Power Transmission

UNIT 3 POWER TRANSMISSION DEVICES Devices

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives

3.2 Power Transmission Devices

3.2.1 Belts
3.2.2 Chain
3.2.3 Gears

3.3 Transmission Screw

3.4 Power Transmission by Belts
3.4.1 Law of Belting
3.4.2 Length of the Belt
3.4.3 Cone Pulleys
3.4.4 Ratio of Tensions
3.4.5 Power Transmitted by Belt Drive
3.4.6 Tension due to Centrifugal Forces
3.4.7 Initial Tension
3.4.8 Maximum Power Transmitted

3.5 Kinematics of Chain Drive

3.6 Classification of Gears
3.6.1 Parallel Shafts
3.6.2 Intersecting Shafts
3.6.3 Skew Shafts

3.7 Gear Terminology

3.8 Gear Train
3.8.1 Simple Gear Train
3.8.2 Compound Gear Train
3.8.3 Power Transmitted by Simple Spur Gear

3.9 Summary
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The power is transmitted from one shaft to the other by means of belts, chains and gears.
The belts and ropes are flexible members which are used where distance between the
two shafts is large. The chains also have flexibility but they are preferred for
intermediate distances. The gears are used when the shafts are very close with each
other. This type of drive is also called positive drive because there is no slip. If the
distance is slightly larger, chain drive can be used for making it a positive drive. Belts
and ropes transmit power due to the friction between the belt or rope and the pulley.
There is a possibility of slip and creep and that is why, this drive is not a positive drive.
A gear train is a combination of gears which are used for transmitting motion from one
shaft to another. 79
Theory of Machines Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 understand power transmission derives,
 understand law of belting,
 determine power transmitted by belt drive and gear,
 determine dimensions of belt for given power to be transmitted,
 understand kinematics of chain drive,
 determine gear ratio for different type of gear trains,
 classify gears, and
 understand gear terminology.

3.2 POWER TRANSMISSION DEVICES

Power transmission devices are very commonly used to transmit power from one shaft to
another. Belts, chains and gears are used for this purpose. When the distance between the
shafts is large, belts or ropes are used and for intermediate distance chains can be used.
For belt drive distance can be maximum but this should not be more than ten metres for
good results. Gear drive is used for short distances.
3.2.1 Belts
In case of belts, friction between the belt and pulley is used to transmit power. In
practice, there is always some amount of slip between belt and pulleys, therefore, exact
velocity ratio cannot be obtained. That is why, belt drive is not a positive drive.
Therefore, the belt drive is used where exact velocity ratio is not required.
The following types of belts shown in Figure 3.1 are most commonly used :

(a) Flat Belt and Pulley (b) V-belt and Pulley (c) Circular Belt or Rope Pulley
Figure 3.1 : Types of Belt and Pulley
The flat belt is rectangular in cross-section as shown in Figure 3.1(a). The pulley for this
belt is slightly crowned to prevent slip of the belt to one side. It utilises the friction
between the flat surface of the belt and pulley.
The V-belt is trapezoidal in section as shown in Figure 3.1(b). It utilizes the force of
friction between the inclined sides of the belt and pulley. They are preferred when
distance is comparative shorter. Several V-belts can also be used together if power
transmitted is more.
The circular belt or rope is circular in section as shown in Figure 8.1(c). Several ropes
also can be used together to transmit more power.
The belt drives are of the following types :
(a) open belt drive, and
(b) cross belt drive.
Open Belt Drive
Open belt drive is used when sense of rotation of both the pulleys is same. It is
80 desirable to keep the tight side of the belt on the lower side and slack side at the
 top to increase the angle of contact on the pulleys. This type of drive is shown in Power Transmission
Devices
Figure 3.2.
Slack Side Thickness

Driving
Driving Pulley
Pulley

Tight Side
Effective Radius Neutral Section

Figure 3.2 : Open Belt Derive

Cross Belt Drive

In case of cross belt drive, the pulleys rotate in the opposite direction. The angle of
contact of belt on both the pulleys is equal. This drive is shown in Figure 3.3. As
shown in the figure, the belt has to bend in two different planes. As a result of this,
belt wears very fast and therefore, this type of drive is not preferred for power
transmission. This can be used for transmission of speed at low power.

Figure 3.3 : Cross Belt Drive

Since power transmitted by a belt drive is due to the friction, belt drive is
subjected to slip and creep.
Let d1 and d2 be the diameters of driving and driven pulleys, respectively. N1 and
N2 be the corresponding speeds of driving and driven pulleys, respectively.
The velocity of the belt passing over the driver
 d1 N1
V1 
60
If there is no slip between the belt and pulley
 d2 N2
V1  V2 
60
 d1 N1  d 2 N 2
or, 
60 60
N1 d 2
or, 
N 2 d1
If thickness of the belt is ‘t’, and it is not negligible in comparison to the diameter,
N1 d 2  t

N 2 d1  t
Let there be total percentage slip ‘S’ in the belt drive which can be taken into
account as follows :
 S 
V2  V1 1  
 100 

 d 2 N 2  d1 N1  S 
or  1  
60 60  100  81
Theory of Machines If the thickness of belt is also to be considered
N1 (d 2  t ) 1
or  
N 2 (d1  t )  S 
1  
 100 

N 2 (d1  t )  S 
or,   1  
N1 (d 2  t )  100 
The belt moves from the tight side to the slack side and vice-versa, there is some
loss of power because the length of belt continuously extends on tight side and
contracts on loose side. Thus, there is relative motion between the belt and pulley
due to body slip. This is known as creep.
3.2.2 Chain
The belt drive is not a positive drive because of creep and slip. The chain drive is a
positive drive. Like belts, chains can be used for larger centre distances. They are made
of metal and due to this chain is heavier than the belt but they are flexible like belts. It
also requires lubrication from time to time. The lubricant prevents chain from rusting
and reduces wear.
The chain and chain drive are shown in Figure 3.4. The sprockets are used in place of
pulleys. The projected teeth of sprockets fit in the recesses of the chain. The distance
between roller centers of two adjacent links is known as pitch. The circle passing
through the pitch centers is called pitch circle.

Roller
Bushing
Pitch
Pin
Pitch
(a) (b)
p

φ
r

Sprocket

(c) (d)
Figure 3.4 : Chain and Chain Drive

Let ‘’ be the angle made by the pitch of the chain, and
‘r’ be the pitch circle radius, then

pitch, p  2r sin
2
p 
or, r cosec
2 2
The power transmission chains are made of steel and hardened to reduce wear. These
chains are classified into three categories
(a) Block chain
(b) Roller chain

82 (c) Inverted tooth chain (silent chain)

Out of these three categories roller chain shown in Figure 3.4(b) is most commonly used. Power Transmission
Devices
The construction of this type of chain is shown in the figure. The roller is made of steel
and then hardened to reduce the wear. A good roller chain is quiter in operation as
compared to the block chain and it has lesser wear. The block chain is shown in
Figure 3.4(a). It is used for low speed drive. The inverted tooth chain is shown in
Figures 3.4(c) and (d). It is also called as silent chain because it runs very quietly even at
higher speeds.
3.2.3 Gears
Gears are also used for power transmission. This is accomplished by the successive
engagement of teeth. The two gears transmit motion by the direct contact like chain
drive. Gears also provide positive drive.
The drive between the two gears can be represented by using plain cylinders or discs 1
and 2 having diameters equal to their pitch circles as shown in Figure 3.5. The point of
contact of the two pitch surfaces shell have velocity along the common tangent. Because
there is no slip, definite motion of gear 1 can be transmitted to gear 2 or vice-versa.
The tangential velocity ‘Vp’ = 1 r1 = 2 r2
where r1 and r2 are pitch circle radii of gears 1 and 2, respectively.

VP

2
N1 1

N2

Figure 3.5 : Gear Drive

2 N1 2 N 2
or, r1  r2
60 60
or, N1 r1  N2 r2
N1 r2
or, 
N 2 r1
Since, pitch circle radius of a gear is proportional to its number of teeth (t).
N1 t2
 
N 2 t1
where t1 and t2 are the number of teeth on gears 1 and 2, respectively.
SAQ 1
In which type of drive centre distance between the shafts is lowest? Give reason
for this?

3.3 TRANSMISSION SCREW

In a screw, teeth are cut around its circular periphery which form helical path. A nut has
similar internal helix in its bore. When nut is turned on the screw with a force applied
tangentially, screw moves forward. For one turn, movement is equal to one lead. In case
of lead screw, screw rotates and nut moves along the axis over which tool post is
mounted. 83
Theory of Machines Let dm be the mean diameter of the screw,
 be angle of friction, and
p be the pitch.
If one helix is unwound, it will be similar to an inclined plane for which the angle of
inclination ‘’ is given by (Figure 3.6)
L
tan  
 dm
For single start L = p
p
 tan  
 dm
If force acting along the axis of the screw is W, effort applied tangential to the screw
(as discussed in Unit 2)
P  W tan (  )
for motion against force.
Also P  W tan (  )
for motion in direction of force.

P
L=p

 dm

Figure 3.6 : Transmission Screw

3.3.1 Power Transmitted

Torque acting on the screw
dm W dm
TP  tan (  )
2 2
If speed is N rpm
T 2 N
Power transmitted  watt
60
W dm tan (  )
  2 N kW
2  60  1000

3.4 POWER TRANSMISSION BY BELTS

In this section, we shall discuss how power is transmitted by a belt drive. The belts are
used to transmit very small power to the high amount of power. In some cases magnitude
of the power is negligible but the transmission of speed only may be important. In such
84 cases the axes of the two shafts may not be parallel. In some cases to increase the angle
of lap on the smaller pulley, the idler pulley is used. The angle of lap may be defined as Power Transmission
Devices
the angle of contact between the belt and the pulley. With the increase in angle of lap,
the belt drive can transmit more power. Along with the increase in angle of lap, the idler
pulley also does not allow reduction in the initial tension in the belt. The use of idler
pulley is shown in Figure 3.7.

Idler Pulley

Figure 3.7 : Use of Idler in Belt Drive

SAQ 2
(a) What is the main advantage of idler pulley?
(b) A prime mover drives a dc generator by belt drive. The speeds of prime
mover and generator are 300 rpm and 500 rpm, respectively. The diameter
of the driver pulley is 600 mm. The slip in the drive is 3%. Determine
diameter of the generator pulley if belt is 6 mm thick.

