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Shale ana tl Stepe. chown anti) PB ile nity = Greet fal corn coantey 8 = wees Bedwy lake congro " er A pf eh Rance pant go eee pecans Leek S35) PPS ~~ #19) _!79s Lense. ot ine __ fags) PI befontiks attainment {, eee Hog ng ely 2 _Tiwa cephne _ SL fh Kowete wey lana — sz eae G) DEE sete ta = Rome plate ——+ ae ae E> eee : : een FS a os . ie Strtrrad _bendwa- __- 3: AS es = cna fig Cie? (an Moe — AT An —— < — _ 7 Bare. OF A 2 a aii cone eek, HQ Rivas vata ad % egy Meanecnaagabs gorge+ Compasite ONCEPT OF VULCANICITY The tcrms volcanoes, mechanism of volcanoes Blcanicity are more or less synonymous to On man but these have different connotation: dlogy and geography GA volcano is a vent, or usually circular or nearly circular in form, hich heated materials consisting of gases” id Java and fragments of rocks are ejected highly heated interior to the surface of the .G. Worcester, 1948). According to A. ally a fissure or vent, communicating withthe Gr, from which flows of Tava, fountains of ideScent spray or explosive bursts of gases and ashes are erupted at the surf On the other hand, ‘the term vulcanicity covers PS¢ Processes in which molten rock material or rises into the crust or is poured out on its © there to solidif ine or Hstalline rock’ (S.W. Wooldridge and R.S. cr 1255). Some scientists have also used the bic Ranis™ aS synonym to the term of a eel tha mele. PG. Woréester (1948) has nd that ‘vulcanism includes all phenomena F*ted with the movement of heat ial from j peio.ot towards the surface of the earth,’ & a PPaENt from the above definitions of enici, Wulcanicity (vulcanism) that the later tht)? # broader mechanism which is related ber eng onments endogenetic and exogenetic. chang “wleanicity includes all those processes as, nS Which are related to the origin of esand vapour, their ascent and appearance 105 OLE mor Sh rope POSE . ag ties D Natlan word bur deaths wordy vution folkm] he B0Km hes Cfo deka « fre -VULCANICITY AND VOLCANOES on the earth's surface in various forms. It is evident that the vulcanicity has two components which operate below the crustal surface and above the crust. The endogenetic mechanism of vulcanicity includes the creation of hot and liquid magmas and gases in the mantle and the grust, their expansion and upward ascent, their intrusion, cooling and solidification in various forms below the crustal surface (c.g. batholiths, laccoliths, sills, dykes, lopoliths, phacoliths etc.) while the exogenous mechanism includes the process of appearance of lava, volcanic dusts and ashes, fragmental material, mud, smoke etc. in different forms e.g, fissure flow or lava flood (fissure or quiet type of volcanic eruption), violent explosion (central type of volcanic eruption), hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, solfatara, mud voleanoes etc. It may be, thus, concluded that the vulcanicity is a broader mechariism which includes several events and processes which work below the crust as well as above the crust whereas volcano is a part of vuleanicity (vulcanism), 9.2 COMPONENTS OF VOLCANOES. Volcanoes of explosive type or central eruption type are associated with the accumulated volcanic materials in the form of cones hich are called as volcanic cones OF simply volcanic mountains. There is a Vent or opening, of circular or nearly circular shape, almost in the centre of the summital part of the cone. This vent is called as volcanic vent or voleanic moulhwhich is connected with the interior part of the earth by a narrow pipe, which is called agsatcamie: pipe. Volcanic materials of various sorts are ejected: through this pipe and the vent situatede enlarged form ofthe volcanic vent is impact of violent Bases ang The form of th ic vent is impact : OWN r lera. ‘Volcanic Known as volcanic crater and caldera. ie dusis and ashes, to Weak gases terials include lavgs, voleanic- dusts and mate frogmental materials etc. (fig. 9.1). s type or explosive eruptic, eruption type or quiet eruption (2) Voleanoes of ce eruption type or ex * Different components of volcano, 8.3 TYPES OF VOLCANOES et’ Wide range of variations inthe mode the eject Of Voleanic eruptions and theis Periodicity. Thus, action of volcan Wocanoes are classified on the basis of () the mode of bel e Eruption and (i) the period of eruption and the nature Of their activities, by a strong wind glide in haits.The Hawai (2) Hawiin type ©) Strombotian type © Vuleanian type @) Peleean type © Visuvius type (i) Fissure ery , Hawaii island in 1959.60 cont oe PHN type oF quiet Sruption — Césom November 14 to 20, 165 Million cubic metres of lava (2 Tava fod os ava tow intermittent eruptions contin (©) Mud ow 1959, when th (©) Fumaroles Classification onthe Basis of Petiodicity of Eruptions @) Active volcanoes nll ies ©) Dormant voteanoes he Medi x © Extinct volcanoes Yy. Be Classification on the basis Of th Volcanic eruptions _Voleanic ruptions occur MOStIY in two Ways viz: (i) violent and explosive type, of eruption, Of lava Volcanic dusts, Voleanic ashes and fragmental materiay, i u e als Vuleanian typ through a ‘MATOW Dipe and smal ©Pening under tng named after Vulcano of © Nature of_aqnicitY AND VOLCANOES jerrancan Sea. Such volcanoes erupt with great ies gintensity. The lavas are so Viscaps and pasty ee are quickly solidified and harde en Pesprons and thus they crust over (plug) the ig venis: These lava crusts obstruct the escape yet gases during next eruption. Consequently, I let gases break and shatter the lava crusts into y var fragments