ME5552 - METROLOGY AND

MEASUREMENTS
R.VEERAPANDIAN,
Teaching Fellow,
CEG Campus, Anna University
Chennai-25
UNIT III - TOLERANCE ANALYSIS

Tolerancing – Interchangeability, Selective

assembly, Tolerance representation, Terminology,
Limits and Fits, Problems (using tables); Design of
Limit gauges, Problems. Tolerance analysis in
manufacturing, Process capability, tolerance
stackup, tolerance charting.
 Types of assembly

• Make to suit assembly

• Interchangeable assembly
• Selective assembly
 Make to suit assembly
• In this one of parts in the assembly, i.e either hole feature or
shaft feature is made first approximately near the required size
and then the other part is made slowly such that it can be
assembled into first component as per the required assembly
condition.
• Advantage
• Almost no rejection.
• Limitation
• Not suitable for mass production.
• If one of the part in the assembly is failed during usage,
the total assembly has to be brought to factory and
manufacture the failed component.
 Interchangeability
• Ability to select components for assembly at random and fit them
together within proper tolerances. i.e. when one component assembles
properly (and which satisfies the functionality aspect of the assembly)
with any mating component, both chosen at random, then it is known
as interchangeability.
• To achieve this, it is essential that the parts are manufactured in bulk to
the desired accuracy and, at the same time, adhere to the limits of
accuracy specified. Manufacture of components under such conditions
is called interchangeable manufacture.
• “By interchangeable assembly, we mean that identical components,
• manufactured by different operators
• using different machine tools
• under different environmental conditions
• can be assembled and replaced without any further modification during
the assembly stage and without affecting the functioning of the
component when assembled.”
 Interchangeability
• If a plot is drawn of the actual dimensions of the similar components
produced by a well-controlled machine, it is found to follow Normal
distribution.

σ= Standard deviation
x =mean (Σ X)/N ,
f=frequency

• Example we have 100 parts each with a hole and 100 shafts which
have to fit into these holes.
• If we have interchangeability then we can make any one of the 100
shafts fit it into any one of the holes and be sure that the required fit can
be obtained.
• Any M16 bolt will fit to any M16 nut randomly selected.
Advantages of Interchangeability
• Precise dimension is not essential, produce component within
small dimension error limit.
• Economic oriented. It allows mass production, reduces the
production cost.
• Development of toolings and measuring instruments - Use of
templates and other jigs and fixtures, gauges, measuring tools,
Standards, processes etc. applied by semi-skilled labor
using machine tools to augment the traditional hand tools.
• Mating parts can freely replace without custom fittings like fillets.
• Assembly process requires lesser skill.
• Replacements/ spares readily available in the market for easy
repair/replacement.
• Reduce cost and labor time by allowing easy maintenance.
 Types of interchangeability
Universal Interchangeability
• “When the parts that are manufactured at different
locations are randomly chosen for assembly, it is
known as universal interchangeability”.
• International standards
Local Interchangeability
• “When the parts that are manufactured at the same
manufacturing unit are randomly drawn for assembly,
it is referred to as local interchangeability”.
• Local Standards
 Selective Assembly
Randomness followed in interchangeability is not possible, when
• tolerance ranges are so tight that they cannot quite be held
reliably.
• tolerance ranges can be reliably held, but the fit and finish of the
final assembly is being maximized by voluntarily giving up
some of the randomness.
• Parts are selected for mating, rather than being mated at random.
• As the parts are inspected, they are graded out into separate bins
based on, which range they fall in (or violate). Falling within the
high or low range is usually called being heavy or light; violating
the high or low end of a range is usually called being oversize or
undersize.
 Selective Assembly
▪ Selective assembly merely grades the parts into several ranges;
within each range, there is still random interchangeability.
▪ “In selective assembly, the manufactured components are
classified into groups according to their sizes.”
▪ “Both the mating parts are segregated according to their sizes, and
only matched groups of mating parts are assembled.”
▪ “This ensures complete protection and elimination of defective
assemblies, and the matching costs are reduced because the parts
are produced with wider tolerances.”
▪ Selective assembly approach permits wider tolerances, good for
economy.
▪ Fits are as per design thus ensuring proper function.
▪ Combination of interchangeable and selective assemblies exist in
today’s industry.
 Selective assembly
Example - An assembly of Piston and Cylinder. Let the bore size be Ø63.5 mm
and the best clearance for a certain type of piston is 0.13 mm on the diameter.
And let the tolerance on bore and on piston skirt each be 0.04 mm.
Dimension of bore diameter is Ø63.5±0.020 mm = Ø63.52 / Ø63.480 mm
Dimension of piston skirt is (63.5-0.13) = Ø63.37 ±0.020 mm 63.390/63.350 mm
Maximum clearance = largest bore – smallest piston
= 63.520 – 63.350 = 0.170 mm
Minimum clearance = smallest bore – largest piston
= 63.480 – 63.390 = 0.090 mm
By grading and marking the bores and the pistons as shown below, they may be
selectively assembled to give the conditions required :
Cylinder bore : 63.48 63.50 63.52
Piston : 63.35 63.37 63.39
 Advantages of selective assembly
• There is a large number of acceptable parts as original tolerance are
greater.
• Hence allows the manufacturing of cheaper parts.
• Assures better and more accurate assembly of parts by insuring closer
tolerances between the mating parts.
• Rise the quality and lower manufacturing costs by avoiding tight
tolerances.
• Reduces the rejection rate (scrap rate)
• It increases the efficiency
• This gives high quality in assembly.
• Cost of manufacturing is reduced.
• Scrap rate in manufacturing reduces by this method.
• It reduces the machining cost. and increases the efficiency of fit
without reducing the tolerance zone.
 Process capability
• Process capability study is carried out to measure the ability of a process to
meet the specifications (Customer Voice).
• Statistical Process Control is used to measure and control the Process
Capability and controlling quality during the production process.
▪ “If the process can be kept under control, that is, all the assignable and
controllable causes of variations have been eliminated or controlled, the size
variations will be well within the prescribed limits”
▪ “Dimensional variations, although extremely small, do exist because of the
inevitable inaccuracies in tooling, machining, raw material, and operators.”

