LEKSIČKA SEMANTIKA I PRAGMATIKA

1. Ambiguity - dvoznačnost je pojava zastupljena u leksikonu svakog jezika i ogleda se u

postojanju više od jedne interpretacije određenih leksičkih ili sintaksičkih jedinica.
● Lexical ambiguity – leksička dvoznačnost je pojava zastupljena u leksikonu svakog
jezika i ogleda se u postojanju više od jedne interpretacije forme, funkcije i sadržine
pojedinih leksičkih jedinica. Dva glavna činioca uzrokuju leksičku a posredno i rečeničnu
dvoznačnost: potpuna/delimična homonimija i polisemija.
● Grammatical ambiguity – gramatička dvoznačnost je pojava koja nastaje usled
različitih strukturnih odnosa istih leksičkih (semantičkih i/ili funkcijskih) jedinica unutar
sintaksičke jedinice.
2. Antonymy – antonimija predstavlja suprotnost smisla između dve lekseme tj. kada one dele
nekoliko dijagnostičkih obeležja (DgO) ali se razlikuju po bar jednom obeležju suprotnosti.
● Scalar antonymy – skalarna antonimija se temelji na kontrastu tipa više/manje, tj. na
principu postojanja izvesnog stanja stvari u većoj ili manjoj meri.
e.g. fast:slow like:dislike
● Complementary antonymy – komplementarna antonimija se temelji na kontrastu tipa
da/ne, tj. na principu nedvosmislenog postojanja ili nepostojanja izvesnog stanja stvari.
e.g. true:false alive:dead
● Diametrical antonymy – dijametralna antonimija odražava, kroz odgovarajuća DgO, 2
krajnje tačke na datoj osi u jednom ili drugom smeru.
e.g. up:down north:south
● Converse antonymy – recipročna antonimija odražava, kroz odgovarajuća DgO, odnos
između 2 entiteta koji se posmatra iz jednog ili drugog smera na datoj osi.
e.g. above:below before:after
● Reversive antonymy – reverzivna antonimija odražava, kroz odgovarajuća DgO,
kretanje ili promenu stanja u suprotnom smeru.
e.g. enter:leave learn:forget
3. Association – asocijacija predstavlja splet asocijativnih obeležja kojima se određuje
asocijativno značenje, to je subjektivna i fakultativna komponenta.
4. Collocation – kolokacija predstavlja uobičajeni dvočlani spoj jedne lekseme sa drugom sa
određenim značenjem I ta kombinacija je specifična za dati jezik. Elementi kolokacije kolociraju
u oba smera i u međusobnom su hijerarhijskom odnosu. Stoga, prototipska kolokacija sadrži: (a)
semantičke jedinice u hijerarhijskom međuodnosu, (b) moguće ili minimalne zamenljivosti
sekundarnih kolokata, (c) relativno slabe postojanosti, i (d) visoke prozirnosti celine.
● Primary collocate – primarni kolokat je elemenat kolokacije koji nastupa kao težište
kolokacije glavni je nosilac značenja.
● Secondary collocate – sekundarni kolokat je elemenat kolokacije i on pobliže određuje
ili opisuje primarni kolokat.
e.g. primarni kolokat coffee kolocira sa sekundarnim kolokatima drink i strong
 ● Open collocation – otvorena kolokacija predstavlja spoj kolokata u kojem se javljaju,
mahom kao sekundarni kolokati, lekseme sa veoma opštim smislom. Otvorene kolokacije
se odlikuju (a) maksimalnom zamenljivošću obeju leksema (pod uslovom da sve one
budu iz iste morfosintaktičke klase) i (b) nepostojanjem uzajamnog privlačenja i
predvidljivosti leksema u spoju. Kolokacioni opseg ovakvih leksema je širok.
e.g. make a decision / an effort / a change / an impression / a promise, etc.
● Restricted collocation – ograničena kolokacija podrazumeva kolociranje leksema
umerenog kolokacionog opsega. Sve kolokacije obrazuju continuum i između dve
krajnosti nalaze se ograničene kolokacije koje se u suštini mogu definisati kao
prototipske kolokacije.
● Bound collocation – vezana kolokacija sadrži lekseme specifičnog tipa s uskim
kolokacionim opsegom. One se izvan tog spoja gotovo i ne javljaju. Sudeći po
nemogućoj zamenljivosti leksema i visokoj postojanosti ovakvih spojeva, vezane
kolokacije se peibližavaju idiomima.
e.g. shrug one's shoulders, blonde hair
● Colligation / grammatical collocation – koligacije ili gramatičke kolokacije sadrže
funkcijske jedinice, specifično, predloge kao sekundarni kolokat. Na mestu primarnog
kolokata se javljaju imenice, glagoli ili pridevi. Ovakvi spojevi su obavezni i spadaju u
domen gramatike.
e.g. affection for, name after, proud of
5. Conceptual metaphor – pojmovna metafora je tip prenesenog značenja (nasuprot doslovnom
značenju lekseme) kod koje se značenje prenosi na osnovu sličnosti, stvarne ili pretpostavljene,
između dva različita i nepovezana entiteta. (A warm welcome – topla dobrodoslica; He’s an old
fox – on je stari lisac)
● Source domain – izvorni domen predstavlja jedno značenje u odnosu metafore koje je
obično konkretnije i služi da se pomoću njega objasni, protumači ili shvati drugo značenje.
● Target domain – ciljni domen predstavlja drugo značenje u odnosu metafore koje je
apstraknije i određuje se pomoću izvornog domena.
e.g. a warm coffee prema a warm melcome, gde se (stvarna) fizička toplota, kao
izvorni domen, preslikava na emocionalnu toplotu, kao ciljni domen.
● Similarity – sličnost je princip po kojem se u metafori omogućava da se ciljni domen
izrazi kroz izvorni domen i postiže se zahvaljujući određenim poklapanjima među DgO
elemenata ta dva domena.
6. Conceptual metonymy – pojmovna metonimija je tip prenesenog značenja (nasuprot
doslovnom značenju lekseme) kod koje se značenje prenosi na osnovu bliskosti dvaju različitih
ali povezanih entiteta, unutar jednog istog domena. (A warm coat – topao kaput; He ate two
plates – pojeo je dva tanjira)
● Source entity – izvorni entitet predstavja jedno značenje u odnosu metonimije koje je
obično konkretnije i istaknutije i služi da se pomoću njega uputi na drugo značenje.
● Target entity – ciljni entitet predstavlja drugo značenje u odnosu metonimije koje je
apstraktnije i manje istaknuto i određuje se pomoću izvornog entiteta.
 e.g. He ate two plates tanjiri, kao izvorni entitet, projektuju se na ono što se u
njima nalazi(lo) kao ciljni entitet.
● Contiguity – bliskost princip po kojem se u metonimiji omogućava da se na ciljni
entitet upućuje preko izvornog entitet i postiže se posmatranjem oba entiteta
konceptualno bliskim i pripadnicima jednog istog domena.
7. Context – kontekst je tip značenja koja se tiče okruženja u kom se leksema javlja. To
okruženje predstavlja jezički kontekst i njegov globalni okvir, vanjezički kontekst. Leksema van
konteksta, jezičkog i vanjezičkog, gotovo uvek je polisemna, karakteriče je opčte, nedovoljno
određeno i jasno značenje.
● Linguistic (sentential) context – jezički kontekst je okruženje koje je opredeljeno
interakcijom najmannje dvaju činilaca: odabirom pojedinih leksičkih jedinica
(semantičkih
i /ili funkcijskih) na paradigmatskoj ravni, te njihovim sekvencionalnim redosledom, na
sintagmatskoj ravni, uključujući i gramatičke odnose među njima.
● Extralinguistic (situational) context – vanjezički kontekst je globalni okvir u kom
jezički kontekst nastaje, i moguće ga je definisati kao splet opštih i posebnih prostornih,
vremenskih, društvenih, individualnih, al ii opštekulturnih, činilaca koji doprinose
uspostavljanju, odvijanju i ostvarenju neke komunikacije.
8. Denotation – denotacija predstavlja odnos između lekseme i izvesne klase vanjezičkih
entiteta na koje se leksema može ispravno primeniti.
● Primary denotation – primarna denotacija odnosi se na lekseme za čije denotate nije
teško dokazati realno postojanje.
● Secondary denotation – sekundarna denotacija odnosi se na lekseme za čije se denotate
postulira postojanje unutar odabranog univerzumom diskursa. Kao na primer za denotat
lekseme unicorn možemo postulirati fiktivno postojanje, za phoneme teoretsko postojanje
i love za čiji denotat postuliramo apstraktno postojanje s mogućnošću konkretnog
manifestovanja.
9. Descriptive meaning – deskriptivno značenje je značenje vezano za funkciju jezika koja se
sastoji u odslikavanju spoljašnje stvarnosti, nekog stanja stvari koje ne zavisi neposredno od onih
što ga oslikavaju. Ima sledeće karakteristike: objektivne prirode, može se odrediti binarnim
kontrastom da /ne, stilistički neobeleženo i relativno postojano, nije uslovljeno komunikacionom
situacijom i osobinama komunikatora, predstavlja obaveznu i centralnu komponentu leksičkog i
rečeničnog značenja.
● Conceptualism – konceptualizam je naziv za novo shvatanje tradicionalnoe teorije
označavanja gde je značenje mentalni sadržaj oličen u određenom konceptu koji se može
preneti od uma enkodera do uma dekodera. Ovaj proces se predstavlja semiotičkim
trouglom u kojem je concept centralni član trijade: leksema – koncept – predmet.
