‘AC=coupled Amplifier DC Input a Output Figure 64 All-clectric chopper circuit using field effect transistors thermocouple effects. When two dissimilar metals are joined, depending on the temperature, small voltages can be generated. The chopper is specially made to reduce these thermally generated voltages. The electromechanical chopper, being a mechanical device, has a relatively short life span when compared to other electronic devices. Various types of all- electronic choppers have been devised to replace the venerable mechanical chop- per, The most important characteristic of the chopper is that it must not inject any Eurrent into the circuit being chopped, especially for the input chopper. Bipolar transistors, light-activated devices, and field effect transistors have been used for choppers with the MOS field effect transistor being the most successful. Because the MOS transistor has no junction as a source of leakage current, very little current is transmitted from the chopping signal to the input. Figure 6-4 shows a series-shunt chopper using two MOS field effect transistors. The chopping signal is fed to the inverter, which drives the two chopper FETs, one on each half of the chopping cycle. The input impedance of the chopper-stabilized amplifier is very high for direct current. Looking into the chopper-stabilized amplifier, the series chopper switches the input to the ac-coupled amplifier every half-cycle; however, because the amplifier is ac coupled, it appears as an infinite resistance to direct current, The series chopper switch is always open before the shunt switch is closed, and thus there is no path to ground. 6-3 AC VOLTMETER USING RECTIFIERS Electronic ac voltmeters are basically identical to de voltmeters except that the ac input voltage must be rectified before it can be applied to the de meter circuit. In some instances, rectification takes place before amplification, in which case a simple diode rectifier circuit precedes the amplifier and meter, as in Fig. 6-5(a). Sec. 6:3. AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers 149{a) de mode of operation (b) ac made of operation Figure 6$ Basic ac voltmeter circuits: (a) the ac input signal is first rectified and ‘then applied to a dc amplifier and meter movement; (b) the ac input signal is first amplified and then applied to a full-wave rectifier in the meter cireuit. ‘This approach ideally requires a dc amplifier with zero drift characteristics and unity voltage gain, and a de meter movement with adequate sensitivity In another approach the ac signal is rectified after amplification, as in Fig. 6-5(b) where full-wave rectification takes place in the meter circuit connected to the output terminals of the ac amplifier. This approach generally requires an ac amplifier with high open-loop gain and large amounts of negative feedback to ‘overcome the nonlinearity of the rectifier diodes. ‘Ac voltmeters are usually of the average-responding type, with the meter scale calibrated in terms of the rms value of a sine wave. Since so many wave- forms in electronics are sinusoidal, this is an entirely satisfactory solution and certainly much less expensive than a true rms-responding voltmeter. Nonsinu- soidal waveforms, however, will cause this type of meter to read high or low, ‘depending on the form factor of the waveform. A few basic rectifier circuits are shown in Fig. 6-6. The series-connected diode of Fig. 6-6(a) provides half-wave rectification, and the average value of the half-wave voltage is developed across the resistor and applied to the input termi- nals of the de amplifier. Full-wave rectification can be obtained by the bridge circuit of Fig. 6-6(b), where the average value of the sine wave is applied to the amplifier and meter circuit. In some cases, there may be a requirement to mea- sure the peak value of a waveform instead of the average value; the circuit of Fig. 6-6(c) may then be used. In this circuit the rectifier diode charges the small 150 Electronic Instruments for Measuring Basic Parameters Chap. 6(0) Swies-connecied diode, t roving half-wave ¢ Input R To de Amplifier rectification for on | veroge-reading valimeter 2 Input (0) Four diodesin o bridge ! Circuit for full-wove RZ To dc Amplifier rectification ona ‘pplication to an overoge-reoding meter (©) Shunt-connected diode t ‘Used ina peok-reading ‘ To de Amplifier voltmeter Figure 66. Rectifier circuits used ia ac voltmeters. capacitor to the peak of the applied input voltage and the meter will therefore indicate the peak voltage. In most cases, the meter scale is calibrated in terms of both the rms and peak values of the sinusoidal input waveform. The rms value of a voltage wave that has equal positive and negative excur- sions is related to the average value by the form factor. The form factor, as the ratio of the rms value of the average value of this waveform, for a sinusoid can be expressed as yur fe ar yeonm [En sin? ox dt QT [Pedi (ole) [Eq sin ot at = Enda) [oot = sin wt cos wtB™ _ Em 0.707 Eq/n) 005 wf En 0.636 ‘Therefore when an average-responding voltmeter has scale markings correspond- ing to the rms value of the applied sinusoidal input waveform, those markings are actually corrected by a factor of 1.11 from the true (average) value of applied voltage. Nonsinusoidal waveforms, when applied to this voltmeter, will cause the meter to read either high or low, depending on the form factor of the waveform. An