3.4.1 Law of Belting

The law of belting states that the centre line of the belt as it approaches the pulley, must
lie in plane perpendicular to the axis of the pulley in the mid plane of the pulley
otherwise the belt will run off the pulley. However, the point at which the belt leaves the
other pulley must lie in the plane of a pulley.
The Figure 3.8 below shows the belt drive in which two pulleys are at right angle to each
other. It can be seen that the centre line of the belt approaching larger or smaller pulley
lies in its plane. The point at which the belt leaves is contained in the plane of the other
pulley.
If motion of the belt is reversed, the law of the belting will be violated. Therefore,
motion is possible in one direction in case of non-parallel shafts as shown in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 : Law of Belting 85

Theory of Machines 3.4.2 Length of the Belt
For any type of the belt drive it is always desirable to know the length of belt required. It
will be required in the selection of the belt. The length can be determined by the
geometric considerations. However, actual length is slightly shorter than the theoretically
determined value.
Open Belt Drive
The open belt drive is shown in Figure 3.9. Let O1 and O2 be the pulley centers
and AB and CD be the common tangents on the circles representing the two
pulleys. The total length of the belt ‘L’ is given by
L = AB + Arc BHD + DC + Arc CGA
Let r be the radius of the smaller pulley,
R be the radius of the larger pulley,
C be the centre distance between the pulleys, and
 be the angle subtended by the tangents AB and CD with O1 O2.
D K
C J
β

β β N
G = O1 O2 H
r R
A
B
C

Figure 3.9 : Open Belt Drive

Draw O1 N parallel to CD to meet O2 D at N.
By geometry,  O2 O1, N =  C O1 J =  D O2 K= 
Arc BHD = ( + 2) R,
Arc CGA = (  2) r
AB = CD = O1 N = O1 O2 cos  = C cos 
Rr
sin  
C
(R  r)
or,   sin 1
C
 1 2 
cos   1  sin 2  1  sin  
 2 
 1 
 L  (  2) R  (  2) r  2C 1  sin 2  
 2 
(R  r)
For small value of ;   , the approximate lengths
C

(R  r)  1 Rr 
2
L   (R  r)  2 (R  r)  2C 1    
C  2  C  

( R  r )2  1 Rr 
2
  (R  r)   2C 1    
C  2  C  

86 This provides approximate length because of the approximation taken earlier.

Crossed-Belt Drive Power Transmission
Devices
The crossed-belt drive is shown in Figure 3.10. Draw O1 N parallel to the line CD
which meets extended O2 D at N. By geometry
 C O1 J   DO2 K   O2 O1 N
L  Arc AGC  AB  Arc BKD  CD
Arc AGC  r (  2), and Arc BKD  (  2) R

R r (R  r)
sin   or   sin 1
C C
For small value of 
Rr

C

 1 2   1 ( R  r )2 
cos   1  sin 2   1  sin    1  
 2   2 C 2 

L  r (  2)  2C cos   R (  2)

 (  2) ( R  r )  2C cos 

C
B

J C
β
R
β
G O1 O2
r
A β

D K

N
Figure 3.10 : Cross Belt Drive

For approximate length

( R  r )2  1 ( R  r )2 
L   (R  r)  2  2C 1  
C  2 C 2 

( R  r )2
  (R  r)   2C
C
SAQ 3
Which type of drive requires longer length for same centre distance and size of
pulleys?

3.4.3 Cone Pulleys

Sometimes the driving shaft is driven by the motor which rotates at constant speed but
the driven shaft is designed to be driven at different speeds. This can be easily done by
using stepped or cone pulleys as shown in Figure 3.11. The cone pulley has different sets
of radii and they are selected such that the same belt can be used at different sets of the
cone pulleys. 87
Theory of Machines
1 2 3
4
5
r3

R3

Figure 3.11 : Cone Pulleys

Let Nd be the speed of the driving shaft which is constant.

Nn be the speed of the driven shaft when the belt is on nth step.
rn be the radius of the nth step of driving pulley.
Rn be the radius of the nth step of the driven pulley.
where n is an integer, 1, 2, . . .
The speed ratio is inversely proportional to the pulley radii
N1 r
  1 . . . (3.1)
Nd R1
For this first step radii r1 and R1 can be chosen conveniently.
N2 r N r
For second pair  2 , and similarly n  n .
Nd R2 Nd Rn
In order to use same belt on all the steps, the length of the belt should be same
i.e. L1  L2  . . .  Ln . . . (3.2)
Thus, two equations are available – one provided by the speed ratio and other provided
by the length relation and for selected speed ratio, the two radii can be calculated. Also it
has to be kept in mind that the two pulleys are same. It is desirable that the speed ratios
should be in geometric progression.
Let k be the ratio of progression of speed.
N 2 N3 N
   ... n  k
N1 N 2 N n 1

 N2  k N1 and N3  k 2 N1
r1
 N n  k n  1 N1  k n  1 N d
R1

r2 r r r
  k 1 and 3  k 2 1
R2 R1 R3 R1
Since, both the pulleys are made similar.
88
 rn R r R Power Transmission
 1 or k n 1 1  1 Devices
Rn r1 R1 r1

R1
or,  k n 1 . . . (3.3)
r1
If radii R1 and r1 have been chosen, the above equations provides value of k or vice-
versa.
SAQ 4
How the speed ratios are selected for cone pulleys?

3.4.4 Ratio of Tensions

The belt drive is used to transmit power from one shaft to the another. Due to the friction
between the pulley and the belt one side of the belt becomes tight side and other
becomes slack side. We have to first determine ratio of tensions.
Flat Belt
Let tension on the tight side be ‘T1’ and the tension on the slack side be ‘T2’. Let
‘’ be the angle of lap and let ‘’ be the coefficient of friction between the belt
and the pulley. Consider an infinitesimal length of the belt PQ which subtend an
angle  at the centre of the pulley. Let ‘R’ be the reaction between the element
and the pulley. Let ‘T’ be tension on the slack side of the element, i.e. at point P
and let ‘(T + T)’ be the tension on the tight side of the element.
The tensions T and (T + T) shall be acting tangential to the pulley and thereby
normal to the radii OP and OQ. The friction force shall be equal to ‘R’ and its
action will be to prevent slipping of the belt. The friction force will act
tangentially to the pulley at the point S.
R

R S
Q δθ
δθ
2 P 2

T δθ
T + ST

O θ

T2 T1

Figure 3.12 : Ratio of Tensions in Flat Belt

Considering equilibrium of the element at S and equating it to zero.
Resolving all the forces in the tangential direction
 
R  T cos  (T  T ) cos 0
2 2

or, R  T cos . . . (3.4)
2 89
Theory of Machines Resolving all the forces in the radial direction at S and equating it to zero.
 
R  T sin  (T  T ) sin 0
2 2

or, R  (2T  T ) sin
2
Since  is very small, taking limits
  
 cos 1 and sin 
2 2 2
 
 R  (2T  T )  T   T
2 2
  
Neglecting the product of the two infinitesimal quantities  T  which is
 2 
negligible in comparison to other quantities :
 R T 

Substituting the value of R and cos 1 in Eq. (3.4), we get
2
 T   T
T
or,  
T
Taking limits on both sides as    0
dT
 d 
T
Integrating between limits, it becomes
T1 
dT
 T
   d
T2 0

T1
or, ln  
T2
T1
or,  e . . . (3.5)
T2
V-belt or Rope
The V-belt or rope makes contact on the two sides of the groove as shown in
Figure 3.13. 2 Rn sinα
δ θ/2 δ θ/2

2μ Rn S
P Q

T
θ T+ δT

α α O

Rn Rn
2α

T2 T1

(a) (b)
Figure 3.13 : Ratio of Tension in V-Belt
90
 Let the reaction be ‘Rn’ on each of the two sides of the groove. The resultant Power Transmission
Devices
reaction will be 2Rn sin  at point S.
Resolving all the forces tangentially in the Figure 3.13(b), we get
 
2 Rn  T cos  (T  T ) cos 0
2 2

or, 2 Rn  T cos . . . (3.6)
2
Resolving all the forces radially, we get
 
2Rn sin   T sin  (T  T ) sin
2 2

 (2T  T ) sin
2
Since  is very small
 
sin
2 2
 
 2Rn sin   (2T  T )  T   T 
2 2
Neglecting the product of the two infinitesimal quantities
2Rn sin  T 
T 
or, Rn
2sin 

Substituting the value of Rn and using the approximation cos 1 , in Eq. (3.6),
2
we get
T 
  T
sin 

T  
or,  
T sin 
Taking the limits and integrating between limits, we get
T1 
dT 
 T
  sin 
d
T2 0

T1 
or, ln  
T2 sin 

T1 
or,  e sin  . . . (3.7)
T2

SAQ 5
(a) If a rope makes two full turn and one quarter turn how much will be angle
of lap?
(b) If smaller pulley has coefficient of friction 0.3 and larger pulley has
coefficient of friction 0.2. The angle of lap on smaller and larger pulleys are
160o and 200o which value of () should be used for ratio of tensions?
91
Theory of Machines 3.4.5 Power Transmitted by Belt Drive
The power transmitted by the belt depends on the tension on the two sides and the belt
speed.
Let T1 be the tension on the tight side in ‘N’
T2 be the tension on the slack side in ‘N’, and
V be the speed of the belt in m/sec.
Then power transmitted by the belt is given by
Power P  (T1  T2 ) V Watt

(T1  T2 ) V
 kW . . . (3.8)
1000

 T 
T1 1  2  V
P 
T1 
or, kW
1000
If belt is on the point of slipping.
T1
 e 
T2

T1 (1  e  ) V
 P kW . . . (3.9)
1000
The maximum tension T1 depends on the capacity of the belt to withstand force. If
allowable stress in the belt is ‘t’ in ‘Pa’, i.e. N/m2, then
T1  (t  t  b) N . . . (3.10)

where t is thickness of the belt in ‘m’ and b is width of the belt also in m.
The above equations can also be used to determine ‘b’ for given power and speed.

3.4.6 Tension due to Centrifugal Forces

The belt has mass and as it rotates along with the pulley it is subjected to centrifugal
forces. If we assume that no power is being transmitted and pulleys are rotating, the
centrifugal force will tend to pull the belt as shown in Figure 3.14(b) and, thereby, a
tension in the belt called centrifugal tension will be introduced.
TC

TC
δ θ/2
r
FC
δθ
δ θ/2

TC
TC
(a) (b)
Figure 3.14 : Tension due to Centrifugal Foces

Let ‘TC’ be the centrifugal tension due to centrifugal force.

Let us consider a small element which subtends an angle  at the centre of the pulley.
Let ‘m’ be the mass of the belt per unit length of the belt in ‘kg/m’.
92
The centrifugal force ‘Fc’ on the element will be given by Power Transmission
Devices
V2
FC  (r  m) 
r
where V is speed of the belt in m/sec. and r is the radius of pulley in ‘m’.
Resolving the forces on the element normal to the tangent

FC  2TC sin 0
2
Since  is very small.
 
 sin
2 2

or, FC  2TC 0
2
or, FC  TC 

Substituting for FC
mV2
r   TC 
r

or, TC  m V 2 . . . (3.11)
Therefore, considering the effect of the centrifugal tension, the belt tension on the tight
side when power is transmitted is given by
Tension of tight side Tt  T1  TC and tension on the slack side Ts  T2  TC .
The centrifugal tension has an effect on the power transmitted because maximum tension
can be only Tt which is
Tt  t  t  b

 T1  t  t  b  m V 2

SAQ 6
What will be the centrifugal tension if mass of belt is zero?