● Componential analysis – komponentna analiza je analitički prilaz određivanju smisla
jedne lekseme u čijem je prvom planu stavljeno traženje kontrastnih, relevantnih obeležja
bez obzira da li su prosta ili su njihove kombinacije. U središtu interesovanja stavljena je
različitost statusa članova uspostavljene kategorije i nema jasno omežene kategroije u
 koje se neki entitet u potpunosti uključuje ili iskjlučuje, već kontinuum.. Ovakva analiza
približava kategorizaciju principima kategorizacije prema prototipu.
● Prototype – prototip je shematizovana predstava tipičnog uzorka kao jezgra celokupne
kategorije vanjezičkog entiteta, definisan tipičnim svojstvima formalizovanim kroz
uređeni skup DgO.
10. Feature – obeležje: svako distinktivno obeležje ili karakteristika lekseme, i delom referenta,
koje je relevantno za uspostavljanje semantičkog kontrasta.
 Descriptive feature – terminom deskriptivno obeležje se označava svako ditinktivno
svojstvo ili osobina vanjezičkog entiteta, koje može biti relevantno pri uspostavljanju
nekog semantičkog kontrasta.
● Diagnostic feature – dijagnostička obeležja odražavaju tipična, semantički
relevantna svojstva odgovarajućeg vanjezičkog entiteta i imaju dijagnostičku
ulogu pri utvrđivanju smisla svake lekseme.
● Non-diagnostic feature – nedijagnostička obeležja odražavaju dodatna i
redundantna svojstva vanjezičkog entiteta, mahom enciklopedijske naravi, stoga
su od niže semantičke relevantnosti.
● Associative feature – Terminom asocijativno obeležje označava se svako svojstvo ili
osobina lekseme, a delimično i referenta, koje je relevantno pri uspostavljanju nekog
stilističkog kontrasta.
● stylistic feature – stilsko obeležje se odnosi na sadržinski aspekat stilskih
varijacija i uslovljeno je odgovarajućim okolnostima. Razlikujemo varijacije koje
se tiču:
1. komunikatora (dijalekt – raslojavanje jezika po dimenziji širine usled
različitog geografskog porekla; dijalekte karakterišu dijalekatska obeležja
poput [British], [American], [Welsh], sociolekt – raslojavanje jezika po
dimenziji visine usled različitog društvenog statusa; sociolekte karakterišu
sociolekatska obeležja poput [standard], [non-standard], [by students],
hronolekt – raslojavanje jezika po dimenziji dubine usled promena nastalih
protokom vremena; hronolekte karakterišu hronolektska obeležja poput
[archaic],[obsolete]),
2. komunikacione situacije (predmetni registar – određen je tematikom
komunikacije; njega karakterišu predmetna obeležja poput [medicine], [law],
interpersonalni registar – određen je odnosom između komunikatora;
karakterišu ga interpersonalna obeležja poput [formal], [informal],
medijumski registar – određen je medijumom u kome se obavlja
komunikacija; karakterišu ga medijumska obeležja poput [in writing], [in
speech]).
● expressive feature – ekspresivno obeležje je tip asocijativnog obeležja i
odražava stavove i raspoloženja komunikatora prema ostalim komunikatorima ili
 prema predmetu komunikacije i uključuje obeležja poput [offensive],
[euphemistic]…
● connotative feature – konotativno obeležje je tip asocijativnog obeležja i
odslikava reagovanja na objektivnu stvarnost, uslovljeno je najčešće iskustvom
komunikatora s konkretnim referentom i uključuje najbrojnija i najraznovrsnija
obeležja koje je teško sistematizovati. Npr. leksema dog u zavisnosti od pojedinca
može imati ova obeležja: [faithful], [dangerous], [biting]…
11. Gradability – poredivost je osobina skalarne antonimije, u svom prototipskom ispoljavanju,
i ona pretpostavlja mogućnost poređenja posmatranih stanja stvari. Poredivost podrazumeva
sposobnost morfosintaktiškog poređenja, stvaranjem oblika komparativa i superlative, npr.
faster, fastest, te sposobnost premodifikacije prilozima poput slightly, moderately, very,
extremely.
● explicit gradability – eksplicitna poredivost uočava se pri poređenju dva entiteta (My
car is faster than yours) ili dva stanja istog entiteta (My car is faster than it used to be),
najčešće putem komparativa.
● implicit gradability – o imlpicitnoj poredivosti govori se svaki put kad a se upotrebi
neki skalarni antonym, s obzirom na okolnost da se poređenje uvek vrši u odnosu na
izvesnu prihvaćenu i / ili očekivanu normu. Npr. My car is fast sadrži implicitno
poređenje: konkretno vozilo nije brzo u apsolutnim terminima, već u relativnim, jer se
posmatra kroz brzinu prototipa automobila.
12. Hyponymy – hiponimija: hijerarhijski leksički odnos koji oličava uključenost smisla
lekseme koja je u toj hijerarhiji nadređena, hiperonima, u smisao podređene lekseme, hiponima.
Više ravnopravnih hiponima jednog hiperonima ćine kohiponime, u odnosu međuisključivosti.
(Primeri kod hiponim, kohiponim i hiperonim)
 Superordinate – hiperonim: smisao lekseme koja je u hiponimijskoj hijerarhiji
nadređena hiponimima. Primer: cvet je hiperonim hiponimima ruža, suncokret, krin,
itd.
 Hyponym – hiponim: podređena leksema u hijerarhijskom odnosu hiponimije,
naspram hiperonima. (rose, sunflower, lily = hiponimi od flower)
 Cohyponym – kohiponim: u hijerarhijskom odnosu hiponimije, međuisključivi
podređeni članovi. Ruža i suncokret, naspram cvet.
13. Synonymy – sinonimija: smisaoni odnos koji oličava istovetnost smisla najmanje dve
lekseme. O sinonimiji se može govoriti ako posmatrane lekseme – i to kroz svoje relevantne
sememe – dele sva ista centralna dijagnostočka obeležja, što omogućava njihovu bar delimičnu
međuzamenljivost u kontekstu; npr. good-looking, handsome, pretty.
 Absolute synonymy – apsolutna sinonimija: tip sinonimije koji postoji samo ako lekseme
imaju istu distribuciju, a uz to su potpuno sinonimne u svim značenjima i u svakom
kontekstu u kojem se javljaju.
 Complete synonymy – potpuna sinonimija: tip sinonimije kod kog lekseme imaju
istovetno i deskriptivno i asocijativno značenje (u datom rasponu tih konteksta)
  Incomplete / descriptive synonymy – nepotpuna / deskriptivna sinonimija: tip sinonimije
koji je usredsređen na istovetnost deskriptivnog značenja – smisla i denotacije, stoga i
naziv deskriptivna. (good looking, handsome, pretty; buy, purchase; collarbone, clavicle)
 Loose synonymy – priblizna sinonimija: sinonimija pri kojoj dolazi do manjeg ili većeg
nepoklapanja centralnih dijagnostičkih obeležja barem dveju leksema.
14. Polysemy – polisemija: dvoznačnost sadržine, pošto se odnosi na međusobnu vezu više
značenja jedne iste lekseme, po pravilu navedenih u okviru jedne odrednice u rečniku.
 Branching polysemy – razgranata polisemija: tip polisemije koji se javlja ako je
motivacija zasnovana na prenosu doslovnog smisla. Uključuje metaforu i metonimiju.
(She’s an angel – a very good and kind person)
 Linear polysemy – linearna polisemija: tip polisemije koji se javlja ako je motivacija
zasnovana na distinkciji između opštijeg i specifičnijeg smisla. Obuhvata sužavanje i
proširavanje.
15. Homonymy – homonimija: pojava pri kojoj se dovode u vezu istovetne forme, a vrlo često i
morfosintaksičke funkcije, najmanje dve lekseme i njima pridružena različita i nesrodna
značenja.
 Full homonymy – potpuna homonimija: tip homonimije koji ukazuje na istovetnost i
fonoloških i grafoloških oblika poput bank i bank (banka i rečna obala).
 Partial homonymy – delimična homonimija: homonimija koja podrazumeva istovetnost
oblika u samo jednom medijumu, pri čemu se u slučaju fonološke istovetnosti radi o
HOMOFONIJI, a u slučaju grafološke istovetnosti o HOMOGRAFIJI.
 Homography – homografija: podtip homonimije kod kog se radi o grafološkoj
istovetnosti oblika. Bow – /bau/ gudalo and /bou/ naklon
 Homophony – homofonija: podtip homonimije kod kog se radi o fonološkoj istovetnosti
oblika. (Pair, pear, pare - /pea/)
16. Sense relations – smisaoni odnosi: najznačajnija vrsta paradigmatskih leksičkih odnosa. Ne
predstavljaju odnose između leksema, nego između njihovih pojedinačnih semema. Lekseme
imaju različite oblike ali poredive funkcije i sadržaj; naročito smisao. (hyponymy, synonymy,
antonymy etc.)
17. Lexeme – leksema: apstraktna jedinica leksikona, utvrđene forme, funkcije, sadržine i
upotrebe, koju na planu izražaja, u različitim okruženjima realizuju različiti oblici (reči oblici) -
fonološki, u govoru, i ortografski, u pisanju, svaki sa ponešto modifikovanom formom,
funkcijom, sadržinom i upotrebom.
 Citation form – oblik navođenja: konvencijom odabran član paradigme neke lekseme,
kao rečnička odrednica.