illustration of the effect of nonsinusoidal waveforms on ac voltmeter is given in Examples 6-1 and 6-2. k = 11 ol Sec. 6-3. AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers 151182 EXAMPLE 61 ‘The symmetrical square-wave voltage of Fig. 6-7(a) is applied to an average- responding ac voltmeter with a scale calibrated in terms of the rms value of a sine wave. Calculate (a) the form factor of the square-wave voltage; (b) the error in the meter indication. east (a) Symmetrical (0) Sdlra0%h wovetorm Figure 6-7 Waveforms used in Examples 6-1 and 62 SOLUTION (a) The rms value of the square-wave voltage is (b) The meter scale is calibrated in terms of the ms value ofa sine-wave voltage. where Eins = K X Ens = Hol 1Byy. For the square-wave Voltage, Em = E,y, since k= |. Therefore the meter indication forthe square-wave voltage is high by a factor kspe wrelkigue wine = Holl. The percentage error equals LH 5 100% = 11% EXAMPLE 6-2 Repeat Example 6-1 if the voltage applied to the meter consists of a sawtooth ‘waveform with a peak value of 150 V and a period of 3 s as shown in Fig. 6-700). SOLUTION (a) The analytical expression for the sawtooth waveform be- tween the limits of = 0 and r= T= 3 sis e = S0r V. Therefore tn AR FH- FP som at = 0-viv Electronic Instruments for Measuring Basic Parameters Chap. 6Ban fred =} f sud = 75¥ sov3 Form factor, k = —ye> = 155 (b) The ratio of the two form factors is Somer Ll Tem tS 7 SO ‘The meter indication is low by a factor of 0.961. The percentage error equals 0.961 T X 100% = ~3.99% Examples 6-1 and 6-2 point out that any departure from a true sinusoidal waveform may cause an appreciable error in the result of the measurement. 6-4 TRUE RMS-RESPONDING VOLTMETER Complex waveforms are most accurately measured with an rms-responding volt- meter. This instrument produces a meter indication by sensing waveform heating power, which is proportional to the square of the rms value of the voltage. This heating power can be measured by feeding an amplified version of the input waveform to the heater element of a thermocouple whose output voltage is then proportional to Ez. ‘One difficulty with this technique is that the thermocouple is often nonlinear in its behavior. This difficulty is overcome in some instruments by placing two thermocouples in the same thermal environment, as shown in the block diagram of the true rms-responding voltmeter of Fig. 6-8. The effect of the nonlinear behav- Meosuring rmocoupl |. ac : 1 | Indicating : skeet Meter | 7 Iotoncing 1 es Fern Figure 68 Block diagram of a true rms-reading voltmeter. The measuring and balancing thermocouples are located in the same thermal environment Sec. 6-4 — True RMS-Responding Voltmeter 153ior of the couple in the input circuit (the measuring thermocouple) is canceled by similar nonlinear effects of the couple in the feedback circuit (the balancing ther- mocouple). The two couple elements form part of a bridge in the input circuit of a dc amplifier. The unknown ac input voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring thermocouple. The application of heat produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of the bridge. The unbalance voltage is amplified by the de amplifier and fed back to the heating element of the balancing thermocouple. Bridge balance will be reestablished when the feedback current delivers sufficient heat to the balancing thermocouple, so that the voltage outputs of both couples are the same. At this point the de current in the heating clement of the feedback couple is equal to the ac current in the input couple. This de current is therefore directly proportional to the effective, or rms, value of the input voltage and is indicated on the meter movement in the output circuit of the de amplifier. The true rms value is measured independently of the waveform of the ac signal, provided that the peak excursions of the waveform do not exceed the dynamic range of the ac amplifier. A typical laboratory-type rms-responding voltmeter provides accurate rms readings of complex waveforms having a crest factor (ratio of peak value to rms value) of 10/1. At 10 per cent of full-scale meter deflection, where there is less chance of amplifier saturation, waveforms with crest factors as high as 100/1 could be accommodated. Voltages throughout a range of 100 uV to 300 V within a frequency range of 10 Hz to 10 MHz may be measured with most good instru- ‘ments. 6-5 ELECTRONIC MULTIMETER 6.5.1 Basic Circuit One of the most versatile general-purpose shop instruments capable of measuring de and ac voltages as well as current and resistance is the solid-state electronic ‘multimeter or VOM. Although circuit details will vary from one instrument to the next, an electronic multimeter generally contains the following elements: (a) Balanced-bridge dc amplifier and indicating meter (b) Input attenuator or RANGE switch, to limit the magnitude of the input voltage to the desired value (©) Rectifier section, to convert an ac input voltage to a proportional de value (@) Internal battery and additional circuitry, to provide the capability of resis- tance measurement (©) FUNCTION switch, to select the various measurement functions of the instrument In addition, the instrument generally has a built-in power supply for ac line operation and, in most cases, one or more batteries for operation as a portable test instrument, 154 Electronic Instruments for Measuring Basic Parameters Chap. 6