Sediments Transport 7.1 Stability of Channels “pad Bed stability Channel bottom material should be in equilibri i i ; ; quilibrium otherwise scour or erosion of the 7 will occur leading to sand transport. The forces on a horizontal bottom (Fig 7.1) are: F w Fig 7.1 Forces on the bottom Fp = drag force on the grains due to viscous shear of the water W = weight of the grains There is equilibrium when: 2 Stang (7.1) Where @ is the angle of repose depending on grain size, shape and soil material (Table 7.4 & Fig 7.4). The ratio Fy/W is known as the entrainment function, F, Considering Fig 7.2, shear stress due to water on an inclined bottom, 7 = pgRS, per . m, Flow particle (b+ ZogS, Fig 7.2 Bed equilibrium Drag force F,on a grain = ToApElements of Civil Engineering Hydraulics ?, therefore: But A, area of particle) =d'/4 = f,d"s tht Boel ae factor. Where d = dyg of the grain and f, is area shape Weight of particle, W = (p,-)8V > But volume of particle =7d°/6 = fad’ W=flor- pig? Where f; is a volume shape factor Poof te to. fi BSo Wf, (ped f; Aped f, Ad 4.65 for sand Equilibrium is attained when: * Fy fi te Wf, ped Stang Or Significant values for (£/f,tang Tange between 0.02 — 0.05. A value 0.047 was aigpted. Note that this is similar to the Shields threshold entrainment function (F, = 0.056). Therefore the bottom is in equilibrium when: RS, es 0.047 (72) Or at the threshold of particle movement; RS, = 0.047Ad Therefore the critical shear stress 7, equals: T= 0.047Apgd In situations when it is not possible stream is used. The velocity near the by 1300RS, Substituting for RS, in equation (7.2), yielas v3 <100d (73) ‘o obtain R and S,, the ity of th ‘» the mean velocity of the Sunday ayer is given by Cheay ser 152arrears yaterms of mean velocity: y?= 150-2004 qhus if the square of the mean * vel (A) Tour or erosion of the bottom," # less than 180 2004, there would n ot be qhe above formulae are valid for hydrauli through lamina boundary layer (Fig 73), a bound covered by the boundary lamina. 7 -sub-layer (5) tomove them. Boundary lamina-sub-layer a ee 4 ~ 10° JyS, 7Aa lary i.e. where the grains prick Brains are very small, they are high velocity of flow is required imated from the formula: Lamina sub-layer Lamina sub-layer (a) hydraulic rough boundary (b) hydraulic smooth Fig 7.3 Hydraulic rough and smooth boundaries Table 7.1 Angle of repose of some common materials Grain size | Angle of repose (am) (gyslues Sand 0.6-2 50°35" Gravel 2-8 35°- 40" Coarse gravel 8-20 360-42 2” | Eg ¥ Ra § 9 ee RGN | BC Nees t BrP Ree Se! ” wo FH am ro 2 0 rl yo in [Tite Bow goatee eae ive soils se of repose frances 0° Fig 74 ‘US Taree of Reclamation)Elements of Civil Engineering Hydraulics Incipient (Threshold) Motion ion as a function of angle of repose oft i ment functio: a 2 The Sued iicee Meee a that the dimensionless Particle entrainmen fatten (roe 7Jegdd) must be some function of another dimensionless function j the form of a boundary or shear Reynolds Number (Re.) related to the conditions » the grains rather than to the general fluid flow i.e. Purd (75) 1H friction velocity (7,/p) Boundary or shear Reynolds Number. The functional relationship between F, and Re. known as Shields curve (Fig 7.5, shows that, for Re. > 400, the critical shear stress 7, is: t, =0.056pgAd (7.6) Thus at the threshold condition (Re. >400): RS, —s__ Be 7:7 ad (7.7) Recent publications indicate lower Re. values in the range 75 - 150, Shields experiment was RSJAd st 25, \[antibuke v%igad ¥ NS, \sfounes Nap. 3 : Re, = ed 1000 a y Fig 7.5 Shields diagram Equating the above equation RS/ad = 0.056 and not i it Particle size for incipient motion as: noting 4 = 1.65 yields the limiting 1541 Sediments Ti d= IRS, combining eqn (7.7a) and Mannin, (77a) 116) i * je B's et +/26 (Strickler’s equation) yiel quation for mean velocity (v= 1/nR*"S™*) with n-d ds: Ve ea re: Ve = critical ity