CEMENT BUILDING MATERIAL

cement-making process (Key People:)

Henry J. Kaiser
Asano Sōichirō
putty
hydraulic cement
ciment fondu
grouting
porcelain-fused-to-metal cement
Cement, in general, adhesive substances of all kinds, but, in a narrower
sense, the binding materials used in building and civil
engineering construction. Cements of this kind are finely ground
powders that, when mixed with water, set to a hard mass. Setting and
hardening result from hydration, which is a chemical combination of the
cement compounds with water that yields submicroscopic crystals or a
gel-like material with a high surface area. Because of their hydrating
properties, constructional cements, which will even set and harden
under water, are often called hydraulic cements. The most important of
these is portland cement.

This article surveys the historical development of cement, its

manufacture from raw materials, its composition and properties, and the
testing of those properties. The focus is on portland cement, but
attention also is given to other types, such as slag-containing cement and
high-alumina cement. Construction cements share certain
chemical constituents and processing techniques with ceramic products
such as brick and tile, abrasives, and refractories. For detailed
description of one of the principal applications of cement, see the
article building construction.
Applications of cement
concrete
Pouring concrete for the foundation of a house.
Cements may be used alone (i.e., “neat,” as grouting materials), but the
normal use is in mortar and concrete in which the cement is mixed with
inert material known as aggregate. Mortar is cement mixed with sand or
crushed stone that must be less than approximately 5 mm (0.2 inch) in
size. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand or other fine aggregate, and a
coarse aggregate that for most purposes is up to 19 to 25 mm (0.75 to 1
inch) in size, but the coarse aggregate may also be as large as 150 mm (6
inches) when concrete is placed in large masses such as dams. Mortars
are used for binding bricks, blocks, and stone in walls or as surface
renderings. Concrete is used for a large variety of constructional
purposes. Mixtures of soil and portland cement are used as a base for
roads. Portland cement also is used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles,
shingles, pipes, beams, railroad ties, and various extruded products. The
products are prefabricated in factories and supplied ready for
installation.

The manufacture of cement is extremely widespread, as concrete is the

most widely used of all construction materials in the world today.
History of cement

The origin of hydraulic cements goes back to ancient Greece and Rome.
The materials used were lime and a volcanic ash that slowly reacted with
it in the presence of water to form a hard mass. This formed the
cementing material of the Roman mortars and concretes of more than
2,000 years ago and of subsequent construction work in western Europe.
Volcanic ash mined near what is now the city of Pozzuoli, Italy, was
particularly rich in essential aluminosilicate minerals, giving rise to the
classic pozzolana cement of the Roman era. To this day the
term pozzolana, or pozzolan, refers either to the cement itself or to any
finely divided aluminosilicate that reacts with lime in water to form
cement. (The term cement, meanwhile, derives from the Latin
word caementum, which meant stone chippings such as were used in
Roman mortar—not the binding material itself.)

Eddystone Lighthouse: Sir James N. Douglass's version

Sir James N. Douglass's Eddystone Lighthouse, Plymouth, England,
photochrome print, c. 1890–1900. The remnants of John Smeaton's lighthouse
are at left.(more)
Portland cement is a successor to a hydraulic lime that was first
developed by John Smeaton in 1756 when he was called in to erect
the Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of Plymouth, Devon, England.
The next development, taking place about 1800 in England and France,
was a material obtained by burning nodules of clayey limestone. Soon
afterward in the United States, a similar material was obtained by
burning a naturally occurring substance called “cement rock.” These
materials belong to a class known as natural cement, allied to portland
cement but more lightly burned and not of controlled composition.

The invention of portland cement usually is attributed to Joseph

Aspdin of Leeds, Yorkshire, England, who in 1824 took out a patent for a
material that was produced from a synthetic mixture
of limestone and clay. He called the product “portland cement” because
of a fancied resemblance of the material, when set, to portland stone,
a limestone used for building in England. Aspdin’s product may well
have been too lightly burned to be a true portland cement, and the
real prototype was perhaps that produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in
southeastern England about 1850. The manufacture of portland cement
rapidly spread to other European countries and North America. During
the 20th century, cement manufacture spread worldwide. By 2019 China
and India had become the world leaders in cement production, followed
by Vietnam, the United States, and Egypt.
Raw materials

Composition

Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium

oxide, CaO) mixed with silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2)
and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained from a
calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are
derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material. Additional raw materials
such as silica sand, iron oxide (Fe2O3), and bauxite—containing hydrated
aluminum, Al(OH)3—may be used in smaller quantities to get the desired
composition.