3.4.7 Initial Tension

When a belt is mounted on the pulley some amount of initial tension say ‘T0’ is provided
in the belt, otherwise power transmission is not possible because a loose belt cannot
sustain difference in the tension and no power can be transmitted.
When the drive is stationary the total tension on both sides will be ‘2 T0’.
When belt drive is transmitting power the total tension on both sides will be (T1 + T2),
where T1 is tension on tight side, and T2 is tension on the slack side.
If effect of centrifugal tension is neglected.
2T0  T1  T2 93
Theory of Machines T1  T2
or, T0 
2
If effect of centrifugal tension is considered, then
T0  Tt  Ts  T1  T2  2TC

T1  T2
or, T0   TC . . . (3.12)
2

3.4.8 Maximum Power Transmitted

The power transmitted depends on the tension ‘T1’, angle of lap , coefficient of friction
‘’ and belt speed ‘V’. For a given belt drive, the maximum tension (Tt), angle of lap and
coefficient of friction shall remain constant provided that
(a) the tension on tight side, i.e. maximum tension should be equal to the
maximum permissible value for the belt, and
(b) the belt should be on the point of slipping.

Therefore, Power P  T1 (1  e  ) V

Since, T1  Tt  Tc

or, P  (Tt  Tc ) (1  e  ) V

or, P  (Tt  m V 2 ) (1  e ) V

For maximum power transmitted

dP
  (Tt  3m V 2 ) (1  e  )
dV

or, Tt  3m V 2  0

or, Tt  3Tc  0

Tt
or, Tc 
3
Tt
or, mV2 
3

Tt
Also, V  . . . (3.13)
3m
At the belt speed given by the Eq. (3.13) the power transmitted by the belt drive shall be
maximum.

SAQ 7
What is the value of centrifugal tension corresponding to the maximum power
transmitted?

94
 Power Transmission
3.5 KINEMATICS OF CHAIN DRIVE Devices

The chain is wrapped round the sprocket as shown in Figure 3.4(d). The chain in motion
is shown in Figure 3.15. It may be observed that the position of axial line changes
between the two position as shown by the dotted line and full line. The dotted line meets
at point B when extended with the line of centers. The firm line meets the line of centers
at point A when extended. The speed of the driving sprocket say ‘1’ shall be constant
but the velocity of chain will vary between 1  O1 C and 1  O1 D. Therefore,
2 O1 A

1 O2 B
C

D
ώ1
ώ2
o1 o2 A B

Figure 3.15 : Kinematics of Chain Drive

The variation in the chain speed causes the variation in the angular speed of the driven
sprocket. The angular speed of the driven sprocket will vary between
O1 B O A
1 and 1 1
O2 B O2 A

This variation can be reduced by increasing number of teeth on the sprocket.

3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

There are different types of arrangement of shafts which are used in practice. According
to the relative positions of shaft axes, different types of gears are used.

3.6.1 Parallel Shafts

In this arrangement, the shaft axes lie in parallel planes and remain parallel to one
another. The following type of gears are used on these shafts :
Spur Gears
These gears have straight teeth with their alignment parallel to the axes. These
gears are shown in mesh in Figures 3.16(a) and (b). The contact between the two
meshing teeth is along a line whose length is equal to entire length of teeth. It may
be observed that in external meshing, the two shafts rotate opposite to each other
whereas in internal meshing the shafts rotate in the same sense.

Line
Contact
Line
Contact

(a) External Meshing (b) Internal Meshing

Figure 3.16 : Spur Gears

If the gears mesh externally and diameter of one gear becomes infinite, the
arrangement becomes ‘Spur Rack and Pinion’. This is shown in Figure 3.17. It
converts rotary motion into translatory motion, or vice-versa. 95
Theory of Machines

Line Contact

Figure 3.17 : Spur Rack and Pinion

Helical Gears or Helical Spur Gears

In helical gears, the teeth make an angle with the axes of the gears which is called
helix angle. The two meshing gears have same helix angle but its layout is in
opposite sense as shown in Figure 3.18.

Drivern
Thrust

Thrust

Driver

Figure 3.18 : Helical Gears

The contact between two teeth occurs at a point of the leading edge. The point
moves along a diagonal line across the teeth. This results in gradual transfer of
load and reduction in impact load and thereby reduction in noise. Unlike spur
gears the helical gears introduce thrust along the axis of the shaft which is to be
borne by thrust bearings.
Double-Helical or Herringbone Gears
A double-helical gear is equivalent to a pair of helical gears having equal helix
angle secured together, one having a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand
helix. The teeth of two rows are separated by a groove which is required for tool
run out. The axial thrust which occurs in case of single-helical gears is eliminated
in double helical gears. If the left and right inclinations of a double helical gear
meet at a common apex and groove is eliminated in it, the gear is known as
herringbone gear as shown in Figure 3.19.

96 Figure 3.19 : Herringbone Gears

3.6.2 Intersecting Shafts Power Transmission
Devices
The motion between two intersecting shafts is equivalent to rolling of two conical
frustums from kinematical point of view.
Straight Bevel Gears
These gears have straight teeth which are radial to the point of intersection of the
shaft axes. Their teeth vary in cross section through out their length. Generally,
they are used to connect shafts at right angles. These gears are shown in
Figure 3.20. The teeth make line contact like spur gears.

Figure 3.20 : Straight Bevel Gears

As a special case, gears of the same size and connecting two shafts at right angle
to each other are known as mitre gears.
Spiral Bevel Gears
When the teeth of a bevel gear are inclined at an angle to the face of the bevel,
these gears are known as spiral bevel gears or helical bevel gears. A gear of this
type is shown in Figure 3.21(a). They run quiter in action and have point contact.
If spiral bevel gear has curved teeth but with zero degree spiral angle, it is known
as zerol bevel gear.

(a) Spiral Bevel Gear (b) Zerol Bevel Gear

Figure 3.21 : Spiral Bevel Gears

3.6.3 Skew Shafts

These shafts are non-parallel and non-intersecting. The motion of the two mating gears is
equivalent to motion of two hyperboloids in contact as shown in Figure 3.22. The angle
between the two shafts is equal to the sum of the angles of the two hyperboloids. That is
  1  2
The minimum perpendicular distance between the two shafts is equal to the sum of the
throat radii.

Ψ2
Line of A B θ
contact
Ψ1

2 1

Figure 3.22 : Hyperboloids in Contact 97

Theory of Machines Crossed-Helical Gears or Spiral Gears
They can be used for any two shafts at any angle as shown in Figure 3.23 by a
suitable choice of helix angle. These gears are used to drive feed mechanisms on
machine tool.

Figure 3.23 : Spiral Gears in Contact

Worm Gears
It is a special case of spiral gears in which angle between the two axes is generally
right angle. The smaller of the two gears is called worm which has large spiral
angle. These are shown in Figure 3.24.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 3.24 : Worm Gears

Hypoid Gears
These gears are approximations of hyperboloids though look like spiral bevel
gears. The hypoid pinion is larger and stronger than a spiral bevel pinion. They
have quit and smooth action and have larger number of teeth is contact as
compared to straight bevel gears. These gears are used in final drive of vehicles.
They are shown in Figure 3.25.

98 Figure 3.25 : Hypoid Gears

 Power Transmission
3.7 GEAR TERMINOLOGY Devices

Before considering kinematics of gears we shall define the terms used for describing the
shape, size and geometry of a gear tooth. The definitions given here are with respect to a
straight spur gear.
Pitch Circle or Pitch Curve
It is the theoretical curve along which the gear rolls without slipping on the
corresponding pitch curve of other gear for transmitting equivalent motion.
Pitch Point
It is the point of contact of two pitch circles.
Pinion
It is the smaller of the two mating gears. It is usually the driving gear.
Rack
It is type of the gear which has infinite pitch circle diameter.
Circular Pitch
It is the distance along the pitch circle circumference between the corresponding
points on the consecutive teeth. It is shown in Figure 3.26.
Top Land
Face Width
Face
Addendum Addendu
Circle Circular Pitch mm
Space Tooth Flank
Pitch Circle Width Thicknes
Working
s Depth

Dedendum
Bottom Land
Clearance

Dedendum
(Root) Circle

Figure 3.26 : Gear Terminology

If d is diameter of the pitch circle and ‘T’ be number of teeth, the circular pitch
(pc) is given by
d
pc  . . . (3.14)
T
Diamental Pitch
It is defined as the number of teeth per unit pitch circle diameter. Therefore,
diamental pitch (pd) can be expressed as
T
pd  . . . (3.15)
d
From Eqs. (3.14) and (3.15)
d 
pc  
T pd
d
or, pc pd   . . . (3.16)
99
Theory of Machines Module
It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter to the number of teeth. Therefore, the
module (m) can be expressed as
d
m . . . (3.17)
T
From Eqs. (8.14)
pc   m . . . (3.18)
Addendum Circle and Addendum
It is the circle passing through the tips of gear teeth and addendum is the radial
distance between pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum Circle and Dedendum
It is the circle passing through the roots of the teeth and the dedendum is the radial
distance between root circle and pitch circle.
Full Depth of Teeth and Working Depth
Full depth is sum of addendum and dedendum and working depth is sum of
addendums of the two gears which are in mesh.
Tooth Thickness and Space Width
Tooth thickness is the thickness of tooth measured along the pitch circle and space
width is the space between two consecutive teeth measured along the pitch circle.
They are equal to each other and measure half of circular pitch.
Top Land and Bottom Land
Top land is the top surface of the tooth and the bottom land is the bottom surface
between the adjacent fillets.
Face and Flank
Tooth surface between the pitch surface and the top land is called face whereas
flank is tooth surface between pitch surface and the bottom land.
Pressure Line and Pressure Angle
The driving tooth exerts a force on the driven tooth along the common normal.
This line is called pressure line. The angle between the pressure line and the
common tangent to the pitch circles is known as pressure angle.
Path of Contact
The path of contact is the locus of a point of contact of two mating teeth from the
beginning of engagement to the end of engagement.
Arc of Approach and Arc of Recess
Arc of approach is the locus of a point on the pitch circle from the beginning of
engagement to the pitch point. The arc of recess is the locus of a point from pitch
point upto the end of engagement of two mating gears.
Arc of Contact
It is the locus of a point on the pitch circle from the beginning of engagement to
the end of engagement of two mating gears.
Arc of Contact = Arc of Approach + Arc of Recess
Angle of Action
It is the angle turned by a gear from beginning of engagement to the end of
engagement of a pair of teeth.
Angle of action = Angle turned during arc of approach + Angle turned during arc
100 of recess
Contact Ratio Power Transmission
Devices
It is equal to the number of teeth in contact and it is the ratio of arc of contact to
the circular pitch. It is also equal to the ratio of angle of action to pitch angle.
Pitch
Circle
Dedendum
Circle