▪ “If efforts are made to identify and

reduce or eliminate common causes of
variation, that is, if the process is kept
under control, then the resultant
frequency distribution of dimensions
produced will have a normal or
distribution, that is, 99.73% parts will be
well within ±3σ limits of mean value”
 Process capability Cp
• The Cp is the ratio of the allowable spread over the actual spread.
The allowable spread is the range or tolerance of the specification,
and is calculated by subtracting the lower specification limit from
the upper specification limit. The actual spread is the spread from
data collected from the machine or process and is calculated by
multiplying 6 times the standard deviation of the data.
 Process capability
• Mean is the central value of a discrete set of numbers: specifically,
the sum of the values divided by the number of values.
• Process Capability – The ability of the process to meet the design
specification for a service or product.
• Process capability is defined as a statistical measure of the inherent
process variability of a given characteristic. You can use a process-
capability study to assess the ability of a process to meet
specifications.
• Process Capability measures how consistently a manufacturing
process can produce parts within specifications.
 Process Capability: The two voices

Process is NOT capable

Process capability indices – Cp and Cpk
• Process capability (Cp) is the ratio of design and process widths.
• Cp indicates the spread of variation present in a process.

• Process Capability Index – Cpk: This is the capability index

which accounts for centering of process and is defined as the
minimum of Cpk upper and Cpk lower.
• Cpk is a measure of the process performance capability. It indicates
the shifting of the process from the target value or mean value.
 Process capability
• The aim of any manufacturing process is to:
1. be centered over the Nominal desired by the design engineer, and
2. with a spread narrower than the specification width.
• Cp measures whether the process spread is narrower than the
specification width
• Cpk measures both the centering of the process as well as the
spread of the process relative to the specification width.
Cp stands for Process capability. It is used to find the measurable property of a process to the width of
the specification. The final solution of the process capability is generally specified either in the form of
calculations or histograms

Where,
USL is the upper specification limit
LSL is the lower specification limit and
σ is the standard deviation.
Solved Examples
Question 1: Food served at a restaurant should be between 39°C and 49°C when it is delivered
to the customer. The process used to keep the food at the correct temperature has a process
standard deviation of 2°C and the mean value for these temperatures is 40. What is the
process capability index of the process?
Solution:
USL (Upper Specification Limit) =49°C
LSL (Lower Specification Limit) =39°C
Standard Deviation =2°C
Mean = 40
Cpk is given by,

Now, seperate the formula into two parts, and find the solution:
Solution of part 1: (USL – Mean)/ 3σ
Substitute the values:
= (49-40)/3 ×2
= 9/6
Solution of part 1= 1.5
Solution of part 2: (Mean – LSL)/ 3σ
= (40-39)/3 ×2
= 1/6
Solution of part 2= 0.166
Now, substitute the solutions in the formula, we have:
Cpk = min (part 1, part 2)
Cpk = min (1.5, 0.166)
Since the mininum value is 0.166,
The process capability index, Cpk is 0.166.
 Limits system
✓ No two parts can be produced with identical measurements by any
manufacturing process. It can only be made to lie between two
limits, upper (maximum) and lower (minimum).
✓ In any production process, regardless of how well it is designed or how
carefully it is maintained, a certain amount of natural variability will
always exist.
✓ These natural variations are random in nature and are the cumulative
effect of many small, essentially uncontrollable causes.
✓ Every process is a combination of three elements i.e., man, machine
and material. A change in anyone of these will constitute a change in
the process. Usually, variability arises from improperly adjusted
machines, operator error, tool wear, and/or defective raw materials.
✓All these three elements are subjected to inherent and characteristic
variations. Hence, it is impossible to produce a part to an exact size and
some amount of variation has to be allowed.
 Limits system
✓ The need for limits and fits for machined workpieces was brought about
mainly by the inherent inaccuracy of manufacturing methods, coupled
with the fact that “exactness” of size was found to be unnecessary for
most workpieces.
✓ In order that function could be satisfied, it was found sufficient to
manufacture a given workpiece so that its size lay within two permissible
limits, i.e. a tolerance, this being the variation in size acceptable in
manufacture.
✓ Similarly, where a specific fit condition is required between mating
workpieces, it is necessary to ascribe an allowance, either positive or
negative, to the basic size to achieve the required clearance or interference,
i.e. a “deviation”.
✓ With developments in industry and international trade, it became
necessary to develop formal systems of limits and fits, firstly at the
industrial level, then at the national level and later at the international level.
 Limits system
✓ The permissible level of tolerance depends on the functional
requirements, which cannot be compromised.
✓ The designer has to suggest these tolerance limits, which are
acceptable for each of the dimensions given to define size and form,
and ensure satisfactory operation in service.
✓ When the tolerance allowed is sufficiently greater than the process
variation, no difficulty arises.
✓ The difference between the upper and lower limits is termed permissive
tolerance.
✓ For example, a shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of 40± 0.02 mm.
✓ This means that the shaft, which has a basic size of 40 mm, will be
acceptable if its diameter lies anywhere between the limits of sizes, that is,
an upper limit of 40.02 mm and a lower limit of 39.98 mm. Then
permissive tolerance is equal to 40.02 − 39.98 = 0.04.
 Tolerance
✓ Tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of a
dimension or other measured value or control criterion from the specified value.
✓ It can also be defined as the total variation permitted in the size of a
dimension, and is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower
acceptable dimensions. It is an absolute value.
✓ The basic purpose of providing tolerances is to permit dimensional
variations in the manufacture of components, adhering to the performance
criterion as established by the specification and design.
✓ If high performance is the sole criterion, then functional requirements dictate
the specification of tolerance limits; otherwise, the choice of setting tolerance,
to a limited extent, may be influenced and determined by factors such as
methods of tooling and available manufacturing equipment.
✓ The industry follows certain approved accuracy standards, such as ANSI
(American National Standards Institute), ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers), ISO etc., to manufacture components.
 Tolerance
• Tolerance - Permissible variation from the basic size and
geometry of a part.
• It is equal to the algebraic difference between the upper and
lower deviations or limits.