The commonest calcareous raw materials are limestone and chalk, but
others, such as coral or shell deposits, also are used. Clays, shales, slates,
and estuarine muds are the common argillaceous raw materials. Marl, a
compact calcareous clay, and cement rock contain both the calcareous
and argillaceous components in proportions that sometimes
approximate cement compositions. Another raw material is blast-
furnace slag, which consists mainly of lime, silica, and alumina and is
mixed with a calcareous material of high lime content. Kaolin, a white
clay that contains little iron oxide, is used as the argillaceous component
for white portland cement. Industrial wastes, such as fly ash and calcium
carbonate from chemical manufacture, are other possible raw materials,
but their use is small compared with that of the natural materials.

The magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) content of raw materials must

be low because the permissible limit in portland cement is 4 to 5 percent.
Other impurities in raw materials that must be strictly limited are
fluorine compounds, phosphates, metal oxides and sulfides, and
excessive alkalies.

Another essential raw material is gypsum, some 5 percent of which is

added to the burned cement clinker during grinding to control the
setting time of the cement. Portland cement also can be made in
a combined process with sulfuric acid using calcium sulfate
or anhydrite in place of calcium carbonate. The sulfur dioxide produced
in the flue gases on burning is converted to sulfuric acid by normal
processes.
Extraction and processing

Raw materials employed in the manufacture of cement are extracted

by quarrying in the case of hard rocks such as limestones, slates, and
some shales, with the aid of blasting when necessary. Some deposits are
mined by underground methods. Softer rocks such as chalk and clay can
be dug directly by excavators.

The excavated materials are transported to the crushing plant by trucks,

railway freight cars, conveyor belts, or ropeways. They also can be
transported in a wet state or slurry by pipeline. In regions where
limestones of sufficiently high lime content are not available, some
process of beneficiation can be used. Froth flotation will remove excess
silica or alumina and so upgrade the limestone, but it is a costly process
and is used only when unavoidable.
Manufacture of cement
Hachinohe: cement factory
Cement factory, Hachinohe, Aomori prefecture, Japan.
There are four stages in the manufacture of portland cement: (1)
crushing and grinding the raw materials, (2) blending the materials in
the correct proportions, (3) burning the prepared mix in a kiln, and (4)
grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,” together with some 5
percent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement). The three
processes of manufacture are known as the wet, dry, and semidry
processes and are so termed when the raw materials are ground wet and
fed to the kiln as a slurry, ground dry and fed as a dry powder, or ground
dry and then moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln.

It is estimated that around 4–8 percent of the world’s carbon

dioxide (CO2) emissions come from the manufacture of cement, making
it a major contributor to global warming. Some of the solutions to
these greenhouse gas emissions are common to other sectors, such as
increasing the energy efficiency of cement plants, replacing fossil
fuels with renewable energy, and capturing and storing the CO 2 that is
emitted. In addition, given that a significant portion of the emissions are
an intrinsic part of the production of clinker, novel cements and
alternate formulations that reduce the need for clinker are an important
area of focus.
Crushing and grinding

All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and then
ground, usually in a rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a
charge of steel grinding balls. This grinding is done wet or dry,
depending on the process in use, but for dry grinding the raw materials
first may need to be dried in cylindrical, rotary dryers.

Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with water in wash
mills, producing a fine slurry, which is passed through screens to remove
oversize particles.
Blending

A first approximation of the chemical composition required for a

particular cement is obtained by selective quarrying and control of the
raw material fed to the crushing and grinding plant. Finer control is
obtained by drawing material from two or more batches containing raw
mixes of slightly different composition. In the dry process these mixes
are stored in silos; slurry tanks are used in the wet process. Thorough
mixing of the dry materials in the silos is ensured by agitation and
vigorous circulation induced by compressed air. In the wet process the
slurry tanks are stirred by mechanical means or compressed air or both.
The slurry, which contains 35 to 45 percent water, is sometimes filtered,
reducing the water content to 20 to 30 percent, and the filter cake is then
fed to the kiln. This reduces the fuel consumption for burning.
Burning

The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle
kilns, followed by chamber kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns. The
shaft kiln in a modernized form is still used in some countries, but the
dominant means of burning is the rotary kiln. These kilns—up to 200
metres (660 feet) long and six metres in diameter in wet process plants
but shorter for the dry process—consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined
with refractory materials. They rotate slowly on an axis that is inclined a
few degrees to the horizontal. The raw material feed, introduced at the
upper end, moves slowly down the kiln to the lower, or firing, end. The
fuel for firing may be pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas injected through
a pipe. The temperature at the firing end ranges from about 1,350 to
1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F), depending on the raw materials being
burned. Some form of heat exchanger is commonly incorporated at the
back end of the kiln to increase heat transfer to the incoming raw
materials and so reduce the heat lost in the waste gases. The burned
product emerges from the kiln as small nodules of clinker. These pass
into coolers, where the heat is transferred to incoming air and the
product cooled. The clinker may be immediately ground to cement or
stored in stockpiles for later use.

