END OF LIFE (RECYCLING) OF PRODUCTS

• Recycle adalah bagian penting dari 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recyle)

• Tidak semua end-of-life products dapat digunakan kembali
• End-of-life (recycling) memastikan penggunaan sumber daya
yang efisien dan perlakuan yang tepat terhadap zat berbahaya
• Recycling dapat sangat mengurangi kebutuhan energi untuk
produksi bahan dan dengan demikian mengurangi emisi gas dan
efek rumah kaca..

Energy to recycle aluminium is about 5 % of that needed for primary production.

Raw
Materials Product Product
Materials End-of-life Waste
manufacture Manufacture Consumption
Acquisition

Reuse

Recycle
Source: European Aluminium:“Recycled Content” vs. “End-of-Life Recycling Rate”
 WASTE ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (WEEE)
E-waste such as televisions, household appliances, computers, mobile phones,
photovoltaic panels, etc. is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the EU.

Because of high concentrations of valuable materials, such as metals, WEEE is an

important resource in circular economy.

COMPOSITION 50

• Depends on type, model, manufacturer, 40

manufacture date and age of the equipment.
30
• Plastics, glass, metals.
• More than 40 elements in cell phones. 20
• Usually also potentially toxic (hazardous) materials.
10
Specific nature of recycling! 0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Reuse and recycling rate of e-waste (%)

in EU (28 countries)
Source: European Commission: Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment (WEEE)
Eurostat: Recycling rate of e-waste
 CLASSIFICATION AND LIFESPAN
• There are 6 categories (EU-6) of e-waste
according to WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU.
• Each product of the six e-waste
categories has a different lifetime profile.

Potential value of raw materials in e-waste

is 55 Billion Euros in 2016 (44.7 Mt globaly).
Source: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Climate-Change/Documents/GEM%202017/Global-E-waste%20Monitor%202017%20.pdf
PROCESSES FOR RECYCLING
Mechanical-physical separation
Liberation of materials from their interlocked state physically by comminution
and separation of valuable materials into concentrates.
• Comminution - shredding and screening
• Separation - shape separation, density separation, magnetic separation,
eddy current separation and electrostatic separation
Pyrometallurgical processes
Extraction and purification of metals by processes involving the application of heat.
• Smelting, incineration, combustion, pyrolysis, molten salt, and pyrochemical processes.
Hydrometallurgical processes
Selective leaching of metallic compounds to form a solution from which the metals can be
precipitated and recovered.
• Leaching, precipitation, solvent extraction, and resin ion exchange.
 REFRIGERATORS
Key components/parts:
• Case, thermal insulation, compressor, condenser, evaporator coil, glass shelves.
Primary materials (by scrap value):
• Copper, steel, aluminium, plastics, PUR foam.
Hazardous materials:
• Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), mercury (Hg), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR) foam.

3% 1% 1% 1% 1%
3%
7%
Phase 1: Depollution Phase 2: Shredding 10%
before shredding and separation
13% 60%
• Glass shelves • Steel scrap
• Power cable • PUR foam dust
• Mercury switch • Aluminium/copper
• Refrigerant and oil • Plastics
• Compressor • Gas

Steel Plastics Polyurethan

Other Copper Aluminium
PVC (Cables) Glass Refrigerant
Oils

Source: http://eco3e.eu/en/base/refrigerator/
Material composition of a refrigerator
 REFRIGERATORS Disassembly
6

4 3 Components Draining

8 5
7 Coolant, Oil,
Shredder
Compressor
2

1. Manual disassembly 1
Phase 1

Hammer mill
2. Draining of the liquid coolant
3. Loading onto sealed roller conveyors
4. Shredding and crushing Screen

5. Screening
Phase 2

6. Extraction of CFC‘s
CFC Magnetic
7. Magnetic separation extraction separation

8. Eddy currents separation

Eddy
Ferrous
PUR dust CFC‘s currents
metals
separation

Non-ferrous
Plastics
metals

Source: http://www.elektrorecycling.sk/technologie/chladiace-zariadenia.html
 Shredded
Refrigerators
CRUSHING AND SCREENING

Hammer mill
Industrial shredder cut
metal and other materials
into smaller pieces.
Hammer mill further Plastics Pulverized foam pass
Metals
reduces the size of the through the screen
PUR foam
materials. openings. Pieces ofother
PUR foam is pulverized. materials are retained.