for incipi whe | velocity for incipient motion of sediment particles 19Va(arry"s (7.7) The recommended values of criti ati 7 tical tracti ‘i TH cities for different sizes of bed See 07. Table 7.2 Critical tractive force and mean velocity for different bed materials eneueseeusasoasesmsaasaeee™ Material oto foe aS a780 oats 03 | rr [ose | 10 7a0 [0.730 | = . B 0.890 | 0.760 | 0.2 0.890 | 0.735 0.2 O58 e 386 i 3 6.940 | 0.760 : 0.940 | 0.743 = a6. ot 44 4 0.970 | 0.770 | 0.2 | 0.970 0.750 | 0.2 08 7 4 6 | 0.980 | 0.770 : 0.980 o7e6 a7 - = 99 [0.770 | 02 | 0.990 | 0: > LS r sample sncastre (1987) Triangular cross section: Soures Le cal shear stress for a particle on the slope of In a straight trapezoidal channel, the criti f the critical shear stress for a bed particle the bank (z,.) can be expressed in terms o} (ye) by means of the following equation: 1 wi s} (7.15) sin? 9 where: t,. = critical shear stress for channel sides; ‘4. = critical shear stress for channel bottom; a= slope of the sides; and = angle of repose of the soil ‘The critical shear stress 1, can be computed generally from the shield criteria: Tye = 0.056Aped (7.18) where: d = diy PsP 165 P (77) p. = density of the soil p = density of water Alternatively, the critical shear st i ae ress can be obtained from Lane (1955) criterion 158Chapter 7: Sediments Transport Fey = BX dhstemy (7.18) where dr is the diameter for which 7596 of the material by weight is finer. inorder to ensure stability of the bottom, the following is required: The : 0.9p88, < i (7.19) To ensure stability of the slopes, the following is required < Tee »< O76 p88, (7.20) Note: 1. A first condition of equilibrium of the material on the channel side slope is expressed by a < @, that is to say, the angle of the side slope to the horizontal must be less than the angle of repose of the bed material The maximum shear stress exerted by the flow on the side slopes is less than the maximum shear stress exerted on the bottom i.€. ty < Tom Critical velocity criteria Knowing the permissible side slopes and permissible velocities for earth materials, it is possible to design a stable channel - see Table 7.2 and 7.5.The set back however, is that the permissible velocities are based on mean velocities instead of on the critical velocity at the bottom of the channel which is difficult to determine with good accuracy. Because of this, this method has fallen out of favour with most engineers. However, it can be used for preliminary investigation and as a check on other methods. Table 7.5 Channel Recommended velocity & Side Slopes for Different Earth Materials Soll Texture Recommended _ Side Slopes (HIV) Velocity ins) Rock - 10-1 Stiff clay or earth with concrete ining Yal-ta Sand & sand loam oa nee 4a Silt loam 05-075 qa -23 Loose sandy soil a Sandyloem _______-___ Source: Chow, 1959; Bowler, 1980 A trapezoidal irrigation channel is to be excavated in silty sand having an angle of friction 31° and to convey a discharge of 8 m*/s on a bed slope of 0.00012. The side slopes will be 1(vertical): 2(horizontal). Solution ; Side slope angle a = tan'(1/2) = 26.6 159s of Civil Engineering Hydraulics etive force for silty loam is 2.5 Nin® and @ Manning» From Table 7.2, the critical tra = 0.02. The limiting tractive force on the side is: Stability for sides is established by using the equation: Ree a O.76pgS, 0.76% 1000x9.81x 0.00012 y<1.39m Taking y = 1.3m the critical conditions are satisfied. Establish the geometry of the channel from the discharge equation: Qu Arey? aR MSy Noting that for trapezoidal b+2.6) x13] (+2.6)x1.3 2/3 channel from Table 5.2: x13] (+2.6)x1: a 7 eres (0.00012) A=(b+my)y 0.02 [ v2.65 | * A pa—Crmy)y 23 b= (b+ 26 x1 Ot2Ox138P 95, b+ 2yvi+m b+S.83V5 and in this case, n=2 Solving by trial and error for a series of b gives: b i 2 a 6 8 10 Q 201 | 2.76 432 5.93 7.57 9.23 Thus b = 8.52m.. Using the critical