In the semidry process the raw materials, in the form of nodules

containing 10 to 15 percent water, are fed onto a traveling chain grate
before passing to the shorter rotary kiln. Hot gases coming from the kiln
are sucked through the raw nodules on the grate, preheating the nodules.

Dust emission from cement kilns can be a serious nuisance. In populated

areas it is usual and often compulsory to fit cyclone arrestors, bag-filter
systems, or electrostatic dust precipitators between the kiln exit and the
chimney stack. More than 50 percent of the emissions from cement
production are intrinsically linked to the production of clinker and are a
by-product of the chemical reaction that drives the current process.
There is potential to blend clinker with alternative materials to reduce
the need for clinker itself and thus help reduce the climate impacts of the
cement-making process.

Modern cement plants are equipped with elaborate instrumentation for

control of the burning process. Raw materials in some plants are
sampled automatically, and a computer calculates and controls the raw
mix composition. The largest rotary kilns have outputs exceeding 5,000
tons per day.

Grinding

The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine
powder in horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding the raw
materials. The material may pass straight through the mill (open-circuit
grinding), or coarser material may be separated from the ground product
and returned to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit grinding).
Sometimes a small amount of a grinding aid is added to the feed
material. For air-entraining cements (discussed in the following section)
the addition of an air-entraining agent is similarly made.

Finished cement is pumped pneumatically to storage silos from which it

is drawn for packing in paper bags or for dispatch in bulk containers.
The major cements: composition and properties

Portland cement

Chemical composition

Portland cement is made up of four main compounds: tricalcium silicate

(3CaO · SiO2), dicalcium silicate (2CaO · SiO2), tricalcium aluminate
(3CaO · Al2O3), and a tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO · Al2O3Fe2O3).
In an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic symbols,
these compounds are designated as C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, where C
stands for calcium oxide (lime), S for silica, A for alumina, and F for iron
oxide. Small amounts of uncombined lime and magnesia also are
present, along with alkalies and minor amounts of other elements.

Hydration

The most important hydraulic constituents are the calcium silicates, C2S
and C3S. Upon mixing with water, the calcium silicates react with water
molecules to form calcium silicate hydrate (3CaO · 2SiO 2 · 3H2O)
and calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]2). These compounds are given the
shorthand notations C–S–H (represented by the average formula
C3S2H3) and CH, and the hydration reaction can be crudely represented
by the following reactions:2C3S + 6H = C3S2H3 + 3CH2C2S + 4H =
C3S2H3 + CHDuring the initial stage of hydration, the parent compounds
dissolve, and the dissolution of their chemical bonds generates a
significant amount of heat. Then, for reasons that are not fully
understood, hydration comes to a stop. This quiescent, or dormant,
period is extremely important in the placement of concrete. Without a
dormant period there would be no cement trucks; pouring would have to
be done immediately upon mixing.
Following the dormant period (which can last several hours), the cement
begins to harden, as CH and C–S–H are produced. This is the
cementitious material that binds cement and concrete together. As
hydration proceeds, water and cement are continuously consumed.
Fortunately, the C–S–H and CH products occupy almost the same
volume as the original cement and water; volume is approximately
conserved, and shrinkage is manageable.

Although the formulas above treat C–S–H as a specific stoichiometry,

with the formula C3S2H3, it does not at all form an ordered structure of
uniform composition. C–S–H is actually an amorphous gel with a highly
variable stoichiometry. The ratio of C to S, for example, can range from
1:1 to 2:1, depending on mix design and curing conditions.
Structural properties

The strength developed by portland cement depends on its composition

and the fineness to which it is ground. The C3S is mainly responsible for
the strength developed in the first week of hardening and the C 2S for the
subsequent increase in strength. The alumina and iron compounds that
are present only in lesser amounts make little direct contribution to
strength.

Set cement and concrete can suffer deterioration from attack by some
natural or artificial chemical agents. The alumina compound is the
most vulnerable to chemical attack in soils containing sulfate salts or in
seawater, while the iron compound and the two calcium silicates are
more resistant. Calcium hydroxide released during the hydration of the
calcium silicates is also vulnerable to attack. Because cement liberates
heat when it hydrates, concrete placed in large masses, as in dams, can
cause the temperature inside the mass to rise as much as 40 °C (70 °F)
above the outside temperature. Subsequent cooling can be a cause of
cracking. The highest heat of hydration is shown by C 3A, followed
in descending order by C3S, C4AF, and C2S.

Types of portland cement

Five types of portland cement are standardized in the United States by

the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM): ordinary (Type
I), modified (Type II), high-early-strength (Type III), low-heat (Type IV),
and sulfate-resistant (Type V). In other countries Type II is omitted, and
Type III is called rapid-hardening. Type V is known in some European
countries as Ferrari cement.