and appear in the sky as ash-laden Bernie clouds of dark and often black colo pimjngaconvoluted or cauliflower shape (fig. 9:2c), {iv)Peleean type of volcanoes: These are named ther the Pelee volcano of Martinique Island in the jpbean Sea. These are the most violent and most Bolosive ype of volcanoes. The ejected lavas are most Gscous and pasty. Obstructive domes of lava are frmed above the conduits of the volcanoes. Thus, pery successive eruption has to blow off these lava s, Consequently, each successive eruption occurs. ith greater force and intensity making roaring noise. The most disastrous volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee May 8.1902 destroyed the who's of the town of Biere Killing all the \0 inhabitants Teaving hind only (wo survivors to mourn the sad demise famed as nuce ardente meaning thereby “glowing Cloud’ of hot gases, lavas etc. coming out of a vocanic ¢ annihilating explosive eruption of Krakatoa olcano in 1883 in Krakatoa Island located in Sunda ((Visuvious type of volcanoes These are more br less similar to Vulcanian and Strombolian type of Nolcanoes, the differencé lies only in the intensity of gases. ere ERUEMELYvioTEMt Xpulsion of magma due to enormous volume of Sloe gases. Volcanic materials are thrown up to fear height in_the sky. The ejected enormous Fan of gases and ashes forms thick clouds.of nuliflower form.’ The most destructive type of ‘tion is called asPlinian type because of the fact sr h type of eruption was first observed by Plini ee in 79 A, NAD. cig sure eruption type of volcanoes : Such 2nd ee) occur along along fracture, fault and fissure nots slow upwelling of magma from below sultant lavas spread over the ground surface. ed of lava movement depends on the nature ma anja Volume of magma, slope of ground surface erature conditions. The Laki fissure eruption 107 of 1783 in Iceland was so quick and enormous that hug® volume of Tavas measuring about 15 cubic kilometers was poured out from a 28-km long fissure. The lava flow was so enormous that it travelled a distance of 350 kilometres.) Classification on the basis of periodicity of eruptions. Volcanoes are divided into 3 types on the basis of period of eruption and interval period between two eruptions of a volcano e.g (i) active volcanoes, (ii) dormant volcanoes and (iii) extinct volcanoes. (i) Active volcanoes are those which constantly eject volcanic lavas, gases, ashes and fragmental materials, It is estimated that there are about more than 500 Volcanoes in the world. Etna and Stromboli of the Mediterranean Sea are the mast significant examples of this category. Stromboli Volcano is known as Light House of the Mediterranean because of continuous emission of burning and luminous incandescent gases. Most of the active volcanoes are found along the“mid-oceanic ridges representing divergent plate margins (constructive plate margins) and convergent plate margins (destructive plate margins represented by eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean). The latest eruption took place from Pinatubo volcano in June, 1991 in Phillippines. Mayon of Phillippines re-erupted in Feb. 2000. (i) Dormant volcanoes are those which become quietafter their eruptions for some time and there are no indications for future eruptions but suddenly they erupt very violently and cause enormous damage to human health and wealth. Visuvious voleanois the best, example of dormant voleano which erupted first in 79. AD., then it kept quiet upto 1631 A.D.., whenit sudd niy exploded with great force. The subsequent eruptions occurred in 1803, 1872, 1906, 1927, 1928 and 1929. aun mae 2 we “Giiy Extidet Volcanoes The volcanoes are Considered extinct when there are no indications of future eruption. The crater is filled up with water and lakes are formed. It may be pointed out that no volcano can be declared permanently dead as no one knows, what is happening below the grourid surface.) 9.4 VOLCANIC MATERIALS“ t Volcanic materials discharged during eruptions include gases and vapour, lavas, fragmental materials and ashes. (1) Vapour and gases : Steam and vapour constitute 60 1090 percent of the total gases discharged during a voTcante eruption. Steam and vapous include (iphreatic vapour and (i)magmatic vapour. Whe voleanic gases include carbon dioxide, nitroget sulphur dioxide; hydrogen,_carbon a aie Besides, certain compounds are also ejeciesws exuhydrochloric nm and other fphaated my west axid volatile setae mat 1) Hh anal Srombotien ype, oy et pe 4 olin type, (3) Vatcan 7 PALAU Pecan on 2 Viswrian pean é POF Keele rype ’ (2).Magma and tava ; Generally, mol terials are called map, t £™Mas below the Ue they are called Taras wien MAEM Gy 5, ! ten rock carth's surface Mey come at the el to two (acidic magma (higher pey (ii)basic lava (low percentage of and magmas are also ciassif and dark coloured minerals into 1) f mafic lava. Basaltic oF mafic lava sg maximum (luidity. Basaltic lava spreag surface with maximum flow speed Kilometres to 100 kilometres per hi speed being 45 10 65 km per hour) die ih and low viscosity. Basaltic lava is they (1,000 to 1.200°C). Lava flow is di types on the basis of Hawaiin lan pajochne and (ii) Aa Aa lava flow or bi Pahoehoe lava has high fluidity and sheets. This is also known as ropy tay hand aaa lava is more viscous. Pahoch solidified in the form of sacks or pill pillow lava, ore (3) Frdeaiiental or pyrociastie during explosive type of eruption are three categories, (i) Essential mater consolidated forms of live lavas. These a as tephra which means