Plastics
Metals

Vibrating screen PUR foam

 Plastics
Steel SEPARATION
Copper
Aluminium
Magnetic separator is used
to remove pieces of
ferrous metals (steel).

Eddy current separator is

Magnetic used to remove pieces of
separator
the other metals (copper
and aluminium), leaving
only pieces of plastics in
the last product stream.
Steel

Eddy current
separator

Plastics
 LARGE EQUIPMENT

• Typical includes: washing machines, clothes Disassembly

dryers, dish-washing machines, electric stoves,

large printing machines, copying equipment, and
photovoltaic panels. Components Shredder

• Large household appliances currently make up

over 20 % of WEEE (9.1 Mt globally)
• Content of about 90 % metals per weight Hammer mill

Magnetic
Recycling technologies used for large separation
domestic appliances are similar to recycling
of refrigerators.
Ferrous Eddy currents
metals separation

Non-ferrous Plastics and

metals residues
 CRT MONITORS AND TELEVISIONS
Key components/parts:
• Case (plastic housing), panel and cone glass, circuit board, steering coils.
Primary materials (by scrap value):
• Copper, Aluminium, iron, gold, plastics.
Hazardous materials:
• Beryllium oxide (BeO), cadmium (Cd), hexavalent chromium (Cr VI), lead (Pb), phosphorous (P), sulphur (S)

Step 1: Dismantling Step 2: CRT

and sorting recycling
12% 10%
• CRT • Nickel cage 10%
18%
• Plastic cover • Phosphors
• Electronics powder 22%
components • Panel glass
28%
• Funnel glass

Aluminium Copper Glass

Plastic Steel Other

Source: http://eco3e.eu/en/base/refrigerator/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X1630099X Material composition of a CRT screen
 CRT SCREENS
• Manual disassembly and sorting – components removed:
CRT tube, electronic components, plastic case.
• Case and internal components follow the conventional
recycling systems.
• CRT tube is separated – three glass types:
• funnel glass (high Pb content), Disassembly and
• electron gun glass, sorting

• panel glass.
Mainboard, heat
• Funnel glass remanufacturing (glass-to-glass). sink, deflection CRT tube
yoke, cables,
• Main method before 2013 (new CRTs). speaker, plastic
cover, transistor
• Funnel glass recycling (glass-to-product). CRT glass
• Building materials (foam glass, glass ceramic separation
Shredding
brick and concrete materials). and milling

• Lead extraction (glass-to-lead). Nickel cage, Phosphors

powder, Panel glass
Funnel glass

• High temperature separation. Magnetic

separation
• Hydrometallurgical leaching.
Recycling

Ferrous Eddy current

metals separation

Non-ferrous
Plastics
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X1630099X metals
 LCD SCREENS
Key components/parts:
• LCD panel, PCB, metal frames, polymer sheets, plastic case, CCFL lamps.
Primary materials:
• Metals – iron, indium and aluminium, glass, plastics.
Hazardous materials:
• Mercury (CCFL), heavy metals and brominated flame retardants.
7% 1%
7%
43%
In a closed (vacuum) chamber 20%
the CCFL backlighting (mercury)
is removed before separation
22%
of valuable materials

Cutting of an LCD screen

structure in a robot-based plant.
Contours are found automatically
Steel Plastics PCBs
by analyzing camera images.
LCD Glass Aluminium Cables

Material composition of an LCD screen

Production of LCDs consumes more than

Source: http://revolvproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/ReVolv-brochure_online-version.pdf 70 % of the indium production worldwide
https://www.erdwich.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Infocenter/Download/LCD/LCD_ENG_doppel_web.pdf
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/85e7/4faeaa1bf3d20dfcdbab2beff357d8cc5917.pdf
 SMALL EQUIPMENT
• Typical includes: vacuum cleaners, microwaves, ventilation
equipment, toasters, electric kettles, electric shavers, scales,
calculators, radio sets, video cameras, electrical and electronic
toys, small electrical and electronic tools, small medical devices,
small monitoring and control instruments
• Small equipment currently make up almost 38 % of WEEE (16.8
Mt globally)
• The most complicated WEEE stream for recycling

Mechanical-physical processing – separation of metals and plastics

Thermal treatment (pyrometallurgical processes) – recovery of metals
Hydrometallurgical treatment – recovery of metals
Electrochemical treatment – refining steps