There also are various other special types of portland cement. Coloured
cements are made by grinding 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments with
white or ordinary gray portland cement. Air-entraining cements are
made by the addition on grinding of a small amount, about 0.05 percent,
of an organic agent that causes the entrainment of very fine air bubbles
in a concrete. This increases the resistance of the concrete to freeze-thaw
damage in cold climates. The air-entraining agent can alternatively be
added as a separate ingredient to the mix when making the concrete.

Low-alkali cements are portland cements with a total content of alkalies

not above 0.6 percent. These are used in concrete made with certain
types of aggregates that contain a form of silica that reacts with alkalies
to cause an expansion that can disrupt a concrete.

Masonry cements are used primarily for mortar. They consist of a

mixture of portland cement and ground limestone or other filler together
with an air-entraining agent or a water-repellent additive. Waterproof
cement is the name given to a portland cement to which a water-
repellent agent has been added. Hydrophobic cement is obtained by
grinding portland cement clinker with a film-forming substance such
as oleic acid in order to reduce the rate of deterioration when the cement
is stored under unfavourable conditions.

Oil-well cements are used for cementing work in the drilling of oil wells
where they are subject to high temperatures and pressures. They usually
consist of portland or pozzolanic cement (see below) with special organic
retarders to prevent the cement from setting too quickly.
Slag cements

The granulated slag made by the rapid chilling of suitable molten slags
from blast furnaces forms the basis of another group of constructional
cements. A mixture of portland cement and granulated slag, containing
up to 65 percent slag, is known in the English-speaking countries as
portland blast-furnace (slag) cement. The
German Eisenportlandzement and Hochofenzement contain up to 40
and 85 percent slag, respectively. Mixtures in other proportions are
found in French-speaking countries under such names as ciment
portland de fer, ciment métallurgique mixte, ciment de haut
fourneau, and ciment de liatier au clinker. Properties of these slag
cements are broadly similar to those of portland cement, but they have a
lower lime content and a higher silica and alumina content. Those with
the higher slag content have an increased resistance to chemical attack.

Another type of slag-containing cement is a supersulfated cement

consisting of granulated slag mixed with 10 to 15 percent hard-burned
gypsum or anhydrite (natural anhydrous calcium sulfate) and a few
percent of portland cement. The strength properties of supersulfated
cement are similar to those of portland cement, but it has an increased
resistance to many forms of chemical attack. Pozzolanic cements are
mixtures of portland cement and a pozzolanic material that may be
either natural or artificial. The natural pozzolanas are mainly materials
of volcanic origin but include some diatomaceous earths. Artificial
materials include fly ash, burned clays, and shales. Pozzolanas are
materials that, though not cementitious in themselves, contain silica
(and alumina) in a reactive form able to combine with lime in the
presence of water to form compounds with cementitious properties.
Mixtures of lime and pozzolana still find some application but largely
have been superseded by the modern pozzolanic cement. Hydration of
the portland cement fraction releases the lime required to combine with
the pozzolana.
High-alumina cement

High-alumina cement is a rapid-hardening cement made by fusing at

1,500 to 1,600 °C (2,730 to 2,910 °F) a mixture
of bauxite and limestone in a reverberatory or electric furnace or in a
rotary kiln. It also can be made by sintering at about 1,250 °C (2,280 °F).
Suitable bauxites contain 50 to 60 percent alumina, up to 25 percent
iron oxide, not more than 5 percent silica, and 10 to 30 percent water of
hydration. The limestone must contain only small amounts of silica and
magnesia. The cement contains 35 to 40 percent lime, 40 to 50 percent
alumina, up to 15 percent iron oxides, and preferably not more than
about 6 percent silica. The principal cementing compound is calcium
aluminate (CaO · Al2O3).

High-alumina cement gains a high proportion of its ultimate strength

within 24 hours and has a high resistance to chemical attack. It also can
be used in refractory linings for furnaces. A white form of the cement,
containing minimal proportions of iron oxide and silica, has outstanding
refractory properties.
Expanding and nonshrinking cements

Expanding and nonshrinking cements expand slightly on hydration, thus

offsetting the small contraction that occurs when fresh concrete dries for
the first time. Expanding cements were first produced in France about
1945. The American type is a mixture of portland cement and an
expansive agent made by clinkering a mix of chalk, bauxite, and gypsum.
Gypsum plasters

Gypsum plasters are used for plastering, the manufacture of plaster

boards and slabs, and in one form of floor-surfacing material.
These gypsum cements are mainly produced by heating natural gypsum
(calcium sulfate dihydrate, CaSO4 · 2H2O) and dehydrating it to give
calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4 · 1/2H2O) or anhydrous (water-free)
calcium sulfate. Gypsum and anhydrite obtained as by-products in
chemical manufacture also are used as raw materials.