d = dmax − dmin dmin

dmax
d

• It has an absolute value without any sign.

• Value of tolerance is a function of the basic size, but have the
same level of accuracy within a given grade.
 Tolerances
Classification of Tolerance
Tolerance can be classified under the following categories:
1. Unilateral tolerance
2. Bilateral tolerance
3. Compound tolerance
4. Geometric tolerance

Unilateral Tolerance
• When the tolerance distribution is only on one side of the basic size, it
is known as unilateral tolerance.
• In other words, tolerance limits lie wholly on one side of the basic
size, either above or below it.

Example:
+ 0.020 + 0.020 – 0.010 + 0.0
40 + 0.010, 40 – 0.0, 40 – 0.020, 40 – 0.020
 Tolerances
Bilateral Tolerance
• When the tolerance distribution lies on either side of the basic
size, it is known as bilateral tolerance.
• In other words, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on
both sides of the basic size but may not be necessarily equally
disposed about it.
+ 0.020
Example: 40 ± 0.02, 40 – 0.010

Bilateral tolerance
 Tolerances
Compound Tolerance
• When tolerance is determined by established tolerances on more than
one dimension, it is known as compound tolerance.
• For example, tolerance for the dimension R is determined by the combined
effects of tolerance on 40 mm dimension, on 60º, and on 20 mm dimension.
The tolerance obtained for dimension R is known as compound tolerance
(Fig.). In practice, compound tolerance should be avoided as far as possible.

Compound Tolerance
 Geometric Tolerances
✓Form tolerances: Form tolerances are a group of geometric tolerances
applied to individual features. They limit the amount of error in the
shape of a feature and are independent tolerances. Form tolerances as
such do not require locating dimensions. These include straightness,
circularity, flatness, and cylindricity.
 Geometric Tolerances

✓Orientation tolerances: Orientation tolerances are a type of

geometric tolerances used to limit the direction or orientation of a
feature in relation to other features. These are related tolerances.
Perpendicularity, parallelism, and angularity fall into this category.
 Geometric Tolerances
✓Positional tolerances: Positional tolerances are a group of geometric
tolerances that controls the extent of deviation of the location of a
feature from its true position. This is a three‐dimensional geometric
tolerance comprising position, symmetry, and concentricity.
 Terminologies
• Basic Size – the exact theoretical size to which
limits of deviation are assigned and are the
same for both parts.
• Deviation – the difference between the size of
the part and the basic size.
• Upper deviation – the difference between the
maximum size limit and the basic size.
• Lower deviation is the difference between the
minimum limit of size and the basic size.
• Fundamental deviation is the deviation
closest to the basic size (for both parts). It is
denoted by a letter (Alphabets).
• Tolerance is the difference between the
maximum and minimum size limits on a part.
• Tolerance zone represents the tolerance and
its position in relation to the basic size.
• International tolerance grade (IT) – the classification system – representing groups of
tolerances which vary depending upon the basic size but have the same level of
accuracy with a given grade. It is denoted by the combinations IT0, IT1, and IT01 to
IT18 – altogether 20 IT grades.
Table 1.2 Tolerance grade in various manufacturing processes.
 Allowance:
Allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum
material limits of the mating parts.

FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION
+Ve

UPPER
DEVIATION

ZERO LINE
BASIC LINE
UPPER
FUNDAMENTAL
LOWER DEVIATION
DEVIATION LOWER
DEVIATION
DEVIATION
HIGH LOW
LIMIT LIMIT
TOLERANCE
HIGH LOW
LIMIT LIMIT
-Ve
 Types of fits

The three most common types of fit found in industry are:

Clearance fit - there is always a space between the two mating
parts. (shaft is always smaller than the hole)
Interference fit - the two mating parts always interfere with one
another in assembly. (shaft is always bigger than the hole)
Transition fit - sometimes a clearance fit and sometimes an
interference fit between the mating parts.
 Clearance fit
Clearance fit: The largest permissible diameter of the shaft is smaller than the
smallest diameter of hole.
✓ This type of fit always provides clearance. Small clearances are provided for a
precise fit that can easily be assembled without the assistance of tools. When
relative motions are required, large clearances can be provided, for example, a
shaft rotating in a bush.
✓ In case of clearance fit, the difference between the sizes is always positive.
✓ Clearance fit results in a positive clearance over the whole range of the
tolerance. Shafts a to g produce a clearance fit with the basic hole H,
Ø25 H11/c11
Max limit of hole = 25.130
Min. limit of hole = 25.000
Max. limit of shaft = 24.890
Min limit of shaft = 24.760

Max clearance = Max. size of hole – Min. size of shaft

= 25.130 – 24.760 = 0.370
Min. clearance = Min. size of hole – Max. size of shaft
= 25.000 - 24.890 = 0.110
 Clearance fit (practical example)

• When the maximum metal limit on the shaft is less than the maximum metal
limit on the hole, a clearance fit results.
 Classes of Clearance fits
Within clearance fit, depending on the function, fits can be classified..
1. Loose running fits: Suitable for loose pulleys and the looser fastener fits where
freedom of assembly is of prime importance. – H11/c11
2. Free running fit: Reliable relative motion under wide temperature variations in
applications where accuracy is not critical. But good for large temperature
variation, high running speeds, heavy journal pressures. – H9/d10
3. Close running fit: Suitable for lubricated bearing, greater accuracy, accurate
location, where no substantial temperature difference is encountered. Accurate
location with minimum play for use under moderate loads and speeds - H8/f7
4. Sliding fit: Accurate location of parts that must assemble without perceptible
play. Suitable for precision location fits. Shafts are expensive to manufacture
since the clearances are small and they are recommended for running fits except
for precision equipment where the shaft loadings are very light. – H7/g6.
5. Locational clearance fits: Provide snug fit for locating stationary parts, but can
be freely assembled and disassembled. - H7/h6
 Interference fit
Interference fit: The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft exceeds the
maximum allowable diameter of the hole.
• This type of fit always provides interference. Interference fit is a form of a tight
fit. Tools are required for the precise assembly of two parts with an interference fit.
• When two mating parts are assembled with an interference fit, it will be an almost
permanent assembly, that is, the parts will not come apart or move during use. To
assemble the parts with interference, heating or cooling may be required.
• In an interference fit, the difference between the sizes is always negative.
• Interference fit results in a positive interference over the whole range of tolerance.
Shafts p to u produce interference fit with the basic hole H.
Ø25 H7/r6
Max limit of hole = 25.021
Min. limit of hole = 25.000
25.021 25.041 Max. limit of shaft = 25.041
25.000 25.028 Min limit of shaft = 25.028

Max clearance = Max. size of hole – Min. size of shaft

= 25.021 – 25.028 = -0.007 (interference)
Min. clearance = Min. size of hole – Max. size of shaft
= 25.000 – 25.041 = -0.041 (interference)
 Interference fit

• When the minimum metal limit on the hole is less than the minimum
metal limit on the shaft an Interference fit results.
Interference fit (Practical example)
 Classes of Interference fits
• Location interference fit: Fit for parts requiring rigidity and
alignment with prime accuracy of location but without special
bore pressure requirements. - H7/p6.
• Medium drive fit: Fit for ordinary steel parts or shrink fits on
light sections, the tightest fit usable with Cast Iron. – H7/s6
• Force fit: Suitable for parts which can be highly stressed or
for shrink fits where the heavy pressing forces required are
impractical. - H7/u6
 Transition Fit
✓Transition fit: The diameter of the largest permissible hole is
greater than the diameter of the smallest shaft and the diameter of
the smallest hole is smaller than the diameter of the largest shaft.
✓In other words, the combination of maximum diameter of the shaft
and minimum diameter of the hole results in an interference fit,
while that of minimum diameter of the shaft and maximum
diameter of the hole yields a clearance fit.
✓Since the tolerance zones overlap, this type of fit may sometimes
provide clearance and sometimes interference.
✓Transition fit may result in either a clearance fit or interference fit
depending on the actual value of the individual tolerances of the
mating components. Shafts js to n produce transition fit with the
basic hole H.
 Accumulation of tolerances

Example
+ 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.02
Let LA = 30 – 0.01
mm, LB = 20 – 0.01 mm and LC = 10 – 0.01

The overall length of the assembly is the sum of the individual length of
components given as
L = LA + LB + LC
L = 30 + 20 + 10 = 60 mm
Tolerance analysis in manufacturing

Tolerance analysis entails all processes in determining the variation in size of

mechanical parts, and its consequent effects on assemblies. Moreover, this study
provides insight into the effects of dimensional variations on assembly functionality,
especially in mechanical and electrical systems. In this article, you’ll learn about the
types of tolerance analysis and its application in manufacturing and product design.