B F

Path of
Contact

Angle of P
Action

Drivers

C
A
E

Dedendum
Circle
Base Pitch
Circle Circle

Ψ
Pressure
Angle
Figure 3.27 : Gear Terminology

3.8 GEAR TRAIN

A gear train is combination of gears that is used for transmitting motion from one shaft
to another.
There are several types of gear trains. In some cases, the axes of rotation of the gears are
fixed in space. In one case, gears revolve about axes which are not fixed in space.
3.8.1 Simple Gear Train
In this gear train, there are series of gears which are capable of receiving and
transmitting motion from one gear to another. They may mesh externally or internally.
Each gear rotates about separate axis fixed to the frame. Figure 3.28 shows two gears in
external meshing and internal meshing.
Let t1, t2 be number of teeth on gears 1 and 2.
2

1 2

1
+ +
P

(a) External Meshing (b) Internal Meshing

Figure 3.28 : Simple Gear Train 101
Theory of Machines Let N1, N2 be speed in rpm for gears 1 and 2. The velocity of P,
2 N1 d1 2 N 2 d 2
VP  
60 60
N1 d 2 t2
  
N 2 d1 t1
Referring Figure 3.28, the two meshing gears in external meshing rotate in opposite
sense whereas in internal meshing they rotate in same sense. In simple gear train, there
can be more than two gears also as shown in Figure 3.29.
4
2
1
3

Figure 3.29 : Gear Train

Let N1, N2, N3, . . . be speed in rpm of gears 1, 2, 3, . . . etc., and t1, t2, t3, . . . be number
of teeth of respective gears 1, 2, 3, . . . , etc.
In this gear train, gear 1 is input gear, gear 4 is output gear and gears 2, 3 are
intermediate gears. The gear ratio of the gear train is give by
N1 N N N
Gear Ratio   1  2  3
N 4 N 2 N3 N 4

N1 t2 N 2 t3 N t
 ;  and 3  4
N 2 t1 N3 t2 N 4 t3

N1 t2 t3 t4 t4
Therefore,    
N 4 t1 t2 t3 t1
This expression indicates that the intermediate gears have no effect on gear ratio. These
intermediate gears fill the space between input and output gears and have effect on the
sense of rotation of output gear.
SAQ 8
(a) There are six gears meshing externally and input gear is rotating in
clockwise sense. Determine sense of rotation of the output gear.
(b) Determine sense of rotation of output gear in relation to input gear if a
simple gear train has four gears in which gears 2 and 3 mesh internally
whereas other gears have external meshing.

3.8.2 Compound Gear Train

In this type of gear train, at least two gears are mounted on the same shaft and they rotate
at the same speed. This gear train is shown in Figure 3.30 where gears 2 and 3 are
mounted on same shaft and they rotate at the same speed, i.e.
N2  N3
102
 2 Power Transmission
4 Devices
1
3

Figure 3.30 : Compound Gear Train

Let N1, N2, N3, . . . be speed in rpm of gears 1, 2, 3, . . . , etc. and t1, t2, t3, . . . , etc. be
number of teeth of respective gears 1, 2, 3, . . . , etc.
N1 N N N N
Gear Ratio   1  2  1  3
N4 N2 N4 N2 N4
t2 t4
 
t1 t3
Therefore, unlike simple gear train the gear ratio is contributed by all the gears. This
gear train is used in conventional automobile gear box.
Conventional Automobile Gear Box
A conventional gear box of an automobile uses compound gear train. For different
gear engagement, it may use sliding mesh arrangement, constant mesh
arrangement or synchromesh arrangement. Discussion of these arrangements is
beyond the scope of this course. We shall restrict ourselves to the gear train. It can
be explained better with the help of an example.
Example 3.1
A sliding mesh type gear box with four forward speeds has following gear ratios :
Top gear = 1
Third gear = 1.38
Second gear = 2.24
First gear = 4
Determine number of teeth on various gears. The minimum number of teeth on the
pinion should not be less than 18. The gear box should have minimum size and
variation in the ratios should be as small as possible.
Solution
The gears in the gear box are shown in Figure 3.31 below :
Main Splined
Engine Shaft Shaft
Dog (Output Shaft)
Input Shaft Clutch

C G
A
E

H
F
D
B
Lay
Shaft

Figure 3.31 : Conventional Gear Box 103

Theory of Machines For providing first gear ratio, gear A meshes with gear B and gear H meshes with
gear G.
Speed of engine shaft
First gear ratio =
Speed of output shaft

NA N N N N
  A  H  A H
NG N H N G N B NG
[i.e. NB = NH]
t B tG
 
t A tH

t B tG
For smallest size of gear box  
t A tH

t B tG
   4.0  2.0
t A tH

If tA = 20 teeth  tH = 20
 tB = 2  20 = 40 teeth and tG = 20  2 = 40 teeth
Since centre distance should be same
 t A  tB  tC  tD  tE  tF  tH  tG
tC  tD  40  20  60 . . . (3.19)
tE  tF  60 . . . (3.20)
For second gear, gear A meshes with gear B and gear E meshes with gear F.
NA
  2.24
NG

N A NF
or,   2.24
NB NE

tB tE
   2.24
t A tF

tF
or, 2  2.24
tG

t E 2.24
or,   1.12 . . . (3.21)
tF 2
From Eqs. (10.2) and (10.3)
1.12 tF  tF  60

60
or, tF   28.3  tE  60  tF
2.12
or, tE  60  28.3  31.7
Since number of teeth have to be in full number. Therefore, tF can be either 28 or
29 and tE can be either 31 or 32. If tF = 28 and tE = 32.
t A tE 40 32
Second gear ratio      2.286
tB tF 20 28
104
 If tF = 29 and tE = 31. Power Transmission
Devices
40 31
Second gear ratio    2.138
20 29
From these two values of gear ratios, 2.286 is closer to 2.24 than 2.138.
For third gear, gear A meshes with gear B and gear D meshes with gear C.
NA
  1.38
NC

N A ND
or,   1.38
N B NC

t B tC
or,   1.38
t A tD

40 tC
or,   1.38
20 t D

tC
2  1.38
tD

tC 1.38
or,   0.69 . . . (3.22)
tD 2

From Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20)

tC = 0.69 tD
tD + 0.69 tD = 60
60
or, tD   35.503
1.69
 tC  60  tD  60.35.503  24.497

Either tC = 24 and tD = 36 or tC = 25 and tD = 35.

If tC = 25 and tD = 35.
t B tC 40 25
Third gear ratio      1.4286
t A t D 20 35

If tC = 24 and tD = 36
40 24
Third gear ratio    1.333
20 36
Since 1.333 is closer to 1.38 as compared to 1.4286.
Therefore, tC = 24 and tD = 36
The top gear requires direct connection between input shaft and output shaft.

3.8.3 Power Transmitted by Simple Spur Gear

When power is bring transmitted by a spur gear, tooth load Fn acts normal to the profile.
It can be resolved into two components Fn cos  and Fn sin . Fn cos  acts tangentially
to the pitch circle and it is responsible for transmission of power
 Power transmitted (P) = Fn cos  . V
where V is pitch line velocity. 105
Theory of Machines 2 N tm
Since V  
60 2
2 N tm
 P  Fn cos   
60 2
where t is number of teeth and m is module.
Fn

Pressure
angle 

Figure 3.32

Example 3.2
An open flat belt drive is required to transmit 20 kW. The diameter of one of the
pulleys is 150 cm having speed equal to 300 rpm. The minimum angle of contact
may be taken as 170o. The permissible stress in the belt may be taken as
300 N/cm2. The coefficient of friction between belt and pulley surface is 0.3.
Determine
(a) width of the belt neglecting effect of centrifugal tension for belt
thickness equal to 8 mm.
(b) width of belt considering the effect of centrifugal tension for the
thickness equal to that in (a). The density of the belt material
is 1.0 gm/cm3.
Solution
Given that Power transmitted (p) = 20 kW
Diameter of pulley (d) = 150 cm = 1.5 m
Speed of the belt (N) = 300 rpm
170
Angle of lap ()  170o    2.387 radian
180
Coefficient of friction () = 0.3
Permissible stress () = 300 N/cm2
(a) Thickness of the belt (t) = 8 mm = 0.8 cm
Let higher tension be ‘T1’ and lower tension be ‘T2’.
T1
  e   e0.3  2.387  2.53
T2

106 The maximum tension ‘T1’ is controlled by the permissible stress.

 b Power Transmission
T1   b t  300   0.8  24b N Devices
10
Here b is in mm
T1 24b
Therefore, T2   N
2.53 2.53
2 N d 2  300 1.5
Velocity of belt V      23.5 m/s
60 2 60 2
 24b  23.5
 Power transmitted p  (T1  T2 ) V   24b   kW
 2.53  1000

 1  23.5 347.3b
 24b 1   
 2.53  1000 1000
Since P = 20 kW
347.3b
  20
1000
20  1000
or, b  36.4 mm
347.3
(b) The density of the belt material  = 1 gm/cm3
Mass of the belt material/length, m =  b t  1 metre
1 b
   0.8  100  0.8  10 2 b kg/m
1000 10

 8b  10 3 kg/m
 Centrifugal tension ‘TC’ = m V2

or, TC  8b  10 3  (23.5)2 = 4.418b N

Maximum tension (Tmax) = 24b N
 T1  Tmax  TC  24b  4.418b  19.58b

 1 
Power transmitted P  T1 1     V
 e 

 1  23.5 460.177b
 19.58b 1   
 2.53  1000 1000
Also P = 20 kW
460.177b
  20
1000
or, b = 45.4 mm
The effect of the centrifugal tension increases the width of the belt required.
Example 3.3
An open belt drive is required to transmit 15 kW from a motor running at 740 rpm.
The diameter of the motor pulley is 30 cm. The driven pulley runs at 300 rpm and
is mounted on a shaft which is 3 metres away from the driving shaft. Density of
the leather belt is 0.1 gm/cm3. Allowable stress for the belt material is 250 N/cm2.
If coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley is 0.3, determine width of the
belt required. The thickness of the belt is 9.75 mm.
107
Theory of Machines Solution
Given data :
Power transmitted (P) = 15 kW
Speed of motor pulley (N1) = 740 rpm
Diameter of motor pulley (d1) = 30 cm
Speed of driven pulley (N2) = 300 rpm
Distance between shaft axes (C) = 3 m
Density of the belt material () = 0.1 gm/cm3
Allowable stress () = 250 N/cm2
Coefficient of friction () = 0.3
Let the diameter of the driven pulley be ‘d2’
 N1 d1 = N2 d2
N1 d1 740  30
 d2    74 cm
N2 300

d 2  d1 74  30
sin      sin 1
2C 2  300

or,  = 0.0734 radian

    2  2.94 rad

Mass of belt ‘m’ =  b t  one metre length

0.1 b 9.75
    100
1000 10 10
where ‘b’ is width of the belt in ‘mm’

or, m  0.975  10 3 b kg/m

b 9.75
Tmax  250    24.375 b N
10 10
Active tension ‘T’ = Tmax – TC
2 N1 d1
Velocity of belt V 
60 2
  740 30
 