The hemihydrate, known as plaster of Paris, sets within a few minutes on

mixing with water; for building purposes a retarding agent, normally
keratin, a protein, is added. The anhydrous calcium sulfate plasters are
slower-setting, and often another sulfate salt is added in small amounts
as an accelerator. Flooring plaster, originally known by its German title
of Estrich Gips, is of the anhydrous type.
Cement testing

Various tests to which cements must conform are laid down in national
cement specifications to control the fineness, soundness, setting time,
and strength of the cement. These tests are described in turn below.
Fineness

Fineness was long controlled by sieve tests, but

more sophisticated methods are now largely used. The most common
method, used both for control of the grinding process and for testing the
finished cement, measures the surface area per unit weight of the cement
by a determination of the rate of passage of air through a bed of the
cement. Other methods depend on measuring the particle size
distribution by the rate of sedimentation of the cement in kerosene or by
elutriation (separation) in an airstream.
Soundness

After it has set, a cement must not undergo any appreciable expansion,
which could disrupt a mortar or concrete. This property of soundness is
tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-
pressure steam. Unsoundness can arise from the presence in the cement
of too much free magnesia or hard-burned free lime.
Setting time

The setting and hardening of a cement is a continuous process, but two

points are distinguished for test purposes. The initial setting time is the
interval between the mixing of the cement with water and the time when
the mix has lost plasticity, stiffening to a certain degree. It marks roughly
the end of the period when the wet mix can be molded into shape. The
final setting time is the point at which the set cement has acquired a
sufficient firmness to resist a certain defined pressure. Most
specifications require an initial minimum setting time at ordinary
temperatures of about 45 minutes and a final setting time no more than
10 to 12 hours.

Strength

The tests that measure the rate at which a cement develops strength are
usually made on a mortar commonly composed of one part cement to
three parts sand, by weight, mixed with a defined quantity of water.
Tensile tests on briquettes, shaped like a figure eight thickened at the
centre, were formerly used but have been replaced or supplemented by
compressive tests on cubical specimens or transverse tests on prisms.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification
requires tensile tests on a 1:3 cement-sand mortar and compressive tests
on a 1:2.75 mortar. The British Standards Institution (BSI) gives
as alternatives a compressive test on a 1:3 mortar or on
a concrete specimen. An international method issued by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) requires a
transverse test on a 1:3 cement-sand mortar prism, followed by a
compressive test on the two halves of the prism that remain after it has
been broken in bending. Many European countries have adopted this
method. In all these tests the size grading of the sand, and usually its
source, is specified.

In the testing of most cements, a minimum strength at 3 and 7 days and

sometimes 28 days is specified, but for rapid-hardening portland
cement a test at 1 day also is sometimes required. For high-alumina
cement, tests are required at 1 and 3 days.

Strength requirements laid down in different countries are not

directly comparable because of the differences in test methods. In actual
construction, to check the strength of a concrete, compressive tests are
made on cylinders or cubes made from the concrete being placed.

4 PRIMARY CEMENT COMPOUNDS & THEIR ROLES

Compounds of Cement

cement compounds
About 90-95% of a Portland cement is comprised of the four main
cement minerals, which are C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, with the remainder
consisting of calcium sulphate, alkali sulphates, unreacted (free) CaO,
MgO, and other minor constituents left over from the clinkering and
grinding steps. The four cement minerals play very different roles in the
hydration process that converts the dry cement into hardened cement
paste.
The C3S and the C2S contribute virtually all of the beneficial properties by
generating the main hydration product, C-S-H gel. However, the C3S
hydrates much more quickly than the C 2S and thus is responsible for
the early strength development.

The C3A and C4AF minerals also hydrate, but the products that are
formed contribute little to the properties of the cement paste. These
minerals are present because pure calcium silicate cements would be
virtually impossible to produce economically.

The crystal structures of the cement minerals are quite complex, and
since these structures do not play an important role in the properties of
cement paste and concrete, we will only present the most important
features here.

1. Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)

C3S is the most abundant mineral in portland cement, occupying 40–70

wt% of the cement, and it is also the most important. The hydration of
C3S gives cement paste most of its strength, particularly at early times.

Pure C3S can form with three different crystal structures. At

temperatures below 980˚C the equilibrium structure is triclinic. At
temperatures between 980˚C – 1070˚C the structure is monoclinic, and
above 1070˚C it is rhombohedral. In addition, the triclinic and
monoclinic structures each have three polymorphs, so there are a total of
seven possible structures. However, all of these structures are rather
similar and there are no significant differences in the reactivity. The most
important feature of the structure is an awkward and asymmetric
packing of the calcium and oxygen ions that leaves large “holes” in the
crystal lattice. Essentially, the ions do not fit together very well, causing
the crystal structure to have a high internal energy. As a result, C3S is
highly reactive.