Types of Tolerance Analysis

There are a variety of approaches to tolerance analysis. However, they are generally
categorized into two categories: worst-case analysis and statistical analysis.
Worst-Case Analysis

Worst-case tolerance analysis is the traditional type of tolerance stackup calculation. The individual variables
are placed at their tolerance limits in order to make the measurement as large or as small as possible. The
worst-case model does not consider the distribution of the individual variables, but rather that those variables
do not exceed their respective specified limits. This model predicts the maximum expected variation of the
measurement. Designing to worst-case tolerance requirements guarantees 100 percent of the parts will
assemble and function properly, regardless of the actual component variation. The major drawback is that
the worst-case model often requires very tight individual component tolerances. The obvious result is
expensive manufacturing and inspection processes and/or high scrap rates. Worst-case tolerancing is often
required by the customer for critical mechanical interfaces and spare part replacement interfaces. When
worst-case tolerancing is not a contract requirement, properly applied statistical tolerancing can ensure
acceptable assembly yields with increased component tolerances and lower fabrication costs.
This is the traditional type of tolerance analysis that guarantees 100% of the parts will assemble and no
interference will occur. As the name implies, this model predicts the maximum expected variation of the
measurement. Moreover, it involves the direct addition of individual part tolerances to make up the assembly
variation. As a result, this method is prone to over-design. For example, there could be an over-exaggeration of
the assembly gap as the figure below shows for parts ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’.
Generally, it is advisable to use this approach for critical applications, in
which the allowable parts per million (ppm) defects are zero. Also, this
method suits applications with up to three or four parts. A typical worst-case
analysis (WCA) follows one direction. Thus, any out-of-plane dimensions
result in a need for modifications. For a WCA, the total assembly length
(DAsm) is a sum of the lengths of the individual parts. Likewise, the total
assembly tolerance (TAsm) is the sum of the tolerance of the individual parts
Statistical Analysis
This method applies principles of statistics to relax component tolerances, but without compromising the
assembly quality. It requires modelling each component’s variation into a statistical distribution. Then, engineers
aggregate these distributions to predict the distribution of the assembly measurement. Thus, it offers a less
conservative approach to tolerance analysis than the worst-case analysis. Two common methods of statistical
analysis are Root Sum Squared (RSS) analysis and Monte Carlo analysis
Root Sum Squared Analysis
Unlike in the worst-case analysis, the assembly variation for this method is the root sum square of the individual
component tolerance values. This is because of the following assumptions:
•The dimension of each component takes the form of a normal distribution.
•The standard deviation of the dimension is known.
As a result, it is possible to compare the standard deviation of the assembly limits and calculate quality metrics.
Such metrics include capability potential, process capability index, and process performance index.
Monte Carlo Analysis
The Monte Carlo analysis is applicable to distributions including and beyond the normal distribution. Moreover, it
is an iterative method that calculates assembly variations by randomly changing possible values of each part
dimension. Each simulation of this tolerance analysis method involves the random selection of a sample of each
part’s dimension.

Then, the random selection calculates interference or clearance. When carrying out these simulations, the
percentage of trials that result in an interference fit provides insight into the acceptance rate. Other factors that
influence the acceptance rate are the type of distribution of each part and the random number generator.

RSS vs Monte Carlo

Both approaches are potent ways
of carrying out tolerance
analysis. However, RSS provides
a more efficient way of handling
dimensions with normal
distributions. Monte Carlo can
serve for dimensions with any
other type of probability
distribution. Also, Monte Carlo
analysis is ideal for assemblies
of parts that have non-linear
effects on the system.
Selection of Fits
Definition of Fit: It is the relation between dimensions of two mating parts before their assembly.
The various allowances for different fits may be obtained in two ways:

System of obtaining diff. types of fits

Hole basis system:

In this system, the hole is kept constant and the shaft diameter is
varied to give the various types of fits. The basic size of the hole is taken as the
low limit of the hole

Shaft basis system:

Here the shaft is kept constant and the size of hole is varied to give
the various fits.
The basic size of the shaft is taken as one of the limits of size for the shaft.

Hole basis system is widely followed since it is easy to manufacture

shafts of varying sizes than holes of various sizes.
Hole Basis System
In this system, the size of the hole is kept constant and the shaft size is varied to give various
types of fits. In a hole basis system, the fundamental deviation or lower deviation of the hole
is zero, that is, the lower limit of the hole is the same as the basic size. The two limits of the
shaft and the higher dimension of the hole are then varied to obtain the desired type of fit, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.13
Shaft Basis System
The system in which the dimension of the shaft is kept constant and the hole size is varied to
obtain various types of fits is referred to as shaft basis system. In this system, the fundamental
deviation or the upper deviation of the shaft is zero, that is, the HLH equals the basic size. The
desired class of fits is obtained by varying the lower limit of the shaft and both limits of the
hole, as shown in Fig. 3.14.
Example 3.2 The following limits are specified in a limit system, to give a clearance fit between a
hole and a shaft:
+0.03 −0.006

Hole = 25 −0.00 mm and shaft = 25−0.020 mm

Determine the following:
(a) Basic size
(b) Tolerances on shaft and hole
(c) Maximum and minimum clearances
Solution
(a) Basic size is the same for both shaft and hole.
(b) Determination of tolerance:
Tolerance on hole = HLH − LLH
= 25.03 − 25.00 = 0.03 mm
Tolerance on shaft = HLS − LLS
= [(25 − 0.006) − (25 − 0.020)] = 0.014 mm
Determination of clearances:
Maximum clearance = HLH − LLS
= 25.03 − 24.98 = 0.05 mm
Minimum clearance = LLH − HLS
= 25.00 − (25 − 0.006) = 0.06 mm
Example 3.3 Tolerances for a hole and shaft assembly having a nominal size of 50 mm are as follows:
+0.02 −0.05