18. Lexical field – leksičko polje utemeljeno je na grupisanju leksema prema srodnosti smisla –
specificno, objektivno utvrdivim smisaonim odnosima. Prototipsko ispoljavanje leksickog polja
odredjuju dva svojstva:
a) najmanje dve lekseme koje se nalaze u istoj morfosintaktickoj klasi
b) posmatrane lekseme, preko svojih relevantnih semema, treba da imaju bar jedno
zajednicko centralno DgO, kojim se pokriva celina neke znacenjske dimenzije kao sto su
boja, brzina, temperature, zivotinja, itd.
Moglo bi se reci da leksicka polja predstavljaju konkretne realizacije apstraktnih semantickih
polja. Velicina leksickog polja je relativna I krece se od veoma mnogo ukljucenih clanova, kod
onih opstih, do samo dva, kod onih izuzetno specificnih. Najvecima se mogu smatrati polja koja
obuhvataju brojive I nebrojive entitete (tipicno izrazene imenicama), pa radnje, procese I stanja
(glagoli), a zatim njihova kvalitativna I kvantitativna svojstva (pridevi I prilozi). Globalno
gledano, postoje dva osnovna strukturna tipa leksickih polja – hijerarhijska I linearna.
 Hierarchical lexical field – hijerarhijsko leksičko polje - temelje se na smisaonom odnosu
hiponimije I njenim podvrstama. Podrazumevaju nekoliko medjusobno nadredjenih
odnosno podredjenih nivoa, obicno ne vise od 5. Primenljivost ovih polja dolazi do
posebnog izrazaja pri uspostavljanju taksonimija, koje se ticu klasifikovanja, recimo,
zivotinja, biljaka, rodbinskih odnosa, muzickih instrumenata I slicno. Struktura
hijerahijskog leksickog polja na primeru psa: najvisi nivo, u svojstvu najopstije lekseme,
zauzima glavni hiperonim (animal, zivotinja), koji slede, jedna ispod druge, lekseme
vezane za klasu (mammal, sisar), rod (dog, pas), vrste (terrier, poodle, terijer, pudlica) I
njihove varijetete (kod terijera to su irish terrier, scottish terrier). Za potrebe obicne,
svakodnevne upotrebe jezika, najznacajnijim se smatra nivo roda, tj. genericki nivo, s
obzirom da sadrzi glavninu svakodnevnih imena bica I predmeta (npr. cat, apple,
hammer). Medju hijerarhijska polja, takodje taksonomske prirode, mogu se ubrojati I ona
zasnovana na odnosu dela I celine, pri cemu posmatrani deo, bilo da je odvojiv ili
neodvojiv od celine, tipicno, treba da ima svoju a) samostalnost, b) jasnu omedjenost od
susednog dela I c) utvrdjenu funkciju. Npr. leksema car prema leksemama koje
predstavljaju njegove delove –wheel, engine, door…
 Linear lexical field – linearno leksičko polje - mogu biti shvacena kao specijalna vrsta
hijerarhijskih, posto ih cini jedan nivo, a postojanje hiperonima, na drugom nivou, nije
obavezno. Ova polja temelje se, prvenstveno, na kontrastima ostvarenim izmedju vise
leksema, ali I izmedju samo dve, koji se podvode pod smisaoni odnos antonimije. U
zavisnosti od principa koji odredjuje redosled ukljucenih clanova, linearna polja moguce
je razvrstati na serije I cikluse. Svi clanovi ovakvih polja nalaze se u odnosu
medjuiskljucivosti.
o Series – Kod serija postoji pocetni I zavrsni clan, izmedju kojih su, na osnovu
utvrdjenog kriterijuma, razmesteni svi ostali na 3 raspoloziva nacina. Ukoliko su
posmatrane lekseme poredive, one cine skalu – scale, postepenim prelazima, na
vise ili na nize, izmedju clanova (npr. black, grey, white – po dimenziji osnovne
boje). Ako su posmatrane lekseme neporedive one cine rang – cluster, sa
skokovitim prelazima, navise ili nanize, izmedju clanova, kao u excellent, good,
average, fair, poor po dimenziji skolskih ocena; tu spadaju jos dimenzije vojnih I
drugih clanova, jezickih jedinica, muzickih nota, brojeva… U slucajevima kada se
poredivost, uredjenost I konacnost pojedinacnih clanova ne smatraju bitnim,
lekseme obrazuju grozd – cluster, poput bee, fly, butterfly, mosquito, ant… po
dimenziji insekata; ovamo su pribrojive I sve vrste bica, predmeta, radnji,
 svojstava, I ostalog. Pored toga, neki grozdovi neretko su zasnovani na
smisaonom odnosu sinonimije, u prvom redu one priblizne, na primer neki glagoli
koji opisuju nacine skakanja ljudi ili zivotinja: jump, leap, spring, skip, hop,
bounce…
o Cycle – Kod ciklusa ne postoje krajnji clanovi, vec su svi clanovi, u neku ruku,
kruzno razmesteni I imaju podjednak status; npr. red, yellow, green, blue, purple
po dimenziji osnovne boje. Ciklusi se uocavaju najvise kod leksema koje
izrazavaju razlicite vremenske raspone kao sto su spring, summer, autumn, winter
po dimenziji godisnjih doba; ovamo dolaze I dimenzije dana u nedelji, te meseca
u godini. Karakteristicno za sve ove cikluse jeste postojanje pocetnog I zavrsnog
clana, koji su, pri tom, konvencionalne naravi, a ne proizvod prirodnih
zakonitosti.
19. Lexical link – leksički spoj - to je uobicajeno, redovno, a ponekad I sistematsko, javljanje
jedne lekseme u sprezi sa najmanje jos jednom, po pravilu unutar neke sintagme ili recenice
(koja moze, ali ne mora, da ukljucuje I klauze). Leksicki spojevi predstavljaju oblast u kojoj je
medjuodnos leksikona I gramatike, verovatno najjasnije izrazen. Sadrzinski, funkcijski I
formalno, svi ovakvi spojevi cine manje ili vise kompaktnu celinu. Uopsten zakljucak je da
stepen kompaktnosti nekog leksickog spoja zdruzeno uslovljavaju tri cinioca: zamenljivost,
postojanost I prozirnost.
 Substitutability – zamenljivost - kao jedno od dva formalna svojstva, odnosi se na
mogucnost zamene pojedinih leksema unutar celine drugim leksemama srodnog
znacenja; tako se razlikuju spojevi sa prelazima od zamenljivosti koja je nemoguca (samo
jedna raspoloziva leksema) preko minimalne (dve lekseme) do moguce (vise od dve
lekseme, ali veoma ogranicenog broja).
 Stability – postojanost - kao drugo formalno svojstvo, morfosintakticko, odnosi se na
mogucnost podvrgavanja celine transformacijama (broj, glagolsko vreme/vid/stanje,
promena morfosintakticke klase, tematska organizacija recenice…) I/ili modifikacijama
(inicijalnim, medijalnim I finalnim, u vidu pridevskih, priloskih I ostalih dopuna);
razlikuju se spojevi sa prelazima od relativno visoke do relativno slabe postojanosti.
 Transparency – prozirnost - kao sadrzinsko svojstvo, odnosi se na stepen predvidljivosti
smisla celine; razlikuju se spojevi sa prelazima od prozirnih do neprozirnih.
20. Lexical relations – leksički odnosi: odnosi koji se temelje na uporedivosti najmanje dve
jezičke jedinice, koje bi se zbog izvesnih formalnih, funkcijskih i/ili sadržinskih sličnosti mogle
javiti u istom segment konteksta.
21. Lexical set –leksički skup - Temelji se na grupisanju leksema, razlicitih morfosintaktickih
klasa, prema srodnosti smisla proistekloj iz odredjenih vanjezickih okolnosti. Takve okolnosti
mogu se podeliti u najmanje 2, neretko medjusobno prozeta, kompleksa. Prvi cini bliskost
denotata posmatranih leksema – prostorna, vremenska ili neka druga; npr. clanove skupa
vezanog za kucu I njene delove objedinjuje prostorna bliskost denotata: house, roof, wall,
chimney, window, door, gate… Drugi kompleks predstavlja povezanost samih leksema –
tematska, psiholoska ili neka druga; npr. kod clanova skupa u cijem se sredistu nalazi leptir
(butterfly, insect, wings, fly, colourful, yellow, flowers, spring…) radi se prvenstveno o njihovoj
psiholoskoj povezanosti. Iz ovih primera moze se videti da su velicina I obuhvat nekog leksickog
skupa promenljivi – ili tacnije, prosirivi prema ukazanoj potrebi.
22. Word – reč: nestručan termin koji obuhvata leksemu, reč-oblik, i sememu odjednom.
 Orthographic word – ortografska reč: realizacija lekseme u pisanju.
 Phonological word – fonološka reč: realizacija lekseme u govoru.
 Word-form – reč-oblik: konkretna realizacija lekseme, pisana ili izgovorena, kao
fonološka ili ortografska reč. /kau/
 Function word – funkcijska reč: naspram leksičke, reč koja ima samo morfosintaksičku
funkciju, bez smisla, denotacije, asocijacije i reference.
 Lexical word – leksička reč: naspram funkcijske reči, ona reč koja ima sve komponente
leksičkog kvadrata: smisao, denotaciju i referencu, kao i upotrebu u rečenici ne samo kao
morfosintaksička jedinica.
23. Idiom – idiom: redovan, a ponekad i sistematski, spoj najmanje dve lekseme, a često i više
njih, kako semantičkih tako i funkcijskih, po pravilu unutar određene sintagme ili rečenice. (Still
waters run deep. Cunning as a fox.)
 Phrasal lexeme – frazna leksema: hibridna jezička jedinica koja je po svojoj formi
realizovana kao sintagma, ali po funkciji, sadržini i upotrebi, predstavlja leksemu. (drive
away)
o Verbless phrasal lexeme – bezglagolska frazna leksema: podtip fraznih