The C3S that forms in a cement clinker contains about 3-4% of oxides
other than CaO and SiO2. Strictly speaking, this mineral should therefore
be called alite rather than C 3S. In a typical clinker the C3S would contain
about 1 wt% each of MgO, Al 2O3, and Fe2O3, along with much smaller
amounts of Na2O, K2O, P2O5, and SO3. These amounts can vary
considerably with the composition of the raw materials used to make the
cement.
One effect of the impurities is to “stabilize” the monoclinic structure,
meaning that the structural transformation from monoclinic to triclinic
that would normally occur on cooling is prevented. Most cements thus
contain one of the monoclinic polymorphs of C 3S.

2. Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)

As with C3S, C2S can form with a variety of different structures. There is a
high temperature α structure with three polymorphs, a β structure in
that is in equilibrium at intermediate temperatures, and a low
temperature γ structure.

An important aspect of C2S is that g-C2S has a very stable crystal

structure that is completely unreactive in water. Fortunately,
the b structure is easily stabilized by the other oxide components of the
clinker and thus the g form is never present in portland cement. The
crystal structure of b-C2S is irregular, but considerably less so than that
of C3S, and this accounts for the lower reactivity of C 2S. The C2S in
cement contains slightly higher levels of impurities than C 3S. According
to Taylor, the overall substitution of oxides is 4-6%, with significant
amounts of Al2O3, Fe2O3, and K2O.

3. Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)

Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) comprises anywhere from 0 to 14% of a

portland cement. Like C3S, it is highly reactive, releasing a significant
amount of exothermic heat during the early hydration period.
Unfortunately, the hydration products of formed from C 3A contribute
little to the strength or other engineering properties of cement paste. In
certain environmental conditions (i.e., the presence of sulfate ions), C 3A
and its products can actually harm the concrete by participating in
expansive reactions that lead to stress and cracking.

Pure C3A forms only with a cubic crystal structure. The structure is
characterized by Ca+2 atoms and rings of six AlO4 tetrahedra. As with
C3S, the bonds are distorted from their equilibrium positions, leading to
a high internal energy and thus a high reactivity. Significant amounts of
CaO and the Al2O3 in the C3A structure can be replaced by other oxides,
and at high levels of substitution this can lead to other crystal structures.
The C3A in portland cement clinker, which typically contains about 13%
oxide substitution, is primarily cubic, with smaller amounts of
orthorhombic C3A. The C3A and C4AF minerals form by simultaneous
precipitation as the liquid phase formed during the clinkering process
cools, and thus they are closely intermixed. This makes it difficult to
ascertain the exact compositions of the two phases. The cubic form
generally contains 4% substitution of SiO 2, 5% substitution of Fe2O3, and
about 1% each of Na2O, K2O, and MgO. The orthorhombic form has
similar levels, but with a greater (~5%) substitution of K 2O.

4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)

A stable compound with any composition between C 2A and C2F can be

formed, and the cement mineral termed C 4AF is an approximation that
simply the represents the midpoint of this compositional series. The
crystal structure is complex, and is believed to be related to that of the
mineral perovskite. The actual composition of C 4AF in cement clinker is
generally higher in aluminum than in iron, and there is considerable
substitution of SiO2 and MgO. Taylor reports a typical composition (in
normal chemical notation) to be Ca2AlFe0.6Mg0.2Si0.15Ti0.5O5. However, the
composition will vary somewhat depending on the overall composition
of the cement clinker.

HOW TO FIND VOLUME OF CONCRETE PRODUCED PER BAG OF

CEMENT?
volume of concrete produced per bag of cement
Aim

To determine volume of concrete per bag of cement, where nominal

maximum size of aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.

Apparatus

Balance – Sensitive to 0.01 kg

Tamping bar – Length 38 cm, Weight 1.8 kg

Cylindrical mould – Dia = 250 mm, Height = 280 mm, Capacity = 0.01m 3

Procedure

Step-1 (Measuring Volume of Cylinder)

1. Fill the cylindrical mould with water at room temperature so

that no meniscus is present above the rim.
2. Weigh the water required to fill the cylinder.
3. Divide the weight of water required to fill the mould by the
unit weight of water, i.e. 1000 g/l. this will give the capacity
(i.e. volume) of mould. Let it be “V1” in m3.
Step-2 (Calculating Density of Compacted Concrete)

1. Fill fresh concrete into the mould in layers of about 5 cm

deep and compact each layer by giving 60 strokes of
tamping bar, distributed uniformly over cross-section of the
mould.
 2. Tap the exterior surface of the cylinder 10 to 15 times so that
no air bubble appears on the surface of the compacted layer.
3. After compacting the concrete, use a flat cover plate to leave
the mould just level fill.
4. Clean all the excess concrete from the exterior surface and
weigh the mould with compacted concrete. Find out the
weight of concrete by subtracting the weight of mould from
the total weight. Let it be W1.
5. Calculate the weight per cubic meter of concrete (i.e. density
of concrete) by dividing the weight of fully compacted
concrete in the mould by the capacity of the measure (i.e.
W1/V1).
Weight per cubic meter of concrete, W = W 1/V1

Where,

W = Weight of concrete per cubic meter (i.e. Density of concrete), in

kg/m3

W1 = Weight of the fully compacted concrete, in kg.