velocity method to check the above design; V=QA A= (b+ my)y =(8.5242%1,3)x1.3 = 14.46 m2 Tag 7 255m/s This is within permissible limit from Table 7.2 & 7.5, 160Sediments Ts 7.2 Analysis of Bottom Roughness ‘The bottom roughness is expressed in torms of the coefficient C from Chezy formula v=CJRS, where: So = energy drop due to roughness of the bottom R = hydraulic radius which for a river is taken as h (river depth) v = mean velocity m/s Therefore ‘The roughness coefficient dey ends i roughness k pends on the ratio of flow depth y and size of the ° Manning and Strickler found that: eee 1 c= a(t)" m/s (7.20) Where k = dyo. Prandth found that: cmisiogt®) (7.21) Due to the undulating bottom profile, places of retardation are introduced and energy loss is increased considerably. This means that part of S, is taken up by energy loss due to the undulation. Thus: S, = S, + Sp Therefore: (7.22) Where: §,, = energy drop due to grain roughness. I is only this par of energy drop Sy that is responsible for sand transport. Sq = energy drop due to retardation and heat transfer; not responsible for i Sediment transport. 161Elements of Civil Engineering Hydraulis A ripple factor p, is thereby introduced where: 2 p= Se] _£ (123) S. ¢, u fluctuates between 0.3 - 0.6 for ripple and 0.5 - 1.0 for dunes to flat bed Condition, Croat OF Ceraanei denoted by C is calculated by measuring v, y, Spi then (7.24) So C,, is determined by sieving a sample to dy) and measuring y. These values are py into the formula: lay Cy = 18log, (7.25) dy 7.3 Sediment Transport Sediment transport occurs at the interface between a moving fluid and an erodible boundary and affects a number of situations vital to human beings e.g. 1. It reduces the capacity of reservoirs; 2. it interferes with harbour operations; 3. it modifies and sometimes closes the path of water courses; and 4, it undermines structures by initiating erosion or scour. ‘The major categories of the transport of suspended materials in water are: 1. Bed Joad ~ transport of material from 0 ~ 10 cm from the bottom. 2. Saltation load - transport of material from 10 - 50 cm from the bottom, 3. Suspended load - transport of material > 50 cm from the bottom. 4. Wash Joad ~ transport of very fine clay and silt Particles usually caused by Particle Froude Number [F, = w/igdl] land erosion> 50 cm from the bottom, around 20 would indicate its existence, 7.3.1 Sediment Load Particles may be transported by a stream in a variet sliding, rolling or a combination of all of the above. particles which stay permanently in s broadly be conceived as occurring in on y of ways: suspension, saltation, Apart from extremely fine graine’ ‘uspension as wash load, sediment load c4? e of the two modes: 1, Bed Joad - transported by rolling or sliding along the floor (bed) of the HY2" and do not leave the bed for long, a) 162pended load - t 2. Sus ended load - transported predominantly by suspension i fluid. Phenomena of Sediment Transport ication of @ force due to a movi ne 3p roving fluid will only cause motion when it is suficient 1 eae ey eee to motion of the particle. The particles Si probably be naan eyosed aval Therefore at the interface, a moving fluid will 13:2 wil pasha force tothe exposed surface ofa partle, gxperiments have confirmed that if shear stress (r,)"Is increased from zero, a point is Barty ot which particle movements is initiated over small area f the bed. Further jncrease 11 To is sufficient to generate a widespread sediment motion of the bed load inetd is referred to as the “threshold of motion” (r, = x), With increasing fw ‘PE jer point is reached at which the finer paces begin to be swept up into the inh This defines the inception of a suspended load. The net effect therefore of fuf\jdual particle movements is a continuous change in the stream bed, until some fquilibrium is attained. : Considering the case of a channel