SOry mat Accidental materials include fragmental crustal rocks. On the basis of size ) volcanic ash (2 mm in sizede (ii) size of peas) and (iv) yok insize), which are discoidal, cuboidal dimension of average the size of Si Like earthquakes, the spatial Underage Ye the globe is well mal define soP because volcanoes are fol ed belt or zone (fig, 9.3)..Thus, the d SINE of Volcanoes is ronal in charac’ Sistibution of voleano are associated with the We the earth's nn a8s0ciated wit Seismic “Smic events say earthquakes.Palma Tener eS, SBiviere EE cocum potion fmalayas, and fault zones. Volcanoes are also ‘ated with the meeting zones of the continents qceans. Occurrences of more volcanic eruptions ng coastal margins and during wet season denote fact that there is close relationship between water volcanic eruption. Similarly, volcanic eruptions closely associated with the activities of mountain ilding and fracturing. __ Based on plate tectonics, there is close lationship between plate margins and vulcanicity as st of the world’s active volcanoes are associated ith the plate boundaries. About 15 pet ceptof the it active volcanoes are found along the civ plate marginsor divergent plate margins oo mid-oceanie ridges ‘where two plates move eset) whereas 80 per cent volcanoes - jated with the destructiveor convergent plate Pls tere two plates collide). Besides, some e00es are also found in intraplate regions. oe anves of the Hawaii Island, fault zones of East —_ tice ete, ‘ke earthquakes, there are also three major "ones of voleanoes inthe world vi, (ul Gtcum-Pacti bel, i) mid-continental belt ) mid-oceanie ridge belt (fig. 9.3) bo anys tenable The cium Pacific belt Reg nl the “voleanie zones of the convergent margins’, includes the voleanoes of the (op tt and Wester i rte ae soasil geese the Pacific Ocean astal North and South, ene lis og ean Cy MY ‘x AME Kill inJaro: Me Ryan RI? a unit 1 ot Tarawerag «Bouvet / * Heard Ngauring Fig. 9.3 : World distribution of volcanoes. Basaltic Plateau “Americas and the eastern coastal margins of Asia), of ‘hand ares and festoons off the east coast of Asia and of the volcanic islands scatter -éd over the Pacific Ocean. ‘This volcanic belt is also called.as the fire girdle of the Pacificor the fire ring of the Pacific. This belt begins from Erebus Mountain of Antaretica and runs northward through Andes and Rockies mountains of South and North Americas to reach Alaska from where this belt turns towards eastern Asiatic coast to include the volcanoes of sland ares a i festoons (e.g-Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Japan, Phillippines etc.). The belt ultimately merges with the mid- continental belt in the East Indies. Most of high Soleanic cones and volcanic mountains are found in this belt. Most of the volcanoes are found in chains whe volcanoes of the Aleutian Island, Hawaii e.g. the vol Island, Japan etc. About 22 volcanic mountains are found in group in Ecuadoy wherein the height of 15 volcanic mountains is more than 4560 m AMSL. Cotopaxiis the highest volcanic mountain of the world (height being 19,613 feet). The other significant volcanoes are Fuzivama (lapan), Shasta, Rainier and Hood (western Cordillera of North America), a valley of ten thousand smokes (Alaska), Mt St (Washingtos » Kitavea (Hawaiitand), Mt. Taal, Pinitube and Mayon (re-eruption in Feb. 2000) of Phillippines ete. & Here voteanic eruptions are primarily caused , -rican and Pacific plate below the Asiatno (2) Mid-continental belt is also known as ‘the voleanic zones o taliplate mergins’. This belt includes the volcanoes in mountain chains and the Mediterranean Sea and the volcanoes of fault zone of eastern Aftica. Here, the volcanic eruptions are caused due to convergence and collision of Eurasian plates and African and Indian plates. ‘The famous volcanoes of the Mediterranean Sea such as Stromboli, Visuvious, Etna etc. and the volcanoes of Aegean Sea are included in this belt. It may be pointed out that this belt does not have the tinuity of volcanic eruptions ‘as several gaps the Hi 01 Aclivity.The of the fault Zone of eastern A\ Kilimanjaro, Meru, Elgon, Birun, (3) Mid-Adantic belt includes the volcanoes thainly along the mid-Atlantic ridge which Fepresents the splitting zone of plates. In other words, two plates diverge in opposite directions from the mid-oceanic ridge. Thus, volcanoes mainly of fissure eruption type Caautlong the constructive or divergent plate margins (boundaries). The most active voleanic aren Teeland PHYSICAL g| id-Atantic ridge, ich ii d on the mid-Ad it Ae cei volcanie mouiaia of leelan : bee fissure eruption type of volcanoes are foun, iim be pointed out that since Iceland is | i mid-Atlantic ridge representing { of American plate is upwelling of magmas along the mid-oceanic ridge ang wherever the crust becomes thin and weak, is flow of lava occurs because of fracture z b divergence of plates. ri The Laki fissure eruption SUR Ata 5 quick and enormous that huge volume o} lavas measuring about 15 cubic kilometres was Poured out from 28-km long fissure. Recently, Hekla and Helgafell volcanoes erupted in the year 1974 and 1973 ve volcanic areas ae les, Azores, St. Helena us eruption of Mount respectively. Other more acti Lesser Antilles, Soy uthern Antilicity AND VOLCANOES fp fntra-plate volcanoes — Besides the aforesaid fined three zones of volcanoes, scattered Bes are also found in the inner parts of the ig, Such distributional patterns of voleanocs ‘ys intraplate volcanoes, the mechanism of uption is nol_yet_prec ely known. Fig. 9.4 