60 100
or, V = 11.62 m/s

TC  m V 2  0.975  10 3 b  (11.62)2

= 0.132 b N
 T1  24.375 b  0.132 b  24.243 b

 1 
Power transmitted P  T1 1     V
108  e 
 e   e0.3  2.94  2.47
Power Transmission
Devices

 1  11.62 165 b
P  24.243 1   
 2.47  1000 1000

165 b
  15 or b  91 mm
100
Example 3.4
An open belt drive has two pulleys having diameters 1.2 m and 0.5 m. The pulley
shafts are parallel to each other with axes 4 m apart. The mass of the belt is 1 kg
per metre length. The tension is not allowed to exceed 2000 N. The larger pulley
is driving pulley and it rotates at 200 rpm. Speed of the driven pulley is 450 rpm
due to the belt slip. The coefficient of the friction is 0.3. Determine
(a) power transmitted,
(b) power lost in friction, and
(c) efficiency of the drive.
Solution
Data given :
Diameter of driver pulley (d1) = 1.2 m
Diameter of driven pulley (d2) = 0.5 m
Centre distance (C) = 4 m
Mass of belt (m) = 1 kg/m
Maximum tension (Tmax) = 2000 N
Speed of driver pulley (N1) = 200 rpm
Speed of driven pulley (N2) = 450 rpm
Coefficient of friction () = 0.3
2 N1 2  200
(a) 1    20.93 r/s
60 60
2 N2 2 450
2    47.1 r/s
60 60
1.2
Velocity of the belt (V)  20.93   12.56 m/s
2
Centrifugal tension (TC) = m V2 = 1  (12.56)2 = 157.75 N
Active tension on tight side (T1) = Tmax – TC
or, T1 = 2000 – 157.75 = 1842.25 N
d1  d2 1.2  0.5
sin     0.0875
2C 24

or,  = 5.015o

  180  2  180  2  5.015  169.985o

169.985
T1 0.3 
or,  e   e 180  2.43
T2
109
Theory of Machines  1 
Power transmitted ( P)  T1 1    12.56
 2.43 

 1  12.56
 1842.25 1   kW
 2.43  1000
= 13.67 kW

 1  2 d2
(b) Power output  T1 1   W
 2.43  2

 1  47.1  0.5
 1842.25 1    12.2 kW
 2.43  2  1000

 Power lost in friction = 13.67 – 12.2 = 1.47 kW

Power transmitted 12.2
(c) Efficiency of the drive    0.89 or 89% .
Power input 13.67

Example 3.5
A leather belt is mounted on two pulleys. The larger pulley has diameter equal to
1.2 m and rotates at speed equal to 25 rad/s. The angle of lap is 150o. The
maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1200 N. The coefficient of friction
between the belt and pulley is 0.25. Determine the maximum power which can be
transmitted by the belt if initial tension in the belt lies between 800 N and 960 N.
Solution
Given data :
Diameter of larger pulley (d1) = 1.2 m
Speed of larger pulley 1 = 25 rad/s
Speed of smaller pulley 2 = 50 rad/s
Angle of lap () = 150o
Initial tension (T0) = 800 to 960 N
Let the effect of centrifugal tension be negligible.
The maximum tension (T1) = 1200 N
150
T1 0.25  
 e   e 180  1.924
T2

T1 1200
T2    623.6 N
1.924 1.924
T1  T2 1200  623.6
T0    911.8 N
2 2
Maximum power transmitted (Pmax) = (T1 – T2) V
d1 1.2
Velocity of belt (V)  1   25
2 2
V = 15 m/s
 Pmax  (1200  623.6) V  (1200  623.6) 15
 8646 W or 8.646 kW
110
Example 3.6 Power Transmission
Devices
A shaft carries pulley of 100 cm diameter which rotates at 500 rpm. The ropes
drive another pulley with a speed reduction of 2 : 1. The drive transmits 190 kW.
The groove angle is 40o. The distance between pulley centers is 2.0 m. The
coefficient of friction between ropes and pulley is 0.20. The rope weighs
0.12 kg/m. The allowable stress for the rope is 175 N/cm2. The initial tension in
the rope is limited to 800 N. Determine :
(a) number of ropes and rope diameter, and
(b) length of each rope.
Solution
Given data :
Diameter of driving pulley (d1) = 100 cm = 1 m
Speed of the driving pulley (N1) = 500 rpm
Speed of the driven pulley (N2) = 250 rpm
Power transmitted (P) = 190 kW
Groove angle () = 40o
Centre distance (C) = 2 m
Coefficient of friction () = 0.2
Mass of rope = 0.12 kg/m
Allowable stress () = 175 N/cm2
Initial tension (T0) = 800 N
 d1 N1   1  500
The velocity of rope    26.18 m/s
60 60
Centrifugal tension (TC) = 0.12 (26.18)2 = 82.25 N
(d2  d1 ) 2  1
sin     0.25
2C 22

or,  = sin 0.25– 1 = 14.18

 Angle of lap () =   2 = 151o or 2.636 radian
0.2  2.636
T1 sin 20o
 e  4.67
T2
or, T1 = 4.67 T2
T1  T2  2TC
Initial tension (T0)   800
2
 T1  T2  1600  2  82.25  1600  164.5  1435.5 N
 4.67 T2  T2  1435.5
or, T2 = 253.1 N
 T1 = 4.67 T2 = 1182.0 N
V 26.18
 P  (T1  T2 )  (1182.0  253.1)   24.32 kW
1000 1000
190
Numbers of ropes required (n)   7.81 or say 8 ropes,
24.32
111
Theory of Machines Maximum tension (Tmax) = T1 + TC
= 1182 + 82.25 = 1264.25 N
 2
Tmax  d   1264.25
4
1264.25  4
or, d2   9.2
  175

or, d = 3.03 cm
This is open belt drive, therefore, formula for length of rope is given by

( R  r )2  1 Rr 
2
L   (R  r)   2C  1    
C  2  C  

d2 2 d 1
R   1 m, r  1   0.5 m
2 2 2 2

(1  0.5)2  1  1  0.5  
2
 L   (1  0.5)   2  2 1    
2  2  2  

0.25
 1.5   4 (1  0.5  0.0625)  8.72 m .
2

3.9 SUMMARY
The power transmission devices are belt drive, chain drive and gear drive. The belt drive
is used when distance between the shaft axes is large and there is no effect of slip on
power transmission. Chain drive is used for intermediate distance. Gear drive is used for
short centre distance. The gear drive and chain drive are positive drives but they are
comparatively costlier than belt drive.
Similarly, belt drive should satisfy law of belting otherwise it will slip to the side and
drive cannot be performed. When belt drive transmits power, one side will become tight
side and other side will become loose side. The ratio of tension depends on the angle of
lap and coefficient of friction. If coefficient of friction is same on both the pulleys
smaller angle of lap will be used in the formula. If coefficient of friction is different, the
minimum value of product of coefficient of friction and angle of lap will decide the ratio
of tension, i.e. power transmitted. Due to the mass of belt, centrifugal tension acts and
reduces power transmitted. For a given belt drive the power transmitted will be
maximum at a speed for which centrifugal tension is one third of maximum possible
tension.
The gears can be classified according to the layout of their shafts. For parallel shafts spur
or helical gears are used and bevel gears are uded for intersecting shafts. For skew shafts
when angle between the axes is 90o worm and worm gears are used. When distance
between the axes of shaft is larger and positive drive is required, chain drive is used. We
can see the use of chain drive in case of tanks, motorcycles, etc.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Spur Gears : They have straight teeth with teeth layout is
parallel to the axis of shaft.
Helical Gears : They have curved or straight teeth and its
112 inclination with shaft axis is called helix angle.
Herringbone Gears : It is a double helical gear having left and right Power Transmission
Devices
inclinations which meet at a common apex and
there is no groove in between them.
Bevel Gear : They have teeth radial to the point of intersection
of the shaft axes and they vary in cross-section
throughout their length.
Spiral Gears : They have curved teeth which are inclined to the
shaft axis. They are used for skew shafts.
Worm Gears : It is special case of spiral gears where angle
between axes of skew shafts is 90o.
Rack and Pinion : Rack is special case of a spur gear whose pitch
circle diameter is infinite and it meshes with a
pinion.
Hypoid Gears : These gears are approximations of hyperboloids
but they look like spiral gears.
Pitch Cylinders : A pair of gears in mesh can be replaced by a pair
of imaginary friction cylinders which by pure
rolling motion transmit the same motion as pair of
gears.
Pitch Diameter : It is diameter of pitch cylinders.
Circular Pitch : It is the distance between corresponding points of
the consecutive teeth along pitch cylinder.
Diametral Pitch : It is the ratio of number of teeth to the diameter of
the pitch cylinders.
Module : It is the ratio of diameter of pitch cylinder to the
number of teeth.
Addendum : It is the radial height of tooth above pitch cylinder.
Dedendum : It is the radial depth of tooth below pitch cylinder.
Pressure Angle : It is the angle between common tangent to the two
pitch cylinders and common normal at the point of
contact between teeth (pressure line).

3.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
Available in text.
SAQ 2
(a) Available in text.
(b) Available in text.
SAQ 3
(a) Available in text.
(b) Data given :
Speed of prime mover (N1) = 300 rpm
Speed of generator (N2) = 500 rpm
Diameter of driver pulley (d1) = 600 mm
Slip in the drive (s) = 3%
Thickness of belt (t) = 6 mm 113
Theory of Machines N 2 d1
If there is no slip  .
N1 d 2
If thickness of belt is appreciable and no slip
N 2 d1  t

N1 d 2  t
If thickness of belt is appreciable and slip is ‘S’ in the drive
N 2 d1  t  S 
 1  
N1 d 2  t  100 

500 600  6  3 
  1  
300 d2  t  100 

606
or, (d2  6)   300  0.97  352.692
500
or, d2  352.692  6  346.692 mm
SAQ 4
Available in text.
SAQ 5
Available in text.
SAQ 6
Available in text.
SAQ 7
Available in text.
SAQ 8
Available in text.