flow over a sandy-bed which is initially level. Once the shear stress is sufficient to cause transport, “ripples” (undulating shape) will form inthe bed. These ripples may grow into larger “dunes” ~ Fig 7.9 and 7.10. The bottom roughness is increased considerably due to ripples/dunes, and along with the increase in roughness is the increase in the flow energy drop. Once the flow is sufficient to bring about a suspended load, major changes occur at the bed as dunes will be washed out. Based on these sequences, it is therefore seamed that a relationship probably exists between the rate of sediment transport and major transport parameters, ‘such as ; Froude Numbers, sediment properties, fluid properties, shear stress, and bed roughness. Attempts made at developing a rational sediment transport theory have met with limited success, Consequently, most of the current equations in use ame based on a combination of dimensional analysis, experimentation and simplified theoretical models le) Rplstage pune sage Jump ‘Antidunes | (jWayseae (o) Anidune stage Fig 7.9 Different types of bed formations 163ies Elements of Civil Engineering HS Fig 710 Photograph of ripples 7.4 Sediment Transport Equations In practice, all sediment transport occurs as bedload including saltation load or asa combination of bedload and suspended load termed total load. 7.4.1 Bed Load Transport Some of the commonly used bedload transport equations are presented below: Shields (1936) This is based on DuBoys tractive force equating relating sediment transport to shes stress. 1 gy =o (,-1,) © Bed 0) where: q, = volume of sediment transport per unit channel width 4 = flow discharge per unit channel width To = shear stress, 75= pgRS, Te critical shear stess,r.= 0.0S6appa Equation is based on the ranges of 0, Moyer- Peter and Muller Formula 1d t0 he energy slope, $ is split int 0 tw s art (uS) is cons! rapemergy slo Plit into two part. ly i spon ms Fone Pa and only one part (1S) is ‘are le factor"isdepee at's “ther is expended in the form d6! cy ‘nt on the bed form and is expressed 9 we] e } (1 2 0660) 2 0) 1.00-0.56logd,, 0.00 7 a 1.34+9.66/d. 1.50 A = 0.14+0.23/Oy. 0.17 c Tog C- 2.86logd,-(logd,)"3.53 | 0.025 ‘Obtained with Data in the range 0.04mm 6 (1.8x104 layer, so there will be sand transport, (ii) v= CYy8, =86.345x0.1*107 =193m/s. Since the critical velocity from table 7.2, m), the grains will prick the laminar bounday the normal velocity is greater the” there will be sand transport. 168EE Ret See tt e 1 ey -(23) a wel To) 70014 wed _ 10x00 pee es = OOO. # 1x10? oir having a capacity of 20%10* m* serv i " Are ellowing chatacters: width Nak 19 be sited in a river valley. The river ; 1m; bed slope 1:3000; ” rd to be constant); depth 5m, The river boundary i ll 100; discharge 87 m’/s jm), Estimate the time which w undary is alluvial (dj. = 0.3mm, p, = 1650 haf its original capacity. ould elapse before the resrvolreapacty Hs a c sum rn {0 Ys; porosity of sediment, e= 04, a rectangular channel section, tako ¥ = (ost thing the Ackers & White equations AL 1x5 P 10+(2x5) R y= QA = 87/50 = 1.74 m/s q=Qb=87/10=8.7miimls, 4=(p, ~p)/ p= (2650-1000)/ 1000 = 1.65 T= PERS. = 9810%2.5%(1/3000) = 8.175 Nim we = (rep)! = (8.175/1000)'? =0.09 mis 3 = 03x10") qos =7.12 (axao-# Ws Ag De -¢ This from Table 7.6 indicates transitional grain size; and therefore 0,5610g7.12 = 0.523 m= 1,34 + 9,66/1.72 = 2.697 A=0.14 +0.23/Dy=0.226; Dy (A/B) = (10*5)/10 = Sm logC = 2.86logDg — [(ogD,)° + 3.53] logC = -1.8186 C=0.01518 v ns a r (aga)! [5.75og(12.2Dm 1d) 171Elements of Civil Engineering Hydraulics 1-058 0.09"? 