flocation of volcanoes of Pacific plate where Fanch of volcanoes runs from Hawaii to Baika. Vulcanicity also becomes active in the iis of continental plates. Massive fis ‘occurred in the north-western parts of North ddoring Miocene period when 1,00,000 cubic pres of basaltic lavas were spread over an arca 4000 km” to form Columbian plateau, Similarly, Fesure flows of lavas covered more than 5,00,000 eas of Peninsular India. Parana of Barazil and Ray were formed due to spread of lavas over an of 7,50,000 km’. ECHANISMS AND CAUSES OF jULCANISM 5 stated earlier the@olcanic eruptions are Peiated with weaker zones of the earth surfaces ated by mountain building at the destructive Bavergent plate margins and Texcture zones Fecented by constructive or divergent pfate fdaries atthe splitting zones of mid-oceanic ridges The zones of transform faulis represented by mechanism of icity (vufSanism) and volcanic eruptions is connected processes mperature with f1°C per 32 m due to udinactive within the earth, (i) origin of magma aused by tion in the pressure of overlying Si iperincumbent fra ali sand tive plate boundaries, )The ely associated with several interc fas 47 gradual increase of depth at the rate of erated from the disintegrati ments deep withi ie of lowering of melting point c Oceanic Crust 9.5: IMlustration of constructive (di relationship with vulcanicity. ivergent) and destructive (con mt their movement in opposite direction, (iii) origin prieheeaeth gies | cl through pegcolation of rainwater and er (water derived through the melting of ice and snow}, (iv) the ascent of magma forced by US volume of gases and vapour and (v) finally iecuirrence of volcanic eruptions of either violent explosive central type or qulet fissure type depending upon the intensity of gases and vapour and the nature of crustal surface, 7 "Theory of ‘ate tectonics now very well explains the mechanism of yillcanism and volcanic eruptions. In fact, voleanic eruptions are very closely associated with the plate boundaries. Tt may be pointed out that the types of plate movements and plate boundaries also determine the nature and intensity of voleanic eruption. D) © (Most of the active fissure volcanoes are found along the mid-oceanic.ridges which represent spliting zones of divergent plate boundaries fig. 9.5). Two plates move in opposite directions from the mid- convective currents oceanic ridges due to thermal which are riginated Ta the manile below the crust (plates). This splitting and lateral spreading of plates Aprons fractures and ff form faults) which ‘cause pressure release and lower jng paint and Thus materials of upper mantle lying below the mid-oceanic ridges are melted and-move upward as magmas under the impact of enormaus yolume of Focumulated gases and vapouLWhis rise of magmas” along the mid-oceanic ridges (constructive or divergent plate boundaries) causes fissure eruptions of volcanoes arid there is constant upwelling of lavas. These lavas ane cooled and solidified and are added tothe trailing nds of divergent plate boundaries and thus there is poms création of new basaltic crust. The volcanic eruptions of Iceland and the islands ocated along the Mid-Oceanie Ridge id Rising Basalt Magma an f ie Crust Formation of New Ocean! wergent) plate bound12 sca-floor mid-Atlantic ridge are caused because of sea-floo spreading and divergence of plates, I is, vlan it divergent or constructive plate boundaries are alw. ys associated with quict {ype of fissure flows of Hayes } because the pressure release ‘of superincumbent loa due (o divergence of plates and formation of fissures and faults isa slo [gradual process, Hisapparent from the above discussion that the mid-occanic ridges, representing splitting zones, are associated with active volcanoes wherein the supply of lava comes from the upper mantle just below the Tidge because differential meljing ofthe racks inte tholeitic basaltsy 7 fince there is constant supply of basaltic lavas from below the mid-oceanic tidges and hence the polcamoes are active near the ridges but the supply of 2. Azores islands situated on either side of Allantic Ridge are 4-million Years old whereas the lavas of Cape Verde the said ridge, are 120-million years old. Destructive or convergent ate boundaries are associated With explosive ty ae of voce tions, en two convergent plates coldest ‘Benioff zone (boundary) is subducted beneath ‘Comaparatively lighten Plate boundary. rain, after reaching permanence 8 is magma is forced tg Of accumulated © crust (plate) I plate, sa PHYS; of volcanic materials; desep eeu such as buildings, facto, airports, dams and reservoirs through| A caused by hot lavas; floods in the Tiv anges. A few of the severe dam, voleanie eruptions may be summarized (J) Huge volumes of hot and liqui at considerably fast speed (recorded per hour) bury human structures, j animals, destroy agricultural farms ang rivers and lakes, burn and destroy forest eruption of Mt. Loa on Hawaii poure huge volume of lavas that these covered 53 km down the slope. Enormous Laki | 1783 A.D. travelled a distance of 350 two churches, 15 agricultural farms an Per cent of the total popullation of Icelang of Mt. Pelee eruption of 1902 in Martin (in Caribbean Sea) (total death 28,000) and eruption of 1980 (Washington, USA) are rep TraeRles Of damages done by lava move I types of Voleanic eruptions, 5g Causes tremendous len eruption of 4 tral pipe does ne ‘@cuate themselve Abe clutches of, eruption o Pique, Weor Indic F destroyed the w 2 survive +000 inhabir The heayy o Mourn the