leksema realizovan imeničkim, pridevskim, priloškim ili predloškim
sintagmama, koje u rečenici vrše uobičajene funkcije leksema. (Head over
heels in love – zaljubljen do ušiju; at all costs – po svaku cenu; once and for
all – jednom za svagda, itd.)
 Fixed binomial – fiksni binom: tip bezglagolske frazne lekseme
kod koje su dve semantičke jedinice vezane jednom funkcijskom
(obično veznikom ili predlogom), kao u law and order (red i
poredak), alive and well (živ i zdrav), slowly but surely (polako ali
sigurno), tit for tat (milo za drago) itd.
 Phrasal noun – frazna imenica: posebna vrsta bezglagolskih
fraznih leksema. Funkcijski i sadržinski bliske su endocentričnim
složenim leksemama po tome što imenuju jednu podvrstu onoga
što je označeno imenicom. Uspostavljaju smisaoni odnos
hiponimije u kome se frazna imenica javlja kao hiponim
odgovarajućeg hiperonima – samostalne imenice. (personal
computer, Trojan horse, unwritten law)
 Simile – poredba: tip bezglagolskih fraznih leskema gde se porede
dva člana sa manje ili više sličnim dijagnostičkim obeležjima.
(Deaf as a post, like a fish out of water)
 o Verbal phrasal lexeme – glagolska frazna leksema: podtip fraznih leksema,
koji je realizovan glagolskim sintagmama i koji, pored samog leksičkog
glagola, može biti proširen dopunom, u vidu najmanje jednog objekta i/ili
adverbijala. (Buy a pig in a poke – kupiti mačku u džaku; Make ends meet –
sastavljati kraj sa krajem, itd.)
 Phrasal verb – frazni glagol: posebna vrsta fraznih glagolskih leksema,
realizovanih glagolskim sintagmama, koje čini spoj leksičkog glagola i
najmanje jedne partikule u funkciji njegovog modifikatora.
 Discourse formula – diskursna formula: tip idioma koji čine rečenice, a ponekad i
sintagme, čija je upotreba konvencijom utvrđena prilikom počinjanja, održavanja i
završavanja komunikacije, u sklopu određenog komunikacionog događaja. Pomoću njih
vrše se razni komunikacioni činovi, uključujući pozdravljanje, obraćanje, upoznavanje,
zahvaljivanje itd. Primeri: How do you do?; Of course!; You’re welcome!; I don’t give a
damn!; Look who’s talking!; etc.
 Saying – izreka: tip rečenice čija je osnovna funkcija, ako ne i sama svrha, da se njima
komentariše ili reaguje na situacije tokom izvesnog komunikacionog događaja. (The
early bird catches the worm. Out of sight, out of mind.)
o Traditional saying – tradicionalna izreka – vrsta izreke koja na kratak,
jezgrovit, a povremeno i duhovit način, izražava neku mudru misao, istinu ili
verovanje, zasnovano na iskustvu ili posmatranju. U pogledu sadržine sve
ovakve izreke su manje ili više neprozirne. (The early bird catches the worm.
The pot calls the kettle black. Out of sight, out of mind.)
o Catch phrase – popularna izreka: tip izreke koji predstavlja kratak ali efektan
izraz, lansiran od strane neke javne ličnosti ili grupe, iz sveta šoubiznisa,
umetnosti, politike, itd., neretko s ciljem da privuče pažnju šire publike, te da
se potom populariše i postane svojevrstan zaštitni znak autora. Some men are
more equal than others – neki ljudi su ravnopravniji nego drugi; Diamonds are
a girl’s best friend – Dijamanti su devojci najbolji prijatelj.
24. Sense – smisao: uređen skup dovoljnog broja deskriptivnih obeležja kojima se može opisati
neki vanjezićki entitet. CHAIR: a piece of furniture, with a flat surface and four legs on which
you sit.
 Literal sense – doslovno značenje: ono značenje koje se smatra osnovnim za određenu
leksemu.
 Transferred sense – preneseno značenje: naspram doslovnog, ono značenje koje je
proisteklo iz doslovnog, putem metaforičkog ili metonimijskog prenosa. (He’s an old
fox.)
25. Modification – modifikacija: dodatnom razrešenju pri kojem je dati smisao podvrgnut
manjim kontekstualnim promenama i/ili adaptacijama. Manifestuje se kroz sledeće tri pojave:
pojačavanje, slabljenje i obrtanje.
 Reversing – obrtanje: proces modifikacije koji se sastoji od menjanja centralnih
komponenti smisla u njima sasvim suprotne, obično da bi se dobio efekat ironije. (What a
wonderful day! A ustvari pada kiša od jutros i pas ti je popišao nogu u redu za ulje.)
  Weakening – slabljenje: tip modifikacije pri kojem se opuštaju centralne smisaone
komponente i tako labavi originalni smisao. I’ve told you a million times to feed the dog!
(Very many). The children drew a circle in the sand. (Very rough approximation of
circle).
 Strenthening – pojačavanje: tip modifikacije pri kom se specifične smisaone komponente
prvobitnom smislu. What’s on TV? Nothing. (Nothing of interest to you/us) Here comes
the lady with the body. (The beautiful body, beyond which there is little else.)
26. Modulation – modulacija: proces pri dodatnom razrešenju pri kojem je istaknuta
komponenta smisla podvrgnuta daljnjem kontekstualnom isticanju. Manifestuje se na dva načina,
kroz uoštravanje i isticanje.
 Highlighting – isticanje: tip modulacije pri kojem se istaknuti deo referenta još više ističe
a ostali se ostavljaju u mraku. (The book is very long – highlights its form. The book is
very interesting – highlights its content etc.)
 Spotlighting – uoštravanje: proces modulacije pri kojem se istaknuti deo referenta stavlja
u fokus, dok se ostali delovi drže van fokusa. (E.g. to fit a window – the frame with the
pane and the hinges is spotlighted; to wash a window – the frame or the pane, or the
frame with the pane are spotlighted; to paint a window – only the frame is spotlighted
etc.)
27. Pragmatic enrichment – pragmatičko upotpunjenje: proces intepretacije usko vezan za
kontekst, pri kojem se dopunjavaju sve nedostajeće informacije u vezi sa značenjem. Ima dva
stupnja: reference assignment (?) i lokalno razrešenje.
 Refference assignment : proces identifikacije nameravanog referenta date reči u rečenici.
 Local completion – lokalno razrešenje: proces zaključivanja nameravanih smisaonih
komponenti reči sadržanih u rečenici.
 Basic completion – osnovno razrešenje: tip lokalnog razrešenja sa dva podtipa:
rekonstrukcijom i konstrukcijom, u zavisnosti od toga koliko čvrsto je utvrđen dati
smisao.
 Follow-up completion – dodatno razrešenje: proces koji se nastavlja na osnovno
razrešenje i obogaćuje neke od smislova zaključenih tokom konstrukcije i rekonstrukcije.
Realizovan je na dva načina: kroz modifikaciju i modulaciju.
28. Lexicological square – leksikološki kvadrat: petočlani model sadžinske analize leksema.
Sadrži leksemu, smisao, denotaciju, asocijaciju i referencu. Savršeniji model od semiotičkog
trougla jer prikazuje pun opseg leksikologije. .
29. Reference – referencija: veza između konkretno upotrebljene lekseme i specifičnog
vanjezičkog entiteta koji se uzima iz liste onih koji su nabrojani u denotaciji. (That cow is pink.)
30. Lexicon – leksikon: apstraktan skup jezičkih jedinica, koji čini sastavni deo nečijeg znanja o
jeziku, i pored popisa ostvarenih jezičkih jedinica, sadrži i pravila za njihovo kombinovanje, tj.
za stvaranje novih, ostvarivih leksema.
31. Semiotic triangle – semiotički trougao: grafički prikaz koji se koristi za predstavljanje
značenja u konceptualističkoj teoriji. Određena leksema A, kao lingvistički entitet označava
određeni predmet C, vanjezički pojam, kroz određeni koncept B, mentalni entitet. Tačke AB i
BC su povezane direktno (punom linijom na dijagramu), ali AC su povezane indirektno. To jest,
leksema ELEPHANT označava konkretan, stvaran predmet, kroz odgovarajući koncept, koji je
direktno povezan i sa leksemom i sa objektom, ali leksema i predmet su povezani samo
indirektno, kroz odgovarajući koncept.
32. Construction – konstrukcija: kreativni (i to ne samo aktivni) proces zaključivanja tokom kog
čitalac/slušalac konstruiše određeni smisao kroz filtriranje semantički mogućih ali pragmatički
neodgovarajućih smislova i pravljenje novog uz pomoć ponuđenih semantičkih i pragmatičkih
tragova i analoškog razmišljanja. What’s a flash card? It’s in fact an electronic film.
33. Reconstruction – rekonstrukcija: aktivni proces zaključivanja pri kom slušalac/čitalac
rekonstruira određeni smisao kroz filtriranje semantički mogućih ali pragmatički
neodgovarajućih smislova, i biranje samo onog koji je kontekstualno prikladan.
34. Semantic underspecification – semantička nepotpunost: nedostatak informacija potrebnih
za intepretaciju reči van konteksta. Značenje reči bez konteksta je nedovoljno specifikovano,
makar što se tiče sledećeg: odgovarajućeg referenta (male vs female, animate vs inanimate, etc.)