114
 Governors
UNIT 5 GOVERNORS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives

5.2 Classification of Governors

5.3 Gravity Controlled Centrifugal Governors
5.3.1 Watt Governor
5.3.2 Porter Governor

5.4 Spring Controlled Centrifugal Governors

5.5 Governor Effort and Power
5.6 Characteristics of Governors
5.7 Controlling Force and Stability of Spring Controlled Governors
5.8 Insensitiveness in the Governors
5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Words
5.11 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you studied flywheel which minimises fluctuations of speed within the
cycle but it cannot minimise fluctuations due to load variation. This means flywheel does
not exercise any control over mean speed of the engine. To minimise fluctuations in the
mean speed which may occur due to load variation, governor is used. The governor has
no influence over cyclic speed fluctuations but it controls the mean speed over a long
period during which load on the engine may vary.
When there is change in load, variation in speed also takes place then governor operates
a regulatory control and adjusts the fuel supply to maintain the mean speed nearly
constant. Therefore, the governor automatically regulates through linkages, the energy
supply to the engine as demanded by variation of load so that the engine speed is
maintained nearly constant.
Figure 5.1 shows an illustrative sketch of a governor along with linkages which regulates
the supply to the engine. The governor shaft is rotated by the engine. If load on the
engine increases the engine speed tends to reduce, as a result of which governor balls
move inwards. This causes sleeve to move downwards and this movement is transmitted
to the valve through linkages to increase the opening and, thereby, to increase the supply.
On the other hand, reduction in the load increases engine speed. As a result of which the
governor balls try to fly outwards. This causes an upward movement of the sleeve and it
reduces the supply. Thus, the energy input (fuel supply in IC engines, steam in steam
turbines, water in hydraulic turbines) is adjusted to the new load on the engine. Thus the
governor senses the change in speed and then regulates the supply. Due to this type of
action it is simple example of a mechanical feedback control system which senses the
output and regulates input accordingly. 137
Theory of Machines

FC FC

mg

Supply pipe
mg

Bell Crank
Lener

Engine
Pulley
Figure 5.1 : Governor and Linkages

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 classify governors,
 analyse different type of governors,
 know characteristics of governors,
 know stability of spring controlled governors, and
 compare different type of governors.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNORS

The broad classification of governor can be made depending on their operation.
(a) Centrifugal governors
(b) Inertia and flywheel governors
(c) Pickering governors.
Centrifugal Governors
In these governors, the change in centrifugal forces of the rotating masses due to
change in the speed of the engine is utilised for movement of the governor sleeve.
One of this type of governors is shown in Figure 5.1. These governors are
commonly used because of simplicity in operation.
Inertia and Flywheel Governors
In these governors, the inertia forces caused by the angular acceleration of the
engine shaft or flywheel by change in speed are utilised for the movement of the
balls. The movement of the balls is due to the rate of change of speed in stead of
change in speed itself as in case of centrifugal governors. Thus, these governors
are more sensitive than centrifugal governors.
Pickering Governors
This type of governor is used for driving a gramophone. As compared to the
centrifugal governors, the sleeve movement is very small. It controls the speed by
dissipating the excess kinetic energy. It is very simple in construction and can be
used for a small machine.
138
5.2.1 Types of Centrifugal Governors Governors

Depending on the construction these governors are of two types :

(a) Gravity controlled centrifugal governors, and
(b) Spring controlled centrifugal governors.
Gravity Controlled Centrifugal Governors
In this type of governors there is gravity force due to weight on the sleeve or
weight of sleeve itself which controls movement of the sleeve. These governors
are comparatively larger in size.
Spring Controlled Centrifugal Governors
In these governors, a helical spring or several springs are utilised to control the
movement of sleeve or balls. These governors are comparatively smaller in size.
SAQ 1
(a) Compare flywheel with governor.
(b) Which type of control the governor system is?
(c) Compare centrifugal governors with inertia governors.

5.3 GRAVITY CONTROLLED CENTRIFUGAL

GOVERNORS
There are three commonly used gravity controlled centrifugal governors :
(a) Watt governor
(b) Porter governor
(c) Proell governor
Watt governor does not carry dead weight at the sleeve. Porter governor and proell
governor have heavy dead weight at the sleeve. In porter governor balls are placed at the
junction of upper and lower arms. In case of proell governor the balls are placed at the
extension of lower arms. The sensitiveness of watt governor is poor at high speed and
this limits its field of application. Porter governor is more sensitive than watt governor.
The proell governor is most sensitive out of these three.
5.3.1 Watt Governor
This governor was used by James Watt in his steam engine. The spindle is driven by the
output shaft of the prime mover. The balls are mounted at the junction of the two arms.
The upper arms are connected to the spindle and lower arms are connected to the sleeve
as shown in Figure 5.2(a).

Ball Ball


Sleeve
h

 FC
mg

(a) (b)
139
Figure 5.2 : Watt Governor
Theory of Machines We ignore mass of the sleeve, upper and lower arms for simplicity of analysis. We can
ignore the friction also. The ball is subjected to the three forces which are centrifugal
force (Fc), weight (mg) and tension by upper arm (T). Taking moment about point O
(intersection of arm and spindle axis), we get
FC h  mg r  0

Since, FC  mr 2

 mr 2 h  mg r  0

g
or 2  . . . (5.1)
h
2 N

60
g  3600 894.56
 h  . . . (5.2)
4 N 2 2
N2
where ‘N’ is in rpm.
Figure 5.3 shows a graph between height ‘h’ and speed ‘N’ in rpm. At high speed the
change in height h is very small which indicates that the sensitiveness of the governor is
very poor at high speeds because of flatness of the curve at higher speeds.

0.8

0.6

h
0.6

0.4

0.2

300 400 500 600 700

Figure 5.3 : Graph between Height and Speed

SAQ 2
Why watt governor is very rarely used? Give reasons.

5.3.2 Porter Governor

A schematic diagram of the porter governor is shown in Figure 5.4(a). There are two sets
of arms. The top arms OA and OB connect balls to the hinge O. The hinge may be on the
spindle or slightly away. The lower arms support dead weight and connect balls also. All
of them rotate with the spindle. We can consider one-half of governor for equilibrium.
140
Let w be the weight of the ball, Governors

T1 and T2 be tension in upper and lower arms, respectively,

Fc be the centrifugal force,
r be the radius of rotation of the ball from axis, and
I is the instantaneous centre of the lower arm.
Taking moment of all forces acting on the ball about I and neglecting friction at the
sleeve, we get
W
FC  AD  w  ID  IC  0
2
w ID W  ID  DC 
or FC    
AD 2  AD 
W
or FC  w tan   (tan   tan )
2
w 2
FC   r
g

w 2 
 W  
tan   
  r  w tan  1  1  
g 
 2w  tan   

g  W 
or 2  tan  1  (1  K )  . . . (5.3)
r  2w 
tan 
where K
tan 

r
tan  
h
g  W 
 2  1  (1  K )  . . . (5.4)
h  2w 
O
O Arms
T1
Spindle 

h
Ball T1

A r
A B FC
A
 T2

Links Central
Load (w) w T2 
C
Sleeve
I
D
W
2 C
(a) (b)
Figure 5.4 : Porter Governor

If friction at the sleeve is f, the force at the sleeve should be replaced by W + f for rising
and by (W – f) for falling speed as friction apposes the motion of sleeve. Therefore, if the
friction at the sleeve is to be considered, W should be replaced by (W  f). The
expression in Eq. (5.4) becomes 141
Theory of Machines g  (W  f ) 
2  1  (1  K )  . . . (5.5)
h  2 w 
SAQ 3
In which respect Porter governor is better than Watt governor?

5.4 SPRING CONTROLLED CENTRIFUGAL

GOVERNORS
In these governors springs are used to counteract the centrifugal force. They can be
designed to operate at high speeds. They are comparatively smaller in size. Their speed
range can be changed by changing the initial setting of the spring. They can work with
inclined axis of rotation also. These governors may be very suitable for IC engines, etc.
The most commonly used spring controlled centrifugal governors are :
(a) Hartnell governor
(b) Wilson-Hartnell governor
(c) Hartung governor
5.4.1 Hartnell Governor
The Hartnell governor is shown in Figure 5.5. The two bell crank levers have been
provided which can have rotating motion about fulcrums O and O. One end of each bell
crank lever carries a ball and a roller at the end of other arm. The rollers make contact
with the sleeve. The frame is connected to the spindle. A helical spring is mounted
around the spindle between frame and sleeve. With the rotation of the spindle, all these
parts rotate.
With the increase of speed, the radius of rotation of the balls increases and the rollers lift
the sleeve against the spring force. With the decrease in speed, the sleeve moves
downwards. The movement of the sleeve are transferred to the throttle of the engine
through linkages.

Frame

Spring

Ball Ball
Collar
A
Bell crank
a
Lever

c O’
O
b
Fulcrum Roller

Sleeve
Spindle

142 Figure 5.5 : Hartnell Governor

Let r1 = Minimum radius of rotation of ball centre from spindle axis, in m, Governors

r2 = Maximum radius of rotation of ball centre from spindle axis, in m,

S1 = Spring force exerted on sleeve at minimum radius, in N,
S2 = Spring force exerted on sleeve at maximum radius, in N,
m = Mass of each ball, in kg,
M = Mass of sleeve, in kg,
N1 = Minimum speed of governor at minimum radius, in rpm,
N2 = Maximum speed of governor at maximum radius, in rpm,
1 and 2 = Corresponding minimum and maximum angular velocities, in r/s,

(FC)1 = Centrifugal force corresponding to minimum speed  m  12  r1 ,

(FC)2 = Centrifugal force corresponding to maximum speed  m  22  r2 ,

s = Stiffness of spring or the force required to compress the spring by one m,
r = Distance of fulcrum O from the governor axis or radius of rotation,
a = Length of ball arm of bell-crank lever, i.e. distance OA, and
b = Length of sleeve arm of bell-crank lever, i.e. distance OC.
Considering the position of the ball at radius ‘r1’, as shown in Figure 5.6(a) and taking
moments of all the forces about O
( Mg  S1 )
M 0  ( FC )1 a cos 1  mg a sin 1  b cos 1  0
2
( Mg  S1 ) b
or ( FC )1  mg tan 1    . . . (5.9)
2 a

r1 r2

A2
A’1 A1
A’2
(FC)1 (FC)2
mg mg

a
r
(Mg + S2)
2
2 C2
1
C’1 x2
O O’ 2
1 x1 (Mg + S1) C’2
b
2
Reaction C1
at fulcrum
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6

Considering the position of the ball at radius ‘r2’ as shown in Figure 5.6(b) and taking
the moments of all the forces about O
( Mg  S2 )
M 0  ( FC )2 a cos 2  mg a sin 2  b cos 2
2

( Mg  S2 ) b
or ( FC )2     mg tan 2 . . . (5.10)
2 a
143
Theory of Machines If 1 and 2 are very small and mass of the ball is negligible as compared to the spring
force, the terms mg tan 1 and mg tan 2 may be ignored.
( Mg  S1 )  b 
( FC )1    . . . (5.11)
2 a
( Mg  S2 ) b
and ( FC )2    . . . (5.12)
2 a
( S2  S1 )  b 
 ( FC )2  ( FC )1   
2 a
Total lift  ( x1  x2 ) (b 1  b 2 )
 b (1  2 )

 (r  r1 ) (r2  r )  b
b    (r2  r1 )
 a a  a
b
S2  S1  Total lift  s  (r2  r1 ) s
a
2
 b  (r  r )
 ( FC )2  ( FC )1    2 1 s
a 2
2
 a  ( FC )2  ( FC )1
or stiffness of spring ‘s’  2   . . . (5.13)
b (r2  r1 )
For ball radius ‘r’

 a   ( F )  ( FC )1 
2 2
 a  F  ( FC )1
s2  C 2   C 2 
b r  r1  b   (r2  r1 ) 
(r  r1 )
 FC  ( FC )1  {( FC )2  ( FC )1} . . . (5.14)
(r2  r1 )

SAQ 4
For IC engines, which type of governor you will prefer whether dead weight type
or spring controlled type? Give reasons.