Ugh cen; Oey, S fro,bcher sorthgrute- ey 21 Gu 6] magna bac qwkm — Hematayee Dika~ Vepok 10 EARTHQUAKES earthquake may have its focus at a depth of even 700 km below the ground surface but some of the major Himalayan earthquakes, such as the Bihar-Nepal earthquake of August 21, 1988, have their focus 7 é around 20-30 km deep. The place on the ground Bic se motion ofthe ground surface. ANSI) surface, which is perpendicular to the busied “focus’ fain gemorto a wild motion capable °F or “hypocentre". recording the seismic waves for the pe buildings apart and cat first time is calledepicentréWF he waves generated by in te eroundThe earthquake is an earthquake are called ‘seismic waves’ which are ve mon ansmited hough he sure) recorded by an instrument called seismograph of earth in widening circles from a point OF” seismometer at the epicentre. The science, that deals Ei energy release, the focus )(A.N. Strahler and yi, a : ; 1976). sme focur)a isa vibration With the seismic waves, is calledssismalagy) Eilation of the surface of the earth caused bya —_ 10.2 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES. disturbance of the elastic or gravitational of the rocks at or beneath the earth the An earthquake is a major demonstration of the Of the tectonic forces caused by endogenetic al conditions of the interior of the earth) (An 7 Earthquakes are caused mainly due to isequilibrfum in any part of the crust of the earth. A number of causes have been assigned to cause disequilibrium or isostatic imbalance in the earth's crust such as volcanic eruptions, faulting and folding, : i upwarping and downwarping, gaseous expansion and ig Magnitude or intensity (M) on Richter scale Soutien inside the earth, ii deatateaeeseure of pang but in fact the scale has no man-made water bodies like reservoirs and lakes, and insted eee use itis a logarithmic scale; plate movements) If we look at the world distribution ‘ed that the total annual energy released of earthquakes (fig. 10.2) it appears that the Sarthquakes is about 10° ergs, most of this is iated wi an 10" ergs, earthquake belts are closely associated with the weaker 2 small number of earthquakes of magnitude a , ae zones and isostatically disturbed areas of the globe. It i128: Stahler and A.H. Strabler, 1976). The was generally befieved that sosualically balanced and Sear eee meas 8.4and Good Friday old and stable rigid masses were free from seismic oI March 27, 1964 in Alaska (USA) events but the devastating earthquake of Koyna on 11 ®< to 8.6 on Richter scale are among the ~~ December, 1967, in Satara district of Maharashtra, ‘havakes ofthe world ever recorded. Latur-Kilari earthquake of Sept. 30, 1993 of ‘Place of the origin of an earthquake is called Maharashtra, disproved this old connotation and made i a \s always hidden inside ths earth butits us believe that no part of the earth is immune from ties from place to place, The deepest —_ seismic events. A host of possible causes have been 19 magnitude or intensity of energy released famhquake is measured by the Richter Scale by Charles F. Richter in 1935. The numberfested to cause disequilibrium in the earth's crust ich trigger carth tremors of various sorts. 1. Vuleantcity Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the major causes of earthquakes. In fact, vulcanicity and seismic events are ately related to each other that they become cause and effect for each other, In other words, each volcanic eruption fs followed by earthquakes and many of the severe earthquakes cause volcanic eruptions. In fact, carth tremors are mafor precursor events of possible volcanfe eruption in immediate future in any region. The explosive violent gases during the process of vulcanicity try to escape upward and hence they push the crustal surface from below with great force and thus is caused severe carth tremor of high magnitude, Whenever these gases become successful in breaking the weak crustal surface they appear on the earth’s surface violent explosion and great force causing devastating voleanic ‘es sudden desequilibrium in the eruption which caus crustal surface to invite severe earth terion Itmay be pointed out that the magnitude of such earthquakes depends upon the intensity of voleanic eruptions The violent eruption of Krakatoa voleano (between Jeva and Sumatra) caused such a seve e the impact of which was experienced as ir 200Y as Cape Horn (some 12,800 kin ‘away). The devastating earthquake generated 30 to 40 TE Sa ave ‘which killed 36,000 people intne.co8s and Sumatra. 2, Faulting and Elastic Rebound Theory conta endye ene, caused > THe HOTIZOnE result inthe formation offal by endosene um ‘cause isostatic disequilforium and folds Which IT which ulimately causes in the crustal Foor magnitudes cpending onthe earthquakes yr e of dislocation of rock blocks nature an aE Sad folding.