1)

Ambiguity:
 Lexical ambiguity: more than one interpretation of form, function and meaning of a
lexical unit.
 Grammatical ambiguity: occurs as the result of different structural relations of a single
lexical (semantic or functional) unit within a syntactic unit.
2)
Antonyms represent the differences in meaning between two lexemes. There are at least five
basic types of antonyms. The prototypic demonstration of antonyms determine two attributes: (a)
contrast between two lexemes, and (b) same morphosyntactic category of relevant lexemes.

1. Scalar antonyms

Most commonly used concerning adjectives, for example: good : bad, fast : slow, kind : unkind,
loudly : softly, and concerning some verbs used for expressing emotions: like : dislike, admire :
despise, agree : disagree.

These pairs of lexemes are based on the contrast of something being more or less. These pairs
represent the two endpoints of a particular value scale and they are symmetrically stationed in
relation to the middle, neutral part of a particular scale.

For instance, the dimension of speed is determined by the scalar pair fast : slow.

The lexeme fast illustrates an aspiration towards one, positive extremity, while the lexeme slow
illustrates an aspiration towards the other end of the scale, the negative one which theoretically is
closer to the value of zero. Between these two extremities there is the neutral part of a scale
which cannot be illustrated with neither of the two lexemes.
Exception: tepid/lukewarm (dimension of temperature).

How fast is it? - neutral relationship (neutralization)

How slow is it? – to denote its negative value on a scale.

To determine scalar antonyms we may use diagnostic tests, negating one member of a pair,
which shows their partial mutual exclusivity: X implies NOT Y, but NOT Y does not necessarily
imply Y (and vice versa). It’s fast implicates that It’s not slow; while It’s not fast does not
strictly implicate that It’s slow.

The range of neutral values is clearly implicated by the negation of both members: It’s neither
fast nor slow.

The prototypic demonstration of scalar antonyms supposes the ability of comparing the state of
things (gradability).Gradability indicates the morphosyntactic comparison as well, thus creating
the comparative and the superlative form (fats, fastest). They can be premodified by adverbs like:
slightly, moderately, very, extremely.

We can differentiate explicit and implicit gradability.

Explicit gradability is used when we compare two entities (My car is faster than yours) or two
different states of the same entity (My car is faster than it used to be).

Implicit gradibility occurs when we use a scalar antonym taking into consideration the accepted,
prototypical form or features of a particular thing and comparing it to that.

My car is fast. This particular car is not fast concerning its absolute terms but its relative terms.

2. Complementary antonyms

Most commonly used concerning adjectives such as: male : female, true : false, alive : dead,
deciduous : evergreen, and concerning verbs such as: hit : miss, succeed : fail, obey : disobey,
and nouns such as: man : woman, lion : lioness, smoker : non-smoke.

These pairs of lexemes are based on the contrast of yes/no, which means the unambiguous
existence or nonexistence of the state of things. This divides a particular dimension into two
equal and mutual exclusive parts. There are no neutral values; something is either true or false.

To determine complementary antonyms we may use diagnostic tests, negating one member of a
pair, which shows their complete mutual exclusivity: X implies NOT Y, and NOT X implies Y
(and vice versa). It’s true implicates that It’s not false. It’s not true implicates that It’s false.

The nonexistence of neutral values is clearly proven by the paradoxicalness of negating both
members of a pair at the same time. It’s neither true nor false.
The ability of gradability is not recognized concerning complementary antonyms, of course there
are some exceptions such as: safe : dangerous, drunk : sober, satisfactory : unsatisfactory.

3. Diametrical antonyms (in some instances referred to as antipodal antonyms)

Diametrical antonyms denote two endpoints of a given axis towards one or the other direction.
Example: up : down, top : bottom, north : south, east : west, upwards : downwards, forwards :
backwards, front : back, in : out, black : white.