5.5 GOVERNOR EFFORT AND POWER

Governor effort and power can be used to compare the effectiveness of different type of
governors.
Governor Effort
It is defined as the mean force exerted on the sleeve during a given change in
speed.
When governor speed is constant the net force at the sleeve is zero. When
governor speed increases, there will be a net force on the sleeve to move it
upwards and sleeve starts moving to the new equilibrium position where net force
becomes zero.
144
Governor Power Governors

It is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given change in speed. Therefore,
Power of governor = Governor effort  Displacement of sleeve
5.5.1 Determination of Governor Effort and Power
The effort and power of a Porter governor has been determined. The same principle can
be used for any other type of governor also.
O O


h h1

mg
w


(a) (b)
Figure 5.7

Figure 5.7 shows the two positions of a Porter governor.

Let N = Equilibrium speed corresponding to configuration shown in Figure 5.7(a),
W = Weight of sleeve in N,
h = Height of governor corresponding to speed N, and
c = A factor which when multiplied to equilibrium speed, gives the increase
in speed.
 Increased speed = Equilibrium speed + Increase of speed,
= N + c . N = (1 + c) N, and . . . (5.15)
h1 = Height of governor corresponding to increased speed (1 + c ) N.
The equilibrium position of the governor for the increased speed is shown in
Figure 5.7(b). In order to prevent the sleeve from rising when the increase of speed takes
place, a downward force will have to be exerted on the sleeve.
Let W1 = New weight of sleeve so that the rising of sleeve is prevented when the speed is
(1 + c) N. This means that W1 is the weight of sleeve when height of governor
is h.
 Downward force to be applied when the rising of sleeve is to be prevented when
speed increases from N to (1 + c) N = W1 – W.
When speed is N rpm and let the angles  and  are equal so that K = 1, the height h is
given by equation
wW  g
h  . . . (5.16)
 w   2 N  2
 
 60 
If the speed increases to (1 + c) N and height remains the same by increasing the load on
sleeve
 w  W1  g
h  . . . (5.17)
 w   2 (1  c) N 2
 
 60  145
Theory of Machines Equating the two values of h given by above equations, we get
{( w  W1 )}
wW 
(1  c)2

(w  W ) (1  c)2  w  W1

W1  (w  W ) (1  c)2  w

(W1  W )  (w  W ) (1  c)2  (w  W )

 (w  W ) {(1  c)2  1}

2c (w  W ) If c is very small . . . (5.18)

But W1 – W is the downward force which must be applied in order to prevent the sleeve
from rising when the increase of speed takes place. This is also the force exerted by the
governor on the sleeve when the speed changes from N to (1 + c) N. As the sleeve rises
to the new equilibrium position as shown in Figure 5.7(b), this force gradually
diminishes to zero. The mean force P exerted on the sleeve during the change of speed
from N to (1 + c) N is therefore given by
W1  W
P c (w  W ) . . . (5.19)
2
This is the governor effort.
If weight on the sleeve is not increased

wW  g
h1    . . . (5.20)
 w   2 (1  c) N 2
 
 60 
h  h1  2 x

h
 (1  c)2
h1

h
  1  (1  c)2  1 2c
h1

h  h1
or  2c
h1

2x
or  2c
h1

or x  c h1

 Governor power  Px  c2 h1 (w  W ) . . . . (5.21)

5.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNORS

Different governors can be compared on the basis of following characteristics :
Stability
A governor is said to be stable when there is one radius of rotation of the balls for
each speed which is within the speed range of the governor.
146
Sensitiveness Governors

The sensitiveness can be defined under the two situations :

(a) When the governor is considered as a single entity.
(b) When the governor is fitted in the prime mover and it is treated as
part of prime mover.
(a) A governor is said to be sensitive when there is larger displacement of the
sleeve due to a fractional change in speed. Smaller the change in speed of
the governor for a given displacement of the sleeve, the governor will be
more sensitive.
N
 Sensitiveness  . . . (5.22)
N1  N 2
(b) The smaller the change in speed from no load to the full load, the more
sensitive the governor will be. According to this definition, the
sensitiveness of the governor shall be determined by the ratio of speed range
to the mean speed. The smaller the ratio more sensitive the governor will be
N 2  N1 2( N 2  N1 )
 Sensitiveness   . . . (5.23)
N ( N 2  N1 )
where N2 – N1 = Speed range from no load to full load.
Isochronism
A governor is said to be isochronous if equilibrium speed is constant for all the
radii of rotation in the working range. Therefore, for an isochronous governor the
speed range is zero and this type of governor shall maintain constant speed.
Hunting
Whenever there is change in speed due to the change in load on the engine, the
sleeve moves towards the new position but because of inertia if overshoots the
desired position. Sleeve then moves back but again overshoots the desired position
due to inertia. This results in setting up of oscillations in engine speed. If the
frequency of fluctuations in engine speed coincides with the natural frequency of
oscillations of the governor, this results in increase of amplitude of oscillations
due to resonance. The governor, then, tends to intensity the speed variation instead
of controlling it. This phenomenon is known as hunting of the governor. Higher
the sensitiveness of the governor, the problem of hunting becomes more acute.

5.7 CONTROLLING FORCE AND STABILITY OF

SPRING CONTROLLED GOVERNORS
The resultant external force which controls the movement of the ball and acts along the
radial line towards the axis is called controlling force. This force acts at the centre of the
ball. It is equal and acts opposite to the direction of centrifugal force.
The controlling force ‘F’ = m 2 r.
2
F  2 N 
Or m 
r  60 
F
For controlling force diagram in which ‘F’ is plotted against radius ‘r’, represents
r
slope of the curve.
F
i.e.  tan   N 2 . . . (5.24)
r
Therefore, for a stable governor slope in controlling force diagram should increase with
the increase in speed. 147
Theory of Machines Stability of Spring-controlled Governors
Figure 5.8 shows the controlling force curves for stable, isochronous and unstable
spring controlled governors. The controlling force curve is approximately straight
line for spring controlled governors. As controlling force curve represents the
variation of controlling force ‘F’ with radius of rotation ‘r’, hence, straight line
equation can be,
F  ar  b; F  ar or F  ar  b . . . (5.25)

where a and b are constants. In the above equation b may be +ve, or –ve or zero.

Controlling Force Unstable F = ar + b

C
Isochronous F = ar
E

Stable F = ar – b

O
D Radius of Rotation

Figure 5.8 : Stability of Spring Controlled Governors

These three cases are as follows :
F
(a) We know that for a stable governor, the ratio must increase as r
r
increases. Hence the controlling force curve DE for a stable governor
must intersect the controlling force axis (i.e. y-axis) below the origin,
when produced. Then the equation of the curve will be of the form
F b
F  a . r  b or a . . . (5.26)
r r
F
As r increases increase and thereby tan  increases. Therefore,
r
this equation represents stable governor.
(b) If b in the above equation is zero then the controlling force curve OC
F
will pass through the origin. The ratio will be constant for all
r
radius of rotation and hence the governor will become isochronous.
Hence for isochronous, the equation will be
F
F  ar or  a  constant . . . (5.27)
r
(c) If b is positive, then controlling force curve AB will intersect the
controlling force axis (i.e. y-axis) above the origin. The equation of
the curve will be
F b
F  ar  b or a . . . (5.28)
r r
F
As r increases, speed increases, or tan  reduces. Hence this
r
equation cannot represent stable governor but unstable governor.
148
 Governors
5.8 INSENSITIVENESS IN THE GOVERNORS
The friction force at the sleeve gives rise to the insensitiveness in the governor. At any
given radius there will be two different speeds one being when sleeve moves up and
other when sleeve moves down. Figure 5.9 shows the controlling force diagram for such
a governor.