V1 = Volume of the cylindrical mould, in m3.

Step-3 (Calculating Volume of Concrete per Batch)

Use the following formula to calculate volume of concrete per batch

V = [(N*50) + Wf + Wc + Ww] / W

Where,

V = Volume in m3 of concrete produced per batch

N = Number of 50 kg bags of cement per batch

Wf = Total weight in kg of fine aggregate per batch in condition used.

Wc = Total weight in kg of coarse aggregate per batch in condition used

Ww = Total weight in kg of mixing water added to batch

W = Density of concrete in kg/m3 (as calculated in step-2)

Step-4 (Calculating Volume of Concrete Produced Per Cement Bag)

Volume of concrete produced per bag of cement or yield per bag of

cement is calculated using following formula.

ϒ=V/N

Where,

ϒ = Yield of concrete per 50 kg bag of cement (in m 3)

V = Volume of concrete produced per batch (in m 3)

N = Number of 50 kg bags of cement per batch

Note

In the calculation done above, 1 bag of cement is taken as 50 kg. But if

you are using cement bags of a different weight, then replace the
number 50 in the formula (as shown in step-3), with the weight of
cement bag that you are using.

HOW TO CHECK QUALITY OF CEMENT ON SITE?

February 6, 2015 by Suryakanta
It is necessary to check the quality of cement on site at the time of
preliminary inspection. It is not possible to check all the engineering
qualities of cement on site but there exist some field test which gives us
a rough idea of quality of cement. While on site we can perform these
field tests to judge the quality of cement. These field tests are as follows:

1. Date of packing
2. Colour
3. Rubbing
4. Hand Insertion
5. Float Test
6. Smell Test
7. Presence of lumps
8. Shape Test
9. Strength Test

How to check quality of cement on site

Field Tests on Cement

1. Date of Packing

Date of manufacture should be seen on the bag. It is important because

the strength of cement reduces with age.

2. Colour

The cement should be uniform in colour. In general the colour of cement

is grey with a light greenish shade. The colour of cement gives an
indication of excess lime or clay and the degree of burning.
3. Rubbing

Take a pinch of cement between fingers and rub it. It should feel smooth
while rubbing. If it is rough, that means adulteration with sand.

4. Hand Insertion

Thrust your hand into the cement bag and it should give cool feeling. It
indicates that no hydration reaction is taking place in the bag.

5. Float test

Throw a small quantity of cement in a bucket of water. It should sink and

should not float on the surface.

6. Smell Test

Take a pinch of cement and smell it. If the cement contains too much of
pounded clay and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give an earthy
smell.

7. Presence of Lumps

Open the bag and see that lumps should not be present in the bag. It
will ensure that no setting has taken place.

8. Shape Test

Take 100g of cement and make a stiff paste. Prepare a cake with sharp
edges and put on the glass plate. Immerse this plate in water. Observe
that the shape shouldn’t get disturbed while settling. It should be able to
set and attain strength. Cement is capable of setting under water also
and that is why it is also called ‘Hydraulic Cement’.

9. Strength Test

A block of cement 25 mm*25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is

immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15000 mm
apart and it is loaded with a weight of 340 N. the block should not show
any sign of failure.

Factors Affecting the Setting and Hardening of Portland cement

(1) The Impact of Cement’s Composition

The mineral composition of cement and their ratios are the main factors
affecting the setting and hardening of cement. As mentioned above,
various mineral components will reveal different characteristics when
reacting with water. For example, the increase of C3A can speed up the
setting and hardening rate of cement, and the heat of hydration is
high at the same time.

Generally speaking, if mixed materials are added into the cement clinker,
the anti-erosion will increase, and the heat of hydration and the early
strength will decrease.

(2) The Mixing Amount of Gypsum

Gypsum is called the retarding agent of cement which is mainly used for
regulating the setting time of cement and is an indispensable
component. Without gypsum, cement clinker can condense immediately
by mixing with water and release heat. The major reason is that C3A in
the clinker can dissolve in water quickly to generate a kind of calcium
aluminate hydrate, a clotting agent, which will destroy the normal use of
cement. The retardation mechanism of gypsum is: when cement is
hydrated, gypsum reacts with C3A quickly to generate calcium
sulfoaluminate hydrate which deposits and forms a protection film on
the cement particles to hinder the hydration of C3A and delay the
setting time of cement.