Hole = 50 +0.00 mm and shaft = 50 −0.08 mm Determine the following:

(a) Maximum and minimum clearances (b) Tolerances on shaft and hole (c) Allowance
(d) MML of hole and shaft (e) Type of fit
Solution
(a) Determination of clearances:
Maximum clearance = HLH − LLS
= 50.02 − (50 − 0.08) = 0.10 mm
Minimum clearance = LLH − HLS
= 50.00 − (50 − 0.005) = 0.05 mm
(b) Determination of tolerance:
Tolerance on hole = HLH − LLH
= 50.02 − 50.00 = 0.02 mm
Tolerance on shaft = HLS − LLS
= [(50 − 0.05) − (50 − 0.08)] = 0.03 mm
(c) Determination of allowance:
Allowance = Minimum metal condition of hole − Maximum metal condition of shaft
= LLH − HLS
= 50.00 − (50 − 0.05) = 0.05 mm
(d) Determination of MMLs:
MML of hole = Lower limit of hole = 50.00 mm
MML of shaft = Higher limit of shaft = 50.00 − 0.05 = 49.05 mm
(e) Since both maximum and minimum clearances are positive, it can be conclude that the given
pair has a clearance fit.
Example 3.4 A clearance fit has to be provided for a shaft and bearing assembly having a diameter of 40 mm.
Tolerances on hole and shaft are 0.006 and 0.004 mm, respectively. The tolerances are disposed unilaterally. If an
allowance of 0.002 mm is provided, find the limits of size for hole and shaft when (a) hole basis system and (b) shaft
basis system are used.
Solution
(a) When hole basis system is used:
Hole size:
HLH = 40.006 mm
LLH = 40.000 mm
The allowance provided is +0.002 mm.
Therefore, HLS = LLH − Allowance
= 40.000 − 0.002 = 39.998 mm
LLS = HLS − Tolerance
= 39.998 − 0.004 = 39.994 mm
(b) When shaft basis system is used:
Shaft size:
HLS = 40.000 mm
LLS = 40.000 − 0.004 = 39.996 mm
The allowance provided is +0.002 mm.
Therefore, LLH = HLS + allowance
= 40.000 + 0.002 = 40.002 mm
HLH = 40.002 + 0.006 = 40.008 mm
The tolerances for a hole and shaft assembly having a nominal size of 50 mm are as follows:
+0.021 −0.040
Hole = 40 +0.000 mm and shaft = 40 −0.075 mm

Determine
(a) maximum and minimum clearances
(b) tolerances on shaft and hole
(c) allowance
(d) MML of hole and shaft
(e) type of fit

Ans: (a) Maximum clearance = 0.096 mm,

Minimum clearance = 0.040 mm
(b) Tolerance on hole = 0.021 mm,
Tolerance on shaft = 0.035 mm
(c) Allowance = 0.040 mm
(d) Maximum metal limit of hole = 40.00 mm,
Maximum metal limit of shaft = 39.96 mm
(e) Clearance fit
Table 1.2 Tolerance grade in various manufacturing processes.
 Important note :

For shafts (small letter) 'a' to 'h', the deviation is below

the zero line and for shafts 'j' to 'zc' it is above the zero
line.

For holes (Capital Letter)‘. A' to 'G', lower deviation is

above the zero line and for 'J' to 'ZC', it is below the
zero line.
 FUNDAMENTAL TOLERANCE
• The values of IT2 to IT4 have been scaled approximately geometrically
between the values of IT1 to IT5.
• For grades 5 to 16 the values have been determined in terms of the
standard tolerance unit i, where
i ( m) = 0.453 D + 0.001D
Where D is in mm
• D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters of a
particular diameter step in which the diameter lies. The various
diameter steps specified by ISO are 0-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-18, 18-30, 30-50,
50-80, 80-120, 120-180, 180-250, 250-315, 315-400 and 400-500 mm)

Grades IT5 IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16

Values 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i
Evaluate limits and fits for a pair of – Diameter 6 H7/g6
• The size 6 mm lies in the diametral step of 3-6
• D = 4.24mm
•
• Limits of tolerance for hole H7
– The standard tolerance is – 16 i = 16x0.7327 = 11.72 = 12 μm
– The fundamental deviation H hole is = 0
• Limits of tolerance for g6 shaft
– The standard tolerance is – 10 i = 10x0.7327 = 7.327 = 8 μm
– Fundamental deviation for g shaft = -2.5 D0.34 =−2.5(4.24)0.34 =
−4.085 = −4μm
Evaluate limits and fits for a pair of – Diameter 6 H7/g6

• Fit
• Maximum clearance = Maximum size of hole -
Minimum size of shaft = 6.012 – 6.988 = 0.024 mm = 24
μm
• Minimum clearance = Minimum size of hole -
Maximum size of shaft = 6.000 - 6.996 = 0.004 mm = 4
μm
Limit gauges ensure that the components lie within the permissible limits, but they do not determine the
actual size or dimensions. The gauges required to check the dimensions of the components correspond to
two sizes conforming to the maximum and minimum limits of the components. They are called GO gauges
or NO GO or NOT GO gauges, which correspond, respectively, to the MML and LML of the component, as
depicted in Figs 3.20 and 3.21
Taylor’s Principle
Taylor’s principle states that the GO gauge is designed to check maximum metal conditions, that is, LLH and HLS. It
should also simultaneously check as many related dimensions, such as roundness, size, and location, as possible. The NOT
GO gauge is designed to check minimum metal conditions, that is, HLH and LLS. It should check only one dimension
at a time. Thus, a separate NOT GO gauge is required for each individual dimension.