N’

Speed Increasing
N
Controlling Force

Speed Scale
N”
c

Speed Decreasing
D
A
O
Radius of Rotation

Figure 5.9 : Insensitiveness in the Governors

The corresponding three values of speeds for the same radius OA are :
(a) The speed N when there is no friction.
(b) The speed N when speed is increasing or sleeve is on the verge of moving
up, and
(c) The speed N when speed is decreasing or sleeve on the verge of moving
down.
This means that, when radius is OA, the speed of rotation may vary between the limits
N and N, without causing any displacement of the governor sleeve. The governor is
said to be insensitive over this range of speed. Therefore,

 N   N  
 Coefficient of insensitiveness    . . . (5.29)
 N 
Example 5.1
The arms of a Porter governor are 25 cm long and pivoted on the governor axis.
The mass of each ball is 5 kg and mass on central load of the sleeve is 30 kg. The
radius of rotation of balls is 15 cm when the sleeve begins to rise and reaches a
value of 20 cm for the maximum speed. Determine speed range.
Solution
Given data : Ball weight ‘w’ = 5 g N
Central load ‘W’ = 30 g N
Arm length ‘l’ = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Minimum radius ‘r1’ = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Maximum radius ‘r2’ = 20 cm = 0.2 m

Height ' h1 '  l 2  r12  0.252  0.152  0.2 m

For k = 1.
149
Theory of Machines

l h

Fc
r

W
l
w
2
Figure 5.10 : Figure for Example 5.1

Substituting values in Eq. (5.4)

g  W 
12  1  (1  1) 
0.2  2w 
9.81  30 g 
 1  
0.2  5g 

1  18.5297 r/s or N1  176.9 rpm

Height h2  0.252  0.22  0.15 m

9.81  30 g 
 22  1  
0.15  5g 

 2  29.396 r/s or N2  204.32 rpm

Speed range = N2 – N1 = 204.32 – 176.9 = 27.42 rpm.
Example 5.2
In a Hartnell governor the radius of rotation is 7 cm when speed is 500 rpm. At
this speed, ball arm is normal and sleeve is at mid position. The sleeve movement
is 2 cm with  5% of change in speed. The mass of sleeve is 6 kg and friction is
equivalent to 25 N at the sleeve. The mass of the ball is 2 kg. If ball arm and
sleeve arms are equal, find,
(a) Spring rate,
(b) Initial compression in the spring, and
(c) Governor effort and power for 1% change in the speed if there is no
friction.
Solution
Sleeve mass ‘M’ = 6 kg
Friction force ‘f’ = 25 N
Ball mass ‘m’ = 2 kg
ab
Minimum radius r1 = 7 cm – 1 = 6 cm
Maximum radius r2 = 7 cm + 1 = 8 cm
2  500
  52.36 r/s
60
Maximum speed = 10.05  = 1.05  52.36 = 54.98 r/s
Minimum speed = 0.95  = 0.95  52.36 = 49.74 r/s

150 Neglecting the effect of obliquity of arms.

 Governors
6 cm

FC
,

 8 cm
mg Mg + S2
O Fc
2 2

1
F
1 cm
mg 
2 1 cm
Mg + S1 
2 O 2

(a) (b)
Figure 5.11 : Figure for Example 5.2

At Minimum Radius
 Mg  S1  f 
FC1  a  b   or 2FC1  Mg  S1  f
 2 

Fc1  m 12 r1

 2  (49.74)2  0.06  2  6 g  S1  25

593.78  58.86  S1  25
Or S1  559.92 N
At Maximum Radius
2FC2  Mg  S2  f

Fc 2  m 22 r2

 2  (54.98)2  0.08  2  6 g  S2  25
Or S2  883.44 N
S2  S1
 Stiffness ‘s’ 
x
883.44  559.92

0.02
Or s  16175.81 N/m

559.92
Initial compression  S1 
16175.81
= 0.035 m or 3.5 cm
Governor Effort and Power
Mg  S2  f
FC 
2
Increased speed = 1.01  = 1.01  52.36 = 52.88 r/s
At r = 0.07; 2  2  (52.36)2  0.07 = 6 g + S
At increased speed, 2  2 (52.88)2  0.07 = 6 g + 2 P + S
where P is governor effort. 151
Theory of Machines
 2P  2  2  0.07 {(52.88)2  (52.36)2}
Or P = 7.66 N
Let the spring force corresponding to speed 52.88 r/s be S.
 2  2  (52.88)2  0.07  6g  S 

 (S   S )  2  2  0.07  {(52.88)2  (52.36)2 }

= 15.32 N
15.32
Sleeve lift for 1% change 
s
15.32
  9.47  10 4 m
16175.81
 Governor power  7.66  9.47  10 4

 7.25  10 3 Nm
Example 5.3
The controlling force diagram of a spring controlled governor is a straight line.
The weight of each governor ball is 40 N. The extreme radii of rotation of balls
are 10 cm and 17.5 cm. The corresponding controlling forces at these radii are
205 N and 400 N. Determine :
(a) the extreme equilibrium speeds of the governor, and
(b) the equilibrium speed and the coefficient of insensitivenss at a radius
of 15 cm. The friction of the mechanism is equivalent of 2.5 N at each
ball.
Solution
Weight of each ball ‘w’ = 40 N
r1 = 10 cm and r2 = 17.5 cm
FC1  205 N and FC2  400 N

Let FC  ar  b
when r1  10 cm  0.1 m and FC1  205 N
205 = b + 0.1 a
when r2  17.5 cm  0.175 m and FC2  400 N
400 = b + 0.175 a
 195  0.075 a  a  2600
 b  205  0.1  2600   55
 FC   55  2600 r
2
40  2 N1 
FC  205;  0.1  205 N
g  60 
(a) For

Or N1  214.1 rpm
For FC = 400; r = 0.175 m
2
40  2 N 2 
  0.175  400
g  60 

152 Or N2  226.1 rpm

 (b) FC = k N2 Governors

At radius r = 15 cm
FC  fb  k N 2

FC  fb  k N 2

( FC  fb )  ( FC  fb )  k ( N 2  N 2 )
Or 2 fb  k ( N   N ) ( N   N )
 2k ( N   N ) N
2 fb 2k ( N   N ) N 2 ( N   N )
 
FC k N2 N

( N   N ) 1 2 fb f
 Coefficient of insensitiveness     b
N 2 FC FC
At r = 0.15 m
FC   55  2600  0.15  335 N
2.5
 Coefficient of insensitiveness   7.46  10 3 Or 0.746%.
335

5.9 SUMMARY
The governors are control mechanisms and they work on the principle of feedback
control. Their basic function is to control the speed within limits when the load on the
prime mover changes. They have no control over the change is speed within the cycle.
The speed control within the cycle is done by the flywheel.
The governors are classified in three main categories that is centrifugal governors,
inertial governor and pickering governor. The use of the two later governors is very
limited and in most of the cases centrifugal governors are used. The centrifugal
governors are classified into two main categories, gravity controlled type and spring
loaded type.
The gravity controlled type of governors are larger in size and require more space as
compared to the spring controlled governors. This type of governors are two, i.e. Porter
governor and Proell governor. The spring controlled governors are : Hartnel governor,
Wilson-Hartnell governor and Hartung governor.
For comparing different type of governors, effort and power is used. They determine
whether a particular type of governor is suitable for a given situation or not. To
categorise a governor the characteristics can be used. It can be determined whether a
governor is stable or isochronous or it is prone to hunting. The friction at the sleeve
gives rise to the insensitiveness in the governor. At any particular radius, there shall be
two speeds due to the friction. Therefore, it is most desirable that the friction should be
as low as possible.
The stability of a spring controlled governor can be determined by drawing controlling
force diagram which should have intercept on the negative side of Y-axis.

5.10 KEY WORDS

Watt Governor : It is a type of governor which does not have load
on the sleeve.
Porter Governor : This is a type of governor which has dead weight
at the sleeve and balls are mounted at the hinge. 153
Theory of Machines Hartnell Governor
Governor Effort
Governor Power
Hunting of Governor
Controlling Force
5.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs
Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.
154
: It is a spring controlled governor in which balls
are mounted on the bell crank lever and sleeve is
loaded by spring force.
: It is the mean force exerted on the sleeve during a
given change of speed.
: It is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a
given change in speed.
: It can occur in governor when the fluctuations in
engine speed coincides the natural frequency of
oscillations of the governor. In that case governor
intensifies the speed variation instead of
controlling it.
: It is the resultant external force which controls the
movement of the ball and acts along the radial line
towards the axis.
 Braking System
UNIT 6 BRAKING SYSTEM
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives

6.2 Functions of Brakes

6.3 Principle of Vehicle Braking
6.4 Classification of Brakes
6.5 Short Notes on Miscellaneous Braking Systems
6.5.1 Air Brakes
6.5.2 Vacuum Brakes
6.5.3 Electric Brakes

6.6 Hydraulic Brakes

6.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Brakes
6.8 Construction and Working of Mechanical Brakes
6.9 Disc Brakes
6.10 Parking Brake or Emergency Brake
6.11 Bleeding of Brakes
6.12 Adjustment of Brakes
6.13 Summary
6.14 Key Words
6.15 Answers to SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Baking system is necessary in an automobile for stopping the vehicle. Brakes are applied
on the wheels to stop or to slow down the vehicle.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 ,
 ,
 , and
 .

6.2 FUNCTIONS OF VEHICLE BRAKING

There are two main functions of brakes :
(a) To slow down or stop the vehicle in the shortest possible time at the time of
need.
(b) To control the speed of vehicle at turns and also at the time of driving down
on a hill slope. 57
Automobile Engineering
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF VEHICLE BRAKING
Braking of a vehicle depends upon the static function that acts between tyres and road
surface. Brakes work on the following principle to stop the vehicle :
“The kinetic energy due to motion of the vehicle is dissipated in the form of heat energy
due to friction between moving parts (wheel or wheel drum) and stationary parts of
vehicle (brake shoes)”.
The heat energy so generate4d due to application of brakes is dissipated into air.
Brakes operate most effectively when they are applied in a manner so that wheels do not
lock completely but continue to roll without slipping on the surface of road.

6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES

On the Basis of Method of Actuation
(a) Foot brake (also called service brake) operated by foot pedal.
(b) Hand brake – it is also called parking brake operated by hand.
On the Basis of Mode of Operation
(a) Mechanical brakes
(b) Hydraulic brakes
(c) Air brakes
(d) Vacuum brakes
(e) Electric brakes.
On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels
(a) Front-wheel brakes
(b) Rear-wheel brakes.
On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact
(a) Internally – expanding brakes
(b) Externally – contracting brakes.

6.5 SHORT NOTES ON MISCELLANEOUS

BRAING SYSTEMS
6.5.1 Air Brakes
Air brakes are applied by the pressure of compressed air. Air pressure applies force on
brakes shoes through suitable linkages to operate brakes. An air compressor is used to
compress air. This compressor is run by engine power.
6.5.2 Vacuum Brakes
Vacuum brakes are a piston or a diaphragm operating in a cylinder. For application of
brakes one side of piston is subjected to atmospheric pressure while the other is applied
vacuum by exhausting air from this side. A force acts on the piston due to difference of
pressure. This force is used to operate brake through suitable linkages.
6.4.3 Electric Brakes
In electrical brakes an electromagnet is used to actuate a cam to expand the brake shoes.
The electromagnet is energized by the current flowing from the battery. When flow of
current is stopped the cam and brake shoes return to their original position and brakes
are disengaged. Electric brakes are not used in automobiles as service brakes.
58
 Braking System
6.6 HYDRAULIC BRAKES
The brakes which are actuated by the hydraulic pressure (pressure of a fluid) are called
hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic brakes are commonly used in the automobiles.
Principle
Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal’s law which states that “pressure
at a point in a fluid is equal in all directions in space”. According to this law when
pressure is applied on a fluid it travels equally in all directions so that uniform
braking action is applied on all four wheels.
Construction and Working of Hydraulic Brakes
When brake pedal in pressed, the force is transmitted to the brake shoes through a
liquid (link). The pedal force is multiplied and transmitted to all brake shoes by a
force transmission system. Figure 6.1 shows the system of hydraulic brake of a
four wheeler automobile. It consists of a master cylinder, four wheel cylinders and
pipes carrying a brake fluid from master cylinder