If the content of gypsum is too little, the retardation affect will be

unobvious. Too much gypsum will accelerate the setting of cement
because gypsum can generate a clotting agent itself. The appropriate
amount of gypsum depends on the content of C3A in the cement and
that of SO3 in gypsum, and it also related to the fineness of cement and
the content of SO3 in clinker. The amount of gypsum should account
for 3%-5% of the cement’s mass. If the content of gypsum exceeds the
limit, it will lower the strength of cement and it can even lead to poor
dimensional stability, which will cause the expanded destruction of
cement paste. Thus, the national standard requires that the content
of SO3 should not be more than 3.5%.

(3) The Impact of Cement’s Fineness

The size of cement particles directly affects the hydration, setting and
hardening, strength and heat of hydration.

The finer the cement particles are, the larger the total surface area
is and the bigger the area contacting with water is. Thus, the
hydration will be quick, the setting and hardening will be
accelerated correspondingly, and the early strength will be high.
However, if the cement particles are too small, it is easy for them to react
with the water and the calcium dioxide in the air to destroy the storage
of cement. If the cement is too fine, its shrinkage is large in the
hardening process. Thus, the finer the cement is ground, the more
energy will lose and the higher the cost will be. Usually, the grain size of
the cement particles is within 7-200pm (0.007-0.2mm).

(4) The Impact of Curing Conditions

The curing environment has sufficient temperature and moisture which is

conducive to the hydration and setting and hardening process of cement
and benefits the development of the early strength. If the moisture of
the environment is very dry, the water in the cement will evaporate,
leading to insufficient hydration and ceasing of the hardening. Serious
cracks will happen sometimes.

Usually, the temperature rises at the time of curing, and the hydration of
cement and the development of early strength become fast. If the
hardening process occurs at a low temperature, the final strength won’t
be affected though the development of the strength is slow. But if the
temperature is under 00C, the hydration of cement will stop and the
strength will not only stop growing but also destroy the structure of
cement paste due to the condensation of water.

In actual projects, the setting and hardening process of cement products

is accelerated by steam curing and autoclave curing.

(5) The Impact of Curing Age

The hydration and hardening of cement is an ongoing process in a long

period. With the increase of the hydrating degree of various clinker
minerals in cement particles, gels will grow and capillary porosities will
decrease, which enables the strength to rise with the increase of age. It is
proved that cement develops rapidly within 28d and slowly after 28d.
Building materials in civil engineering

(6) The Impact of the Mixing Water Content

If the cement consumption is unchanged, the increase of the mixing

water content will enhance the amount of capillary porosities, lower
the strength of cement paste, and extend the setting time. Therefore,
in practical projects, the amount of water and cement will be changed
without modifying the water-cement ratio (the minimum amount of
cement is regulated to ensure the durability of concrete) when the
liquidity of cement concrete is adjusted.

(7) The Impact of Admixture

Hydration, setting, and hardening of Portland cement are constrained by

C3S, C3A. And all the admixtures that affect the hydration of C3S, C3A
can change the performance of the hydration, the setting and hardening
of Portland cement. For example, the accelerator agents (such as CaC12,
Na2S04) can accelerate the hydration and the hardening of cement and
improve its strength. On the contrary, the retarding agents (such as
calcium lignosulphonate) can delay hydration and hardening of cement
and affect the development of the early strength.

(8) The Impact of Storage Conditions

The inappropriate storage will expose cement to moisture. The particle

surfaces agglomerate because of hydration which seriously reduces the
intensity. Slow hydration and carbonization will happen due to the
impact of the water and C02 in the air, even though the storage is good.

The strength decreases by 10%-20% after 3 months, by 15%-30% after 6

months, by 25%-40% after 1 year, so the effective storage period of
cement is 3 months and the cement should not be stored for a long time.
HOW TO STORE CEMENT ON SITE?

Storing of Cement on Site – Guidelines

 Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and as

moisture proof as possible.
 There should be minimum number of windows in the storage
building.
  Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks in
such a way, so that it is about 150 mm to 200 mm above the
floor.
 The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or two
layers of dry bricks laid on well consolidated earth.
 Maintain a space of 600 mm all-round between the exterior
walls and the stacks.(see figure below)

Arrangement in cement go down

 Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce
circulation of air.
 The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to
prevent the possibility of lumping under pressure.
 The width of the stack should not be more than four bags
length or 3 meters.
 In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags should be
arranged alternately length-wise and cross-wise, so as to tie
the stacks together and minimize the danger of toppling
over.
 Stack the cement bags in such a manner so as to facilitate
their removal and use in the order in which they are received.
 Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of
cement bags to know the age of cement.
 When it is required to store cement for a long period of time
or during the monsoon; completely enclose the stack by a
water proofing membrane such as polyethylene.
 Different types of cement must be stacked and stored
separately.