174 = 1.085 Tasvostx0310) "| 57510 122%5- 65x9,61*03% S78108 Oy107 6, = [ '37x0.3x107 L174 40.7q1= 0.5053 From which; q, = 1.241x10° m’/s/m 4.241x10°X10 = 1.241107 m/s Rate of fill of reservoir Q = q.xb If porosity is 0.3, then actual rate of filling of roservotr is: 124x107 773107? m/s 1-03 Therefore, annual volume of sediment deposited is: = 1,773x107*3600*24%365 = 559133.28m? Hence the reservoir of capacity 20*10° m? will reduce by half in: 20x10 = — 2 18 years 2x559133.28 7.5 Sediment Transport in Non-Steady Motion Non-steady motion occurs when the cross section is changing from one section to another and is L accompanied by acceleration and retardation. To analyse sediment transport non-steady flow, a river a coal divided into a number of smaller sections of equal length in which the steady state formulae can be qu. al applied. In each section, y,S, Q and q are “| determined. There is equilibrium when the sand a jay transport in each section is the same i.e. q, = q,. If there is no equilibrium, there will be scour ~ see Fig 711 Fig 7.11 Non steady (Qs) -452)4t = bLay 172gute E bday At (7.43) | gz sediment transport bet? T= length of section at = unit time depth scour in unit time at v= scour velocity wis calculated after say At = 1 month, ~ gamle 25 flowrate Q = 200m, wi channel witha a 10m"/s, width = 10 Acitn and dep = 10° is constricted to half its width (9 jaermine the denth ca the constriction (b) determine the or velocity and (c) how long will it take for thi he reached? ¢ for this depth > solution Q_ 200 1, A by 10002 ‘There will be sand transport since the velocity is greater th: issil i for sand which is 0.75m/s. ty is greater than the permissible velocity Using the approximate formula: v 2 q, =1.3x10°b} 0.08d e - 2{2) d. 4 4s er seioeraf 2, -oope0? | =40m? /24hr 1 vy There will be equilibrium only when the sand transport in the constriction is equally 40 m/24hr ie. qa = qu Since nothing is known about the depth y in the constriction, \ itis not possible to determine C in the constriction. A value C,, = 100 is therefore assumed. 3 2 (00 40 =1.3%10% od -0osn0”] 173- 200 = 3.25m 50x1.23 9,25-1.0=1.25m Depth is increased by \ {2 as =96.2#100 Check Cy ‘Try Cy=97 and using the same procedure as above gives V=1.197m/s 200 ; _ 2003. 34m; the depth increases by 134m 50x1.197 a 334) ; Check Cy =25-—G] = 9665 97 which is acceptable al i To determine the sand i icti ae ind transport just after the constriction we use equation 7.32 3 1 ap —-0.08x10" |" = 547m? /24hr gg =1.3%108 x5 90° Scour qyy —qy) = 547-40 = $07 m? /24hr 174Flows. U-5: Dept Agrici Soil Conserv. Serv., T.B. No. 1025 soy isto OF Moai Bods. jour! of FTW Met lc, 988; civil Engineering Hydraulics ~ 988) Civil En plishing, London gw Nall, ©: 09%) 6, Feathered Exam aot gation. Grane pistorted River jodels with Move 1, 25 No. 4. able Bed, Theory wi ae alysis 0 aul By ton An Bower, India. VOU: 8. Graf, WH. (1974) Hydraulics of Sediment Transport. Water Resour, Publication, No. 26- 9. Shields, A (1936) Anwen' Turbulenzforschug auf die Ger Wasser and ‘Schiff Sbau, Berlin, ‘Aznlickeitsmechanik und 4 le ung der Preuss. Versuchsan, d i niebebewegung: Mihell ‘on is to be constructed through 72 prmaton ata bed slope of 11000 Sonvey a discharge of 40 m/s. The ste Stopes are at 25° 10 the horizontal. The angle of friction of the material is 95° and he slopes are fore is 2.8 Nin’; Manning's n = 0.0%7. ‘Assuming that the maxim boundary shi ss a Mon the bed, due to the water flow, is 0.98PEyS. and ee oti sides is 0.7598VS» determine the bed wi ff on the sis 0750 in the bed width and flow depth for a non-erodng 7.2 For a river is given the Chezy C = sediment transport per unit width 7.8 Exercise 7 7.1 An unlined irrigation channel of trapezoidal secti 50, y=5m, dyo=10°, Determine Cp, » and 7.3 From a river are given: A = 1,700 m*, b = 200m, do = 10°m, $ = 10%, v= 185 + og = S$ = 104 ved mis. Determine: (2) ©, Cy Gripe Fi + Capps tipple factor (1 & there semen transport ie the river? ine the sediment tr in m! al ¢ ‘ansport in m° (3) Hw eon in open channel flow peaeedn ent scour in open channel flow without bottom protecti protection. Gane ora er sests sy wy? 176