4. Converse antonyms

Most commonly used concerning verbs and nouns such as: above : below, in front of : behind,
before : after, buy : sell, own : belong to, husband : wife, parent : child.

Converse antonyms hold a relationship between two entities, which is observed either from one
angle or the other on the given axis.

It is common that the above mentioned relationships are symmetrical, which indicates the
possibility of permutation of members in a pair: If X owns Y, then Y belongs to X.

Look: employer : employee

5. Reversive antonyms

Most commonly used concerning verbs such as: enter : leave, learn : forget, widen : narrow,
pack : unpack, appear : disappear, magnetize : demagnetize.

Reversive antonyms hold movement and/or change of state in the opposite direction.

4)Collocation – is the usual, sometimes even regular, two-member combination of lexemes with
one another according to the rules of a particular syntactic unit, syntagm or sentence. e.g. drink
coffee, strong coffee, drink strong coffee

Each collocation has a form, function and meaning that make a whole, and describes a specific
construction in a linguistic or extra linguistic reality. A collocation can occur only if the two
lexemes can be joined with each other i.e. if they have a compatible diagnostic feature(DgO).
E.g. the verb drink occurs with the nouns that have the compatibility (DgO) [LIQUID]; water,
tea, coffee, beer, wine, whiskey.
Grammatically, collocations are semantic units (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) consisting of
two-members which can be combined in several ways. Here are the 6 basic, most important
types:
1. Noun + verb
The noun is the primary collocate and acts as the subject in the sentence, while the verb is the
secondary collocate and is describing what the subject is doing. This is the only type that is
realized in sentences and not in syntagms. E.g. a cat miaows/ mews, a mosquito bites, the hearth
beats, stars twinkle, the newspaper comes out etc.
Structurally, the two lexemes in a collocation that collocate with each other are called
collocates, which are ruled by a hierarchy.
2. Verb + noun
The noun is the primary collocate and it acts as the object , while the verb, the secondary
collocate tells what is done with the object. E.g. ride a bicycle, launch a ship, plant a bomb, gain
experience, break a record etc.
3. Adjective + noun
The noun is the primary collocate, while the adjective, the secondary collocate shows how the
noun is manifested. E.g. a clear conscience, unbearable heath, intense pain, convincing victory
etc.
4. Verb + adverb
The verb is the primary collocate, while the adverb, the secondary collocate, shows how
something is done. E.g. sleep soundly, support wholeheartedly, translate literally, speak bluntly
etc.
5. Adverb + adjective
The adjective is the primary c, while the secondary the adjective is manifested. E.g. deeply hurt,
highly inflammable, mutually exclusive, hugely successful etc.

6. Noun + of genitive + noun

The second noun is the primary collocate, while the secondary shows the typical part that is
expressed with it. E.g. a blade of grass, a rasher of bacon, a bar of chocolate, a ray/ glimmer of
hope etc.

Collocates:
 Primary collocate - it is the center, the focus (teziste) of the collocation and carries the
main meaning. E.g. coffee
 Secondary collocate – it determines or describes the collocation. E.g. drink, strong etc.
Both of the above explained collocates are mutually attracted to each other and the primary
collocate has a bigger attractive force.

Open collocation – the collocations which have as a secondary collocate lexemes with wide
meanings, as for example have, make, get, do, give, take, keep, run; make a decision/ effort/
promise etc.
Open collocations are close to free levels, which are characterized by a) a maximal changebility
of both collocates with the lexemes from the apropirate morpho-syntactic class, and b) lacking
the mutual attraction of the collocates.
Bound collocation – collocations which have as a secondary collocate lexemes with a specific
meaning. They have only one meaning, they occur only with their collocate and their meaning is
unseparatable from the meaning of the primary collocate. E.g. weak havoc, foot the bill, dead
drunk etc. This type of collocation is quite close to idioms because the strong bond between the
two collocates. However, this idiomatic aspect functions only on the level of form, and not on
the level of content.
Restricted collocation – are collocations between the open and bound collocations. They consist
of lexemes of modest collocation range, however, some of them can be closer to the open coll
while some closer to the bound collocations. Restricted collocations are the most frequent ones
in the language.
Colligation/ grammatical collocation – are collocations that contain functional units,
specifically prepositions as secondary collocates. In the position of primary collocates we meet
nouns, verbs and adjectives. Because the bonds between the lexemes are obligatory, these
collocations belong to the domain of grammar.
a) noun + preposition (affection for, opinion about)
b) verb + preposition (quarrel about/over, name after)
c) adjective + preposition (dependent on, proud of)

On the basis of the above said the prototype of the collocations consists of the following thongs:
a) restricted collocations
b) semantic units in a hierarchic order
c) possible or minimal convertibility of the secondary collocates
d) relatively rare lastingness(postojanost)
e) high transparency(prozirnost) of the whole
7)Linguistic (sentential) context and extralinguistic context

A distinction in meaning that refers to the context, or environment in which a certain lexeme
appears.

This environment is represented by a linguistic context determined by the interaction of at least

two features: the selection of each lexical unit (semantic and/or functional), on a paradigmatic
level, the sequential order thereof, on a syntagmatic level, including grammatical (structural)
relations between them.

This particular context (linguistic) occurs within the universal frames of an extralinguistic
context which can be defined as a plexus of general and special, spatial, temporal, social,
peculiar, and of general cultural features that contribute to the establishment, development and
accomplishment of communication, including the referenced environment related to stylistic
variations in a language.

Closely examined, a lexeme out of context –either linguistic or extralinguistic-is always rather
polysemic, characterized by a general, insufficiently determined clear meaning.
9)The language has two main functions. One of them is descriptive meaning. One of the main
function of the language is to express a content, it is a way in which someone receives the world
around him-/herself including the world of his/her inner conscience. It can be stated that the first
and most important function of a language is to describe the outer reality, state of things which
are not dependent on the things that describe them. This function of a language is called
descriptive function.
It’s characteristics are:
a) it is objective, it is transferred by the senses, it is the available state of the things so it’s
correctness can be checked.
b) It can be measured within a binary contrast, e.g. yes/no
c) Stylistically it is unmarked, it is not prone to reinterpretation and changes within a
particular language community(= people using the same language, usually from the same
socio-cultural community).
d) It is not in accordance with the communicational situation(the interaction of the linguistic
and extra linguistic context)
e) It is the obligatory and central component of the lexical and sentential meaning. It makes
the essence of the analysis of the content.

Conceptualism – In semiotics the lexeme is considered to be a linguistic sign which represent or

mark an object in the world around us. Because of this explanation this theory could be called the
theory of marking , where the meaning is the mental content which is personalized in a particular
concept. That concept can be transformed from the mind of the encoder to the mind of the
decoder in the form of a linguistic unit. The term conceptualism originates from the strong
reliability on the usage of the concept.
The concept is a mental entity, it is an idea, thought or a mental construction through which the
mind gets to know the reality. The concept is the mental image of an object marked by a lexeme.
Componential analysis - a technique used to describe the bases and contrasts by which the
constituent terms differ in a language and/or culture. Thus, in kinship analysis, son, daughter,
and cousin are all in the same generation, and whilst son and daughter share the same component
of children of a parent, they differ in the male/female component.
also called feature analysis or contrast analysis, refers to the description of the meaning of words
through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as “present”, “absent” or
“indifferent with reference to feature”. The method thus departs from the principle of
compositionality. Componential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which
analyzes the structure of a word's meaning. Thus, it reveals the culturally important features by
which speakers of the language distinguish different words in the domain. This is a highly
valuable approach to learning another language and understanding a specific semantic domain of
an Ethnography.
Prototype – the typical representative which has the richest amount of characteristics for the
given category.
10)Descriptive features: all distinctive attributes of an extralinguistic entity, which can be
relevant in establishing semantic contrast. Descriptive features should not only describe the
physical features of an extralinguistic entity, but its function and manifestation as well.
Descriptive features have a more significant role in interaction.

 Diagnostic component: semantically relevant in defining a lexeme; they are unrelated

and independent from time and place and must be sufficient in appropriately describing
the extralinguistic entity. Diagnostic components are provided by dictionaries (provides
knowledge of language), which give only the essential information needed to actively and
passively use a particular word.
 Non-diagnostic component: less semantic relevance, provide additional information
about the extralinguistic entity; they are not seen as a part of language, but a part of a
culture. Non-diagnostic components are provided by an encyclopedia (provides
knowledge of reality), for example.

Associative feature: mark all distinctive features or attributes of a lexeme, and partly denotation
as well.