(In fact, sudden caused-by FAUILTE igcks caused by both tensleand dislocation. oie ‘rigger feat nee rest jusment of loc] ie 1950- at quake OF AE in crustal rocks introduced by jsequilibrin’™ j934-earthquake of Bihar was ture Tvhave been triggered by faulting ered 16" Underground active fault zone idernent™ of the possible causes of Koyna ed sntra) of December 11, 1967. a aharas € (Maree of severe devastating earthquake 5 : occur (USA) in 1906 led HLF. Reid, one cis jnvestizators of the San Fransiseo a ter 10 advance his famous and much Oe di Ke die doggie! cxpin sede mud Huo « hb PUYSICAL Gt, and causes of earthquakes mainly caused by and faults in the earth's crus and wae fra, According to Reid the underground rocky eet like rubber and expand when stretched ang 2% The stretching and pulling of crustal rocky pu tensile forces is slow process. The rocks ebiar 4 be stretched so longas the tensile forces do nota the elasticity of the rocks but as the tensile gc \ exceed the rocks elasticity, they are broken’ a broken rock blocks try immediately o octipy 4 previous positions so that they may adjust themeiy:| Allthese processes occur sogapidlythat te eli ofthe concerned crustal surface is suddenly dist and hence earth tremors are caused; Reid’selastic rebound theory very wellerphis, the occurrences of seismic events in Californian val which is very much frequented by faulfing ‘The famous earthquake of 1872 of Califomia ws caused due to creation of a massive fault in the Ova Valley. Similarly, the Californian earthquake of Ard 18, 1906, was caused duc to the formation of 60a Jong San Andreas Fault. The 1923 earthquake Sagami Bay of Japan was also believed to have bes triggered by big fault. N. Krishna Brahman and Janardhan G:Niyog. the two scientists ofthe National Geophysical Reset Institute, have opined that the seismic event Bhatsa Dam and Koyna Damare very much al due to active faulting beneath the Deccan ‘Traps. They have claimed to have identified two active rift fa in Maharashtra beneath the Deccan 1raps ¥i- Kurduvadi rift and Koyna rift. According to hen Koyna rift begins from Kaladgi in Karnataka and mus fora distance of 540km through Koyna and terminal 40 km west of Nasik, The 390 km long Kurd rift begins from 40 km south-west of Solapur and after running through Kurduvadi it merges with Koyna rift to the north of Pune. According to hes Bhatsa Dam is located at the junction of Taw #*) Koyna faults. They are of the opinion that gradi increase in the seismic events in Bhatsa Dam areas 1983 is because of active faulting beneath the basa” crust. The 1950 Assam earthquake, 1934 Bit earthquake and 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Gujars! India were caused mainly by faulting. 3 3. Hydrostatic Pressure and Anthropoge"” Causes ‘Though the earthquakes are natural phenome”? and are caused by the endogenetfc forces coming (a within the earth but certain human activities a pumping of groundwater and oil, deep_underB®® >, ing, blasting of rocks by dym er constructional purposes (e.g, for the constructor dams and reservoirs, roads etc.); nuclear £X} 2 storage of huge volte of water in big reservoir:earth emg of serfous consequenceseThe Eetion of adkiitional arfifictal superincumbent ch the construction of Jarge dams and ‘of cnormous volume of water in big the dams cause disequilibrium of tically adjusted roeks-betow Me mic events have been cor-related ervoirs all over the world such as ece due to Marathon Dam aycted! in 1929: initiation of earth tremors since Oe ground Hoover Dam (USA) duc to creation of i Koyna earthquake of 1967 (in rldistrict of Maharashtra) due to Koyna reservoir fficted in 1962; other examples of earthquakes A by dams and reservoirs are of Monteynard and Franeey Mangla in Pakistan, Kariba in abla, Manic in Canada, Hendrick Verwoerd in Bi Africa, Nourck in carst-while USSR, Kurobe ‘ It may be pointed out that the intensity mhquake has been posttively correlated with the ig of water in the reservoirs. The earthquakes y hydrostatic pressure of reservoirs are called it induced earthquakes”. , fate Tectonic Theory cently, plate tectonic theory has been accepted most plausible explanation of the causes of quakes. As per theory of the plate tectonics the Stor the carth is composed of solid and moving having cither continental crust or oceanic-erts fyen both onan SeeanterieLyTe earth's sts of @ major plates (Eprasian plate, rican plate, African plate, Indian plate, Batcific Band Antarctic plate) and 20 minor plates. These ES are constantly moving in relation to each other o thermal convectiye currents originating deep hin the earth. Thus,(All the tectonic events take fe along the boundaries of these moving plates. the stand point of movement and tectonic events atfon and destruction of geomaterials the plate indaries are divided into (4) constructive plate Ddaries, (ii, destructive plate boundaries and (iii) ervative plate boundaries. Constructive plate indaries represent the trailing ends of divergent $ which move in opposite directions from the gccanic ridges, destructive plate boundariesare ‘Where two convergent plates collide against each = and the heavier plate boundary is subducted © the relatively lighter plate boundary and seve Plate boundaried)re those where two oP Past each other withoitt any collision. Major ri vet's Associated with these plate boundaries Bing es and faults along the constructive pl aries, fauiting and folding along the destructive 121 plate boundaries and transform faults along the conservative plate boundaries. All sorts of disequilibrium are caused due to different types of plate motions and consequently earthquakes of varying magnitudes are caused. Normally, moderate earthquakes are caused along the consructive plate boundaries because the rate of rupture of the crust and consequent movement of plates away from the mid-oceanic ridges is rather slow and the rate of upwelling of lavas due to fissure flow is also slow. Consequently, shallow focus earthquakes are caused along the constrictive plate boundaties or say along the mid-oceanic ridges, The depth of ‘focus’ of earthquakes associated with the constructive plate boundaries ranges between 25)km to 35 km but a few earthquakes have also been found to have occurred