During inspection, the GO side of the gauge should enter the hole or just pass over the shaft under the weight of the gauge
without using undue force. The NOT GO side should not enter or pass.
The basic or nominal size of the GO side of the gauge conforms to the LLH or HLS, since it is designed to check maximum
metal conditions. In contrast, the basic or nominal size of the NOT GO gauge corresponds to HLH or LLS, as it is designed
to check minimum metal conditions.
It can be seen from Fig. 3.22 that the size of the GO plug gauge corresponds to the LLH and the NOT GO plug
gauge to the HLH. Conversely, it can be observed from Fig. 3.23 that the GO snap gauge represents the HLS, whereas the
NOT GO snap gauge represents the LLS.
Important Points for Gauge Design
The following points must be kept in mind while designing gauges:
1. The form of GO gauges should be a replica of the form of the opposed (mating) parts.
2. GO gauges enable several related dimensions to be checked simultaneously and hence are termed complex gauges.
3. During inspection, GO gauges must always be put into conditions of maximum impassability.
4. NOT GO gauges check a single element of feature at a time.
5. In inspection, NOT GO gauges must always be put into conditions of maximum passability.

Methods of Tolerance Specification on Gauges

First Method
This method of specifying tolerances on gauges was evolved during the developmental stages of gauges. In this system, the
tolerance zones of workshop and inspection gauges are different and are made separately. Here the tolerances on the
workshop gauge are set to fall inside the work tolerance, whereas the inspection gauge tolerances fall outside the work
tolerance.
In workshop gauges, the tolerance on GO and NOT GO gauges is 10% of the work tolerance. For example, if the work
tolerance is 10 units, then only 8 units will be left as the difference between maximum limit of GO gauge and minimum
limit of NOT GO gauge, since these tolerances fall inside and are 1 unit each, as shown in Fig. 3.26. For inspection gauges,
it can be seen that the tolerance on gauges is kept beyond 10% of work tolerance.
2. Revised System of Gauges
In this system, the tolerance zone on inspection gauges is reduced and the tolerance on workshop gauges is retained as
before. The disadvantages of inspection gauges are reduced due to the reduction of tolerance on these gauges. It can be
observed from Fig. 3.27 that instead of 120% of the tolerance provided in the first system for GO and NOT GO
inspection gauges, in the revised system, 110% of the range of work tolerance is provided.
3. British System
The present British system is in accordance with
Taylor’s principle and is widely accepted in
industries. This system works according to the
following guidelines:
1. The specified tolerance should be wide and, at
the same time, consistent with satisfactory
functioning, economical production, and
inspection.
2. During inspection, the work that lies outside the
specified limits should not be accepted.
It can be observed from Fig. 3.28 that the tolerance
zone for the GO gauges is placed inside the work
limits and that for the NOT GO gauges is outside
the work limits. A margin is provided in between
the tolerance zone for the gauge and MML of the
work to accommodate wear allowance for GO
gauges. It is to be noted here that wear allowance
should not be permitted beyond the MML of the
work, especially when the limit is of critical
importance. The magnitude of wear allowance is
10% of the gauge tolerance.
 GAUGE
TOLERANCE
AND WEAR
ALLOWANCE
High limit for hole H
NOT GO
GAUGE
Direction of wear of gauge
TOLERANCE
FOR HOLE

T
A GO GAUGE

Low limit for hole H MARGIN FOR WEAR

(PROVIDE WHEN TOLERANCE
IS OVER 0.0035’’ (.0.09 mm))

A GO GAUGE
High limit of shaft T
TOLERANCE
FOR SHAFT
Direction of wear of gauge
NOT GO
GAUGE
Low limit of shaft
Wear Allowance
According to Taylor’s principle, during inspection the NOT GO side should not enter or pass. The NOT GO gauge seldom
engages fully with the work and therefore does not undergo any wear. Hence, there is no need to provide an allowance for
wear in case of NOT GO gauges.

Taylor’s principle also states that the GO side of the gauge should enter the hole or just pass over the shaft under the weight
of the gauge without using undue force. During inspection, the measuring surfaces of the gauge constantly rub against the
mating surfaces of the workpiece.

