non-electrolytic capacitors. Temperature coefficient is of minor importance in an electrolytic

temperature coefficient on an electrolytic label, but it is always present on ceramic trimmers.

are at the same end (10µF in picture) Refer fig 4.

4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

particular values. Following are 2 series defined for capacitors

1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.

150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.

(l).The formula is L = μ o μr N2 A / l. Its unit is in Henry.

casing. Their pictures and symbols are given in fig. 7.

The normal diode has a breakdown voltage of greater than 100 V.

commonly used diodes with their specifications.

Table 3 Diodes Names & Their Rating

Number used. (V)

OA91 Ge 50 2.1 115

In 4148 Si 100 1.0 75

In 4149 Si 100 1.0 75

IN 4007 Si 1000 1.6 1000

performed. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

forward current and forward voltage.

the exact specifications.

Code Structur Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible

BC108 NPN TO18 100mA General purpose, BC108C

BC108 NPN TO18 100mA General purpose,