at the depth of 60 km. It is, thus, obvious that the earthquakes occurring along the mid-Atlantic Ridge, mid-Indian Oceanic Ridge and East Pacific Rise are caused because of movement of plates in opposite directions (dirvergence) and consequent ation of faults and ruptures and upwelling of magma or fissure flow of basaltic lavas (fig. 10.1). Earthquakes of high magnitude and deep focus are caused along the convergent or destructive plate boundaries because of collision of two convergent plates and consequent subduction of one plate boundary along the Benioff zone. Here mountain building, faulting and violent volcaniceruptions (central explosive type of eruptions) cause severe and disastrous earthquakes having the focus at the depth upto 700 km. This process, convergence of plates and related plate’ collision; explains the maximum occurrence of earthquakes of varying magnitudes along the Fire Ring of the Pacific or the Circum-Pacific Belt-(along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific Ocean or say along the western coastal margins of North and South Americas and thus the Rockies to Andes Mountain Belt and along the eastern coastal margins of Asia and island arcs and festoons parallel to the Asiatic coast),)The earthquakes of the Mid-Continental Belt along the Alpine-Himalayan chains are caused due to colli of Eurasian plates and African and Indian plaesIhe earthquakes of the western marginal areas of North and South Americas are caused because of subduction of Pacific plate beneath the American plate and the resultant tectonic forces whereas the earthquakes of the eastern margins of Asia are originated because of the subduction of Pacific plate under Asiatic plate. Similarly, the subduction of African plate below European plate and the subduction of Indian plate under Asiastic plate cause earthquakes of the mid-continental belt. The severe earthquake of Bhuj.of Jan, 26, 2001 (Gujarat, India).was caused due to reactivated subsurface faults due to subduction of Indian plate below Asiatic plateDxPHYSICAY PRY, Creation of transform faults along the conservative plate boundaries explains the occurrence of severe earthquakes of California (USA). Here one part of California moves north-eastward while the other part moves south-westward along the faultplane and thus is formed transform fault which causes earthquakes, 10.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES It has become apparent after the discussion of the causes of seismic events that there is wide range of variation in the nature and magnitude of earthquakes. Each earthquake differs from the other and thus it becomes difficult to classify all the earthquakes into certain categories. Inspite of these limitations earthquakes are classified on the basis of common characteristics as given below : 1. Classification on the basis of causative factors (A) Natural earthquakes are those which are caused by natural processes i.e. due to endogenetic forces. These are further divided into four subtategories. (i Volcanic earthquakes are caused due to volcanic eruptions of explosive and fissure types. Generally, volcanic earthquakes are confined to volcanic areas. The intensity and magnitude of such earthquakes depend on the intensity and magnitude of volcanic eruptions. Examples, severe earthquakes caused by violent explosions of Krakatao volcano in 1883 and Eta voleano in 19687 Fig. 10.1 : Relationship between earthquakes and plate boundaries, after, F. Press and R. Seiver, 1978. (ji) Tectonic earthquakes are caused due to ~ dislocation of rock blocks during faulting activity. earthquakes are very severé and disastrous. Ste ‘1872 earthquake and 1906 earthquake of California (USA), 1923 earthquake of Sagami Bay (Japan), 2001 earthquake of Gujarat etc. = Gii) Isostatic earthquakes are triggered due to sudden disturbance in the isostatic balance at regional scale due to imbalance in the geological processes. Generally, the earthquakes of active zones of mountain building are included in this category. = (iv) Plutonic earthquakes are infact deep-focus earthquakes which occur at greater depths. The centres (foci) of these earthquakes are generally located within the depths ranging from 240 km to 670 km. (B) Artificial or man-induced earthquakes of anthropogenic earthquakes are caused by human activities such as pumping of water and mineral oil from underground aquifers and oil reserves respectively, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites for constructional purpos for the construction of dams and reservoirs, roadset)» nuclear explosion, storage of huge volume of watet in big reservoirs etc. Examples, 1931 earthquake Greece due to Marathon Dam, 1936 earthquake Hoover Dam (USA) due to Lake Mead, Koy earthquake (Maharashtra, India) of 1967 due to Koyr# reservoir etc. 2. Classification on the basis of focus Guttenberg has divided the world seismic emt” on the basis of the depths of their foci into 3(km) , (ii) mediate carthquakes-seismic foci at the depths en $0 km and 250 km and (iii) deep fous foci at the depths beween 250 Moderate and intermediate e3 are also called as shallow focus and bisis of their hazardous impacts in terms of human, flitics . (i) Moderately hazardous earthquakes- sihuman deaths caused by severe seismic tremors Jow 50,000 mark, Examples, Kamakura fake of Japan of 1293 A.D. (22,000 deaths), ), Armenian earthquake of earstwhile USSR of 16,000 deaths), Lisbon earthquake of Portugal AD. (30,000 deaths), Chile earthquake of ths) etc. (ii) Highly hazardous earthquakes juman