Therefore, the GO gauges suffer wear on the measuring surfaces and thus lose their initial dimension. Hence, wear
allowance is provided for GO gauges to extend their service life. This allowance is added in for a plug gauge while
subtracted for a ring or gap gauge. A wear allowance of 10% of gauge tolerance is widely accepted in industries.
2. Design “general” type GO and NO GO gauges for a
45 H7/f8 fit. 45 mm lies in the diameter range 30 to
50. Show graphically the disposition of gauge
tolerance zones relative to the work tolerance zones.
The upper deviation for 'f shaft is -5.5D0.41. The
tolerance grades IT 7 and IT 8 have values 16i and
25i respectively, where “i" is the standard tolerance
unit in microns.
• Design the “general” type “GO” and “NOT GO” gauges for a 25 H7/f8 fit. 25 mm lies in the
diameter step of 18 and 30. Take wear allowance as 10% of the gauge tolerance. The upper
deviation for f shaft = -5.5 D0.41
– Gauge tolerance for hole gauging = 10% of 0.0209 = 0.0021 mm
– Wear allowance on this gauge = 10 % of 0.0021 = 0.00021 mm
– Gauge tolerance for shaft gauging = 10% of 0.033 = 0.0033 mm
– Wear allowance on this gauge = 10 % of 0.0033 = 0.00033 mm
– FOR HOLE
• GO GAUGE NO GO GAUGE
+ ( 0.00021+ 0.0021) + ( 0.0209+ 0.0021)
25 + 0.0002 mm 25 + 0.0209 mm
+ 0.0023 + 0.023
= 25 + 0.0002 mm = 25 + 0.0209 mm
– FOR SHAFT
• GO GAUGE NO GO GAUGE
− ( 0.020+ 0.0003) − ( 0.020+ 0.033)
25 −( 0.02+ 0.0003+ 0.0033) mm 25 −( 0.02+ 0.033+ 0.0033) mm
−0.053
= 25 −0.0203
−0.0233 mm = 25 −0.056 mm
3. Calculate the limits, tolerances, and allowances on a 25 mm shaft and hole pair designated H7/g6
to get a precision fit. The fundamental tolerance is calculated by the following equation:

The following data is given:

(a) Upper deviation of shaft = −2.5D0.34
(b) 25 mm falls in the diameter step of 18–30 mm
(c) IT7 = 16i
(d) IT6 = 10i
(e) Wear allowance = 10% of gauge tolerance
In addition, determine the maximum and minimum clearance.

Answer:
Hole tolerance = 0.021 mm,
Shaft tolerance = 0.0132 mm,
Maximum clearance = 0.0412 mm,
Minimum clearance = 0.007 mm,
Allowance = 0.007 mm,

+ 0.021 − 0.0070
Hole = 25 + 0.000 mm, Shaft = 25 − 0.0202 mm
 Calculate the limits of tolerance for a shaft
and hole pair designated 25 H8/d9
• 25 mm lies in the diameter steps 18-30 mm. D = 23.2 mm
• Fundamental tolerance unit ; =1=1.308 microns
• Limits of tolerance for hole 25 H8
– Standard tolerance, IT8 = 25i = 33microns
– FD for H hole is 0.
– Lower limit of hole EI = 25 mm
– Upper limit of hole ES = EI + IT8 = 25.033mm
• Limits of tolerance for shaft 25 d9
– Standard tolerance, IT9 = 40i = 52microns
– FD for d shaft is = -16D0.44 = -65 microns.
– Upper limit of shaft es = 25-FD = 24.935 mm
– Lower limit of shaft ei = es - IT9 = 24.883mm
• The size 6 mm lies in the diametral step of 3-6
• D = 4.24mm
•
• Limits of tolerance for hole H7
– The standard tolerance is – 16 i = 16x0.7327 = 11.72 = 12 μm
– The fundamental deviation H hole is = 0
• Limits of tolerance for g6 shaft
– The standard tolerance is – 10 i = 10x0.7327 = 7.327 = 8 μm
– Fundamental deviation for g shaft = -2.5 D0.34 =−2.5(4.24)0.34 =
−4.085 = −4μm
• Fit
• Maximum clearance = Maximum size of hole -
Minimum size of shaft = 6.012 – 6.988 = 0.024 mm = 24
μm
• Minimum clearance = Minimum size of hole -
Maximum size of shaft = 6.000 - 6.996 = 0.004 mm = 4
μm
 Tolerance stackup

Tolerance stackups or tolerance stacks are used to describe the problem-solving process
in mechanical engineering of calculating the effects of the accumulated variation that is allowed by
specified dimensions and tolerances. Typically these dimensions and tolerances are specified on an
engineering drawing. Arithmetic tolerance stackups use the worst-case maximum or minimum values of
dimensions and tolerances to calculate the maximum and minimum distance (clearance or interference)
between two features or parts.

Statistical tolerance stackups evaluate the maximum and minimum values based on the absolute
arithmetic calculation combined with some method for establishing likelihood of obtaining the maximum
and minimum values, such as Root Sum Square (RSS) or Monte-Carlo methods and worst case analysis.
Worst-Case Analysis vs RSS (Root-Sum Squared) Statistical Analysis
In a Worst-Case Analysis, each dimension will have a minimum and maximum value that
represents the range of acceptability for that dimension. Worst-Case answers the question, if I
take the maximum range on each input, what is the maximum range for the measurement of
interest or stackup? We are therefore dealing with the limits of acceptability and not probability.

RSS (Root-Sum Squared) Statistical Analysis does not focus on the extreme values, but focuses on
the distribution of the variation for each dimension. Each dimension will have a unique
distribution of values based on the manufacturing process. Tool wear, operator differences,
changes in material and environment all contribute to variation in the dimension value. Each
dimension has its own distribution curve.
Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis:
Main Rules
1.Start at the bottom and work up, or start at the left and work to the right.
2.Always take the shortest route.
3.Stay on one part until all tolerances are exhausted.
Step 1 : Identify the requirement that is to be analyzed.
Step 2 : Identify all dimensions and tolerances that contribute to the gap.
Step 3 : Assign each dimension a positive or negative value:
•Up is positive Down is negative
•Right is positive Left is negative
Step 4 : Only one set of mating features creates the worst-case gap.
Step 5 : The analyst must deduce which geometric tolerance, location or orientation if either,
contributes to the gap.
Step 6 : If your assumptions are wrong, your answer is wrong.