Stylistic features: a word can carry a stylistic meaning.

 User-related: the meaning is determined by the speaker

1) Dialects: a form of language spoken in a particular are, and are characterized by dialectical
features, such as British, American, Canadian, Scottish, Welsh, North American, South
American, East American, Canadian, etc.

E.g.: British: aeroplane, luggage, pavement, tap; American: airplane, baggage, sidewalk, faucet;
Scottish: bairn (child, baby), loch (lake), kirk (church); from French: arondissement, chanson

2) Sociolects: used by a particular group in society. Sometimes jargon and argot are included
here. They are characterized by sociolectal features, which can be: standard, non-standard, slang;
or words used by black people, students, by doctors, etc.

3) Chronolects: refer to neologism and archaism, and are characterized by chronolectal features,
which are: rare, obsolescent, obsolete, archaic, etc.

4) Idiolects: refers to the vocabulary of an individual.

 Use-related: the meaning depends on the situation in which it is used

1) Thematic register: determined by the theme talked about; may, but does not have to include
vocational terminology; characterized by thematic features, which are: medicine, law,
computing, poetry, journalism, linguistics, etc.
2) Interpersonal register: depends on the relationship between the speakers (e.g. sex, );
characterized by interpersonal features, which can be: formal, informal.

3) Medium register: depends on the medium used for communication (written, spoken);
characterized by medium features, which are: in writing, in speech.

It is important to note that one type of feature can covey in itself or exclude other subtypes of
that features. E.g.: the term British English can include all dialects of that variant of English,
such as the dialect of London, or Cockney, etc.; the thematic register of law usually includes
only formal interpersonal register and written medium register.

Expressive features: describes the attitude of the communicator towards the other
communicators or the theme being discussed.

These can be: appreciative (childlike, resourceful, selfless), derogatory (childish, notorious,
quarrelsome), offensive, euphemistic, taboo, humorous, etc.

Connotative features: subjective realization of the objective reality, the individual component
of meaning. It describes the attitude of an individual towards a particular referent, which is why
it is difficult to define.

12) Homonymy: refers to sameness in form, and in many cases morpho-syntactic function as
well, but difference in meaning (which is why they are usually added as distinct entries in
dictionaries) between at least two lexemes. Homonymy is primarily based on ambiguity of form,
and therefore does not fall directly into the domain of discussing meaning.

 Full homonymy: refers to sameness in both phonological and orthographic form. E.g.
bank (financial institution, part of a river)
 Partial homonymy: refers to sameness from only one aspect, either phonological or
orthographic.
 Homophony: refers to phonological sameness between at least two lexemes. E.g.: pear,
pair, pare.
 Homography: refers to orthographic sameness between at least two lexemes. E.g.: bow,
bow.

13) Hyponymy: a relation between lexemes; refers to the inclusion of sense, when the sense of a
lexeme is included in the sense of another; it is based on a hierarchical organization, proceeding
from a superordinate lexeme to a subordinate (referred to as hyponym). More precisely,
hyponymy can occur between lexemes, which share all common diagnostic components, but
differ from the aspect that the hyponym contains at least one more diagnostic component in
relation to the superordinate, which differentiates it from other hyponyms.

 Hyponym: the subordinate lexeme in the hierarchy, whose sense and denotation are
included in the sense of the superordinate lexeme. E.g.: rose
  Cohyponym: refers to the relations between several hyponyms of equal status. E.g.: rose,
tulip, daffodil.
 Superordinate (hiperonim): the lexeme, which takes the highest place in the hierarchy,
the sense in which the senses of the other, hyponyms are included. E.g.: flower.

14)Idioms are regular but sometimes systematic connections of at least two lexemes, but often
more, semantically and functional as well within a specific sentence.

Example: “cunning as a fox”/”lukav kao lisica”, “make a mountain out of a

molehill”/”praviti od komarca magarca”, “still waters run deep”/”tiha voda breg roni”.

Idioms represent a compact whole-from the aspect of form, function, meaning and use,
keeping in mind the specific unit of lexicons and the specific determinant in a dictionary

Idiomatization is the main characteristic of idioms, and it is generated through contentual and
/or formable idiomatization.

Contentual idiomatization is demonstrated through decrementation, which similar to

polimorphemic lexemes, where is a loss of diagnostic features but at the same time adding of
new diagnostic features to the whole.

Usually there is a metaphorically or a metonymically based transfer of meaning.

Example: “make a mountain out of a molehill”- make a major issue out of a minor one; to
exaggerate the importance of something.

There are also compositional contentual idioms such as “fish and chips” with the possible
incrementations, which is shown trough adding diagnostic features onto an anticipated
meaning.

Formable idiomatization is based on whether some lexemes can be changed or not, and if
there is a possibility of change is it minimal or not possible at all.

Example: “as cunning as a fox” -word cunning simply cannot be changed because then it
loses its meaning. “not lift/raise a finger”-here a change is possible.

Furthermore, idioms can be submitted to creative modifications and transformations, which

can be reached with the change of some lexemes, to create a unique communicative effect-
humoristic, ironic or some other kind of effect.

Example: She twists her husband round her little finger-in fact, round all her fingers!

Idioms can be divided into 3 basic and crucial types:

(1) Phrasal lexemes

-verbless phrasal lexemes

·fixed binominal

·simile

·phrasal nouns

-verbal phrasal lexemes

·phrasal verbs

(2) Discourse formula

(3) Sayings

-traditional saying

-catch phrase

(1) Phrasal lexemes represent hybrid lexical unites formally realized as syntagmes, which
concerning their function, meaning and usage stand as lexemes.

Phrasal lexemes, similar to other lexemes, appear as a name of a segment out of linguistic
context. In relation to the structure of relevant syntagmes as well as on their function in a
sentence we can comprehend two main subtypes of phrasal lexemes: verbless and verbal
lexemes.

Verbless phrasal lexemes are realized with nominal, adjectival, adverbial or prepositional
syntagms, which function as ordinary lexemes in a sentence.

Concerning their forms they show impossible or minimal exchange, relatively high existence
with the possibility of certain modifications and very limited transformations; concerning
their content they are in the range of being totally impenetrable up to totally penetrable; like
the following: “behind closed doors”, “head over heels in love”. In this group we can also
mention the fixed binomials where there are two semantic units connected with one function;
like in “law and order”, “alive and well”.

Similes also belong to this group: “deaf as a post”, “like fish out of water”.

Special types of verbless phrasal lexemes are the phrasal nouns which are realized with
nominal syntagms, most often as collocations in the form of adjective + noun: personal
computer, sexual harassment, flying saucer.
All these phrasal nouns concerning their function and content are closely related to
endocentric, complex lexemes, since they name one subtype of that indicated by the noun.
This way they create a sense relationship with hyponymy, in which a phrasal noun appears as
a hyponym of the adequate superordinate.

The other subtype of the phrasal lexeme is the verbal phrasal lexeme. They are realized by
verbal syntagms and beside the lexical verb they are broadened with one at least one object
and/or with one adverbial. They show impossible or minimal exchangeability and they lean
towards impenetrability.

Examples: “by a big in a pike”/”kupiti mačku u džaku”

A special type of verbal phrasal lexemes is phrasal verbs, which are realized by verbal
syntagms, which is the connection of one lexical verb and at least one particle which
functions as a modification.

Example: “hang up”/”spustiti slušalicu”, “talk into”/”nagovoriti”

(2)Discourse formula

They are realized as sentences or as syntagms, which are used for the starting point of a
conversation, upholding a conversation and finishing a conversation within a particular
communicative circumstance.

Within this class we can mention: greetings, meetings, thanking, recognition, disapproval etc.

The show an impossible exchange, furthermore they show a high relative existence and a
very low possibility of modifications and transformations.

Example: How do you do?, Of course!, You’re welcome!, That’s right!, I don’t give a damn!

(3)Sayings

Sayings are sentences; their basic function is to give a comment on a previous

communication. Based on their form they are impossibly exchangeable and a high existence
with a slim possibility of modification and transformation.

There are two subtypes: traditional sayings and catch phrases.

Traditional phrases are brief, witted sentences which express a wise thought, telling the truth
or a belief based on a previous experience.

Examples: The early bird catches the worm/Ko rano rani dve sreće grabi.

These traditional sayings are already implemented into our culture and thus they may suffer
elision. Example: A bird in the hand/Bolje vrabac u ruci-to which the second part of the
 sentence is obvious and it needn't be uttered-…..is worth two in the bush/…..nego golub na
grani.