deaths ranging between 51,000 and 1000 occurred in 1268 (in Silicia, Asia Minor, th toll, 60,000), in 1667 (in Shemaka, Caucasia, th toll 60,000), in 1693 (Catania, Italy, 93,000 ), in 1693 (Naples, Italy, 93,000 deaths), in 1932 insu, China, human deaths, 70,000), in 1935 , Baluchistan, death toll, 60,000), in 1970 limbote, Peru, 67,000 deaths), in 2001 (Bhuj, arat, 50,000-1,00,000 death) etc. (iii) Most irdous earthquakes causing human casualitis fe 1,00,000 mark occurred in the year 1290 (in li, China, 1,00.000 deaths), in 1556 (in Shen- China, 8,30,000 deaths), in 1737 (Kolkata, India, 4000 deaths), in 1908 (in Messina, Italy, 1,60,000 }), in 1920 (in Kansu, China 1,80,000 deaths), 123 in 1923 (in Tokyo, Japan, 1,63,000 deaths), in 1967 (in Tang-Shan, China 7,50,000) deaths etc, 10.4 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES, If we look at the world distribution map of earthquakes (fig. 10.2) it appears that the seismic centres are closely related to certain zones of the globe. Earthquakes are, in fact, associated with the weaker and isostatically disturbed areas of the globe. Most of The world map of the distribution of earthquakes prepared by the seismologists on the basis of computer analysis and simulation of 30,000 earthquakes that occurred between 1961 and 1967 very much coincides with the traditional map of world distribution of earthquakes (fig. 10.2) e.g. (1) Circum-Pacific Belt surrounding the Pacific Ocean, (2) Mid-Continental Belt representing epicentres located along the Alpine- Himalayan Chains of Eurasia and northern Africa and epicentres of East African Fault Zones, and (3) Mid- Atlantic Belt representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and its offshoots. ‘The high-quality seismicity maps showed that narrow belts of epicentres coincide almost exactly with the crest of mid-Atlantic (Ridge), the east Pacific, and the other oceanic ridges, where plates separate. Earthquake epicentres are also aligned along the transform faults, where plates slide past each other. But the earthquakes that occurat depths greater than about 100 km typically occur near margins where plates collide. It is a basic tenet of the theory of plate tectonics that these deep earthquakes actually define the positions of subducted plates which are plunging back into the mantle beneath an overriding plate (F. Press and R. Seiver, 1978). 10.1 : Devastating severe earthquakes of 20th and 21st centuries of the world Place of Occurrence Magnitude Deaths (Richter Seale) (maximum estimates) Kangra Valley, India 8.6 20,000 Afganistan 8.1 12,000 Messina, Italy 15 200,000 Avenzzaro, Italy 75 30,000 South Java 15,000. South-East China 73 10,000°° Kansu, China 8.5 180,000 - Tokyo-Yakohama 83 163,ircum Pacific Belt rcum-Pacific Belt includes the epicentres margins of North and South Americas Asia representing the eastern and western 2 Pacific Ocean respectively. This belt Bforabout 65 per cent of the total earthquakes This belt presents 4 ideal conditions for Girences of earthquakes viz. (i) junction of eptal and oceanic margins, (ii) zone of young, tains, (iii) zone of active volcanoes and n zone of destructive or convergent plate 1¢ western marginal zones of North and iiMericas are represented by Rockies and Andes Intain chains respectively. These zones are lly very sensitive zones because they are also fof convergent plate boundaries where the anic plate is being continuously subducted rican plates. Besides, these zones are as of strong volcanic activity. The associated with the eastern coastal margins the island arcs and festoons (Kamchatka, Japan, Phillippines) are caused due to the Hof the Pacific and Asiatic plates and Ent vulcanicity. Japan records about 1500 ks every year. ecent earthquake of Mexico city in 1985 i le impact of collision of convergent i late boundaries on the occurrences of a. The damage done by the devastating included death of 5,000 people, ie of 2,000 persons, injuri 0 cae . injuries to 40,000 ion of 4000 buildings, damages to de: [By Mie-atantic Ben Fig. 10.2 : World distribution of earthquakes. [ERE Mie continental Bet Others 6,000 buildings, lesser damage to 50,000 buildings etc. (2) Mid-continental belt is also known as Mediterranean Belt or Alpine-Himalayan Belt which represents the collision or subduction zones of continental plates. About 21 per ¢ent of the total seismic events of the world are recorded in this belt. This belt includes ,the epicentres of the Alpine mountains and their offshoots in Europe, Mediterranean Sea, northern Africa, eastern Africa and the Himalayan mountains and Burmese hills. This belt represents the weaker zones of folded mountains where isostatic and fault-induced earthquakes are caused due to subduction of African and Indian plates below Eurasian plate. ‘The Indian seismic foci are grouped into 3 zones viz., (i) Himalayan region, (ii) plain region and (iii) plateau region. The Himalayan region is a zone of maximum intensity in terms of the magnitude of seismic tremors because this zone is located in the subduction zones of the Asiatic and Indian plates where the process of mountain building is still in progress. Uttar Kashi earthquake of October 20, 1991 and Chamoli earthquake of 29 March, 1999 (all in Uttaranchal of India) are latest examples. The plain seismic region js a zone of comparatively moderate intensity. Even the earthquakes of Assam are also included in this zone. The significant earthquakes recorded in the past in this region are 1934 earthquakes of Bihar, Assam earthquake of 1950, Kolkata