Source: Recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment DOI: 10.1.1.568.8806

WEEE Recycling, DOI: 10.1016/C2014-0-03743-4
 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBs)
Key components/parts:
• Board (non-conductive and conductive layers), electronic components
Primary materials (by scrap value):
• Gold, palladium, copper, silver
Hazardous materials:
• Toxic metals (e.g. As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg), brominated flame retardants (BFRs)
Methods for recovery of valuable materials
• Hydrometallurgical leaching
• Pyrometallurgical processing

Fe Cu Al Pb Sn Ni Pd Au Ag
(wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
PC mainboard 4.5 14.3 2.8 2.2 1.1 124 566 639
Mobile phone 5 13 1 0.3 0.5 0.1 210 350 1380
TV board 28 10 10 1 1.4 0.3 10 20 280

Typical Cu primary ore contains Typical gold ore grade

about 0.5 wt. % Cu is about 6 ppm. Concentrates
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134491830288X
contain about 500 ppm Au.
 COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS OF PCBs

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134491830288X
 PRE-TREATMENT (HYDROMETALLURGY) Disassembly

• Disassembly
Electronic
• Manual (labor intensive), components
Base board

• automated (melting of solder joints).

• Size reduction (optional) : Shredding

• Shredding, crushing and grinding.

• Enrichment (optional) – separation: Crushing
• Size and shape, magnetism, electric conductivity (eddy
current, corona electrostatic or triboelectric separation),
density. Grinding

• Chemical pre-treatment
• Solder mask dissolving, solder dissolving, organic swelling, Magnetic
separation
supercritical depolymerization, resin dissolving.

Ferrous Electric
metals separation

Non-ferrous
Non-metals
metals

Pre-
Leaching Purification Recovery
treatment
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134491830288X
 LEACHING OF METALS (HYDROMETALLURGY)
• Transfer of metals from solid materials to a solution
• Traditional leaching methods
• Leaching of base and precious metals using mineral acids.
• Mineral acids only - H2SO4, HNO3, HCl and aqua regia (HCl:HNO3 = 3:1, v/v).
• Using mineral acid and oxidant - metals with high reduction potentials.
• Multi-stage leaching – selective leaching of metals.
• Cyanide-based leaching of precious metals
• Mild leaching methods
• Thiourea leaching of precious metals – acid or alkaline thiourea
• Thiosulfate leaching of precious metals (S2O32−)
• Thiocyanate leaching of precious metals
• Halide leaching of precious metals
• Ammonia-ammonium leaching of base metals
• Novel leaching methods
• Chelating leaching of base metals
• Ionic liquid leaching of base metals
• Supercritical leaching of base and precious metals

Pre-
Leaching Purification Recovery
treatment
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134491830288X
 PURIFICATION AND RECOVERY (HYDROMETALLURGY)
• Purification – removal of harmful substances from solutions
• Recovery – precipitation of the dissolved metals and their recovery in solid form.
• Various methods:
• Chemical precipitation – displacement reaction (more active metal replaces
less active metal in solution)
• Cementation – Fe replaces Cu; base metals replace precious metals.
• pH adjustment, using other chemicals for precipitations
• Solvent extraction (metals are passed from the leach solution into extraction
solution and the two phases are then separated).
• Activated carbon adsorption - Au and Ag recovery from cyanide leaching
solutions.
• Ion exchange by resin – comparable to adsorption with activated carbon
often with higher adsorption and recovery rates
• Electrodeposition – utilization of simple electric device with minimal
chemicals input – environmental point of view.

Pre-
Leaching Purification Recovery
treatment
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134491830288X
 PYROMETALLURGY (PCBs)
• Pre-treatment (dismantling of electronic components, grinding)
• Incineration
• Aerobic conditions – organic components are thermally decomposed and
combusted at high temperature.
• Glass-fibers and metal oxides (recycled by physical separation methods).
• Pyrolysis
• Thermochemical decomposition of organic resins in anaerobic conditions.
• Pyrolysis products (oil and gasses) and residues (glass fibers and metals)
• Plasma
• Decomposition of organic matter to gasses and melting of glass fibers.
• Gasses, vitreous body (molten glass fibers), metals.
• Molten salt
• Molten salt (stable and inert) is used to separate liquid or solid-state metal
products at high temperature.