On the other hand catch phrases are short but effective expressions introduced on behalf of a
public personnel or group from the world of show business, art, politics etc. These phrases
may become trademarks of a particular person or company.

Example: Diamonds are the girl’s best friend.

16) Lexical field: the grouping of lexemes based on the relation of sense; the lexemes share at
least one central diagnostic component, covering the whole of a certain diagnostic dimension.
Lexical fields must contain at least two members, which have to be of the same morphosyntactic
class.

 Hierarchical lexical field: based on hyponymy, referring to the hierarchy of its members
(superordinate and subordinate). It takes into consideration the vertical relations between
the hypernim and hyponym, as well as the horizontal relations of cohyponyms. E.g.:
hypernim (animal), class (mammal), genus (dog), species (terrier, poodle), variety (Irish
terrier, Scottish terrier). Hierarchical lexical fields also include those based on whole and
part. The part (separable or inseparable from the whole) should be characterized as
independent, with its own function and with a clear boundary from its adjacent parts.
E.g.: car, chassis, wheel, engine, door, windscreen; body, head, neck, trunk, arm, leg, etc.

 Linear lexical field: based on the contrast between several lexemes, but also between
two lexemes, which are realized as antonyms. Based on the principle which determines
the order of elements, linear lexical fields can be cycles or series.

1. Series: have a beginning and end point/element, between which are arranged the other
elements, based on: scales, ranks and clusters.

a. Scale: the elements can be compared on a gradient scale. E.g.: scorching, hot, warm,
lukewarm, cool, cold, freezing (dimension of temperature); white, grey, black (dimension
of color)

b. Rank: the elements are not comparable, with clearly defined borders. E.g.: excellent,
good, average, fair, poor (dimension of school grades); dimensions of military ranks,
linguistic units, music notes.

c. Cluster: when comparability, organization and finality of lexemes is irrelevant, the group
of words create a cluster. E.g.: bee, wasp, fly, mosquito, ant (dimension of insects).
Sometimes clusters are based on synonymy. E.g.: jump, leap, spring, skip, hop, bounce,
etc.
 2. Cycle: don’t have endpoints, but the elements are cyclically organized, and have equal
status. E.g.: red, yellow, green, blue, purple (dimension of basic colors); north, east,
south, west; spring, summer, autumn, winter; days, months.

17.) Lexical link – is the usual, regular and sometimes systematic occurrence of a specific
lexeme with another one according to the rules of a syntagm or sentence in which the lexeme is.
In terms of the content, form and function all the lexical links make a compact unit. The level of
the compactness of a lexical link can be substitutability, stability and transparency.
Substitutability – as a feature of the form, means that some lexemes within a lexical link can be
replaced with other lexemes which have a similar meaning. The substitution is impossible if
there is only one lexeme in the lexical link, but is possible if there are minimum two lexemes.
Stability – as a feature of the form, is the possibility of a) a morpho-syntactic transformation
(changes in the number, tense, aspect, change in the morpho-syntactic class, thematic
organization of a sentence etc) or b) modifications (medial or final initials; perspective
supplements).
Transparency – as a feature of the content, means the level of predictability of the sense,
meaning of the unit.
According to the above explained criterion there are two main types of lexical links. If a lexical
link shows a possible or minimal substitutability, relatively low stability and transparency, there
is a compositional and diffusive link between the lexemes, which will be called collocation. On
the other hand, if the lexical link shows an impossible or minimal substitutability, relatively high
stability and transparency there is an idiomatised and compact link between the lexemes, which
is called idiom.
Compact lexical links can be seen as lexemes having a tight relationship in terms of their
function a content, while the diffusive lexical links are closer to sentences in terms of their form,
function and content.
There cannot be established a clear distinction between collocations and idioms. The best
solution seems to be to observe lexical links as a continuum between two diffusiveness and
compactness.
18.) Lexical relations – mean the relationship between the form and/or content of at least two
lexical units which are chosen from the possible paradigmatic units. Lexical relations are
determined by the lexical links.

Such relations are established between lexemes and their sememes in accordance with the
idealization of a lexeme as a sememe in a moment which assumes a textual meaning and usage in
a concrete linguistic and extra linguistic context.
19) A Lexical set is a term introduced for all paradigmatically related groups of words which
cannot be described by purely linguistic methods. Lexical sets are either based on association
and intuition or on objectively verifiable extralinguistic relationships captured by encyclopedic
knowledge. They are often highly culture-specific.
The lexemes can be related by time, place like for example the parts of a house:roof, wall, tile,
chimney...etc. Also the lexemes can have a thematic or psychological connection. For example
lexemes that are connected to the bathroom: water, soap, toothpaste, towel, dry, dirty,
clean...Here we have thematic connection.

22)Polysemy (multiplicity of meaning)

Polysemy means that one lexeme has the capacity to carry more than one meaning.

Polysemy holds both the language’s economy and its semantic and pragmatic creativity. It is
based on one basic so called dominant meaning of a particular lexeme from which several other
secondary meanings derived. According to the above mentioned we can distinguish linear
polysemy which carries the basic meaning of a particular lexeme and branching polysemy which
carries the derived meaning through its metaphorical or metonymical meaning.

Polysemes are etymologically and therefore semantically related and typically originate from
metaphoric usage. Line in a line of people and a line drawn on a piece of paper are
etymologically related, and it is easy to see their semantic relation.

28.) Sense relations – do not represent the relations between lexemes, but the relations between
their individual sememes in the accordance with the idealization of a lexeme as a sememe in a
moment which assumes a textual meaning and usage in a linguistic and extra linguistic context.
This is probably the most important among the lexical relations. All sense relations rely on
relatedness and similarity of the sense. Depending on the nature of the relatedness there are
three main sense relations: hyponymy, synonymy and antonymy.

29) Synonymy: sameness of meaning between at least two lexemes. More precisely, synonymy
occurs when the lexemes in question share all central diagnostic components, which enables, at
least partially, their interchangeability in context, and usually belong to the same morpho-
synactic class. E.g.: buy/purchase; good-looking, handsome, pretty.

 Absolute synonymy: exists only in the instances when the lexemes have the same
distribution in context, same descriptive meaning (share all diagnostic components) and
associative meaning . The lexemes agree in descriptive meaning, associative meaning,
and range of application. Absolute synonymy does not exist, since it is unnecessary for a
language to have 2 words with entirely the same meaning. E.g.: caecitis, typhlitis
(medicine) are said to be absolute synonyms, but differ etymologically.
 Complete synonymy: occurs in the sameness of both associative and descriptive
meaning of the lexemes, but different distribution; rare.
 Incomplete/descriptive synonymy: concentrates on the sameness of descriptive
meaning, therefore, sense and denotation. E.g.: high/tall, cool/cold/freezing,
fear/fright/terror.
  Loose synonymy: the connection between the lexemes is not as strong; the central
diagnostic elements are the same; this is referred to as similarity.

 LEKSEMA – osnovni element vokabulara jednog jezika koji ima svoju utvrđenu fonološku i
ortografsku formu, morfo-sintaktičku (gramatičku) funkciju, jedinstveno značenje i
samostalnu upotrebu.
o Lexeme is the basic unit of the vocabulary of the given language with its established
phonological and orthographic form, morpho-syntactic function, unique meaning and
independent use.
 SMISAO – uređeni skup deskriptivnih obeležja kojima se definiše celokupna klasa
vanjezičkih entiteta.
o Sense is an ordered set of a sufficient number of descriptive (diagnostic) features by
which a class of extralinguistic entities is defined.
o E.g. dog – animate, animal, four legs, barks...
 DENOTACIJA – Odnos između lekseme i odgovarajuće klase vanjezičkih entiteta
o Denotation is the relationship between a lexeme and the entire class of extralinguistic
entities to which it can be appropriately applied.
o E.g. All dogs in the world constitute a denotation of a lexeme 'dog'.
 ASOCIJACIJA – skup dodatnih obeležja koja ograničavaju referenciju.
o Association is an additional meaning (stylistic, expressive or connotative) which
determines the contextual appropriatness of the word.
 REFERENCIJA – podrazumeva identifikaciju jednog ili više entiteta iz te klase u konkretnoj
komunikacionoj situaciji.
o Reference is the relationship between an actually (concretely) used lexeme and the
specific entity picked out (identified) from among those contained in the denotation.
o E.g. The neighbour's dog barked all night.