Pyrometallurgical Physical
Pre-treatment
processing separation
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344917302409
 PLASTICS
• Important material for economy and daily lives
• Low reuse and recycling of end-of-life plastics
• 30 % recycled, 39 % incinerated, 31 % landfills
• Low demand for recycled plastics (6 % of plastics demand in Europe)

Global production of plastics has increased twentyfold since the 1960s.

Around 25 million tonnes of plastic waste

are generated in Europe every year. 5% 14%
5%

In 2014 an average European generated 8%

59%
more than 30 kg of plastic packaging waste. 5%

In the EU, 150 000 to 500 000 tonnes of 4%

plastic waste enter the oceans every year. Packaging
Non-packaging household
Construction and demolition
Electrical and electronic equipment
Automotive
Agriculture
Others
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/plastic_waste.htm
EU plastic waste generation in 2015
 PLASTICS RECYCLING TECHNOLOGIES
Methods for recovery of plastic waste
• Reuse (primary)
• Mechanical recycling (secondary)
• Chemical or feedstock recycling (tertiary)
• Energy recycling (quaternary)
Sorting PET
Sorting
Bottles
• Manual sorting by operator
• Visible, Near infrared and X-ray fluorescence
Label removing
• Electrostatic Size reduction Flakes
• Sink-float Washing
• Hydrocyclones / Dense medium cyclones
De-Polymerization
• Froth flotation Re-Polymerization
Chips

Production Staple Filament

fiber yarn
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X15002214
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X18301855
 TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY RECOVERY
Tertiary recovery
• Chemical recycling
• Thermochemical technologies.
• Products – fuel or feedstock.
Quaternary Thermal
pyrolysis
• Incineration
Chemical Catalytic
Pyrolysis
recycling pyrolysis
Tertiary
recovery
Thermochemic
Gasification Co-pyrolysis
al recycling

Hydrogenation
Energy

Quaternary
Incineration Flue gases
recovery

Solid waste
Source:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X18301855
 DENSITY BASED SEPARATION
Sink-float separation Hydrocylclone
• Simple method • Centrifugal force
• Associated problems: • Good dispersing action
• Low difference in density Dense medium cyclone
• Sticking
• Air bubbles

Substance Density (g/cm3)

(1) PETE 1.38 – 1.39
(2) HDPE 0.95 – 0.96
(3) PVC 1.16 – 1.35
(4) LDPE 0.92 – 0.94
(5) PP 0.90 – 0.91
(6) PS 1.05 – 1.07

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X17303434
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134491000265X
 ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATION
• Physical separation method based on electrical properties
• Charging – particles obtain electric charge (tribo-charging)
• Solid single phase
• Gas-solid two-phase
• Separation – electrostatic deflection
• Free-fall (right)
• Roll separator (left)
• Plate separator
• Fluidized bed separator
• Dry material (low humidity)
• Effect of impurities
• Additives
• Labels

Source:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095758201730438X
https://steqtech.com/electrostatic-separation-dry-granular-plant-based-food-materials/
 SENSOR BASED SORTING
• Visible spectrum sorting - color
• Near-infrared (NIR) / Short-wave infrared (SWIR) – plastic type
• X-ray fluorescence sorting – type and contaminants
• Hyperspectral sorting

One PVC bottle can ruin

entire recycling batch
of 10 000 PET bottles.
Air nozzles are used to change
trajectory of identified pieces
for a separation.

NIR Spectra of some plastics.

Sorting based on visible spectrum

Source: http://possibility.teledyneimaging.com/planet-earth-or-planet-plastic/ for separation of colored polymers or labels.
 FLOTATION OF PLASTICS
Significant differences to flotation of ores (density, surface energy)
• Differences in hydrophobicity of original and new surface
• Surface roughness of plastics is related to the hydrophilicity
• Adequately liberated at much larger sizes (several millimeters)
• Selectivity of flotation decreases with decreasing particle size
• Several bubbles are needed to carry one piece of plastic Size
reduction
Vast majority of plastics are hydrophobic – required surface treatment
Main problem: finding efficient methods of selective wetting of plastics Sink-float
separation
Flotation methods:
• lowering liquid–vapor surface tension (gamma flotation)
Light Heavier
• chemical conditioning components plastics

• surface treatment
Surface
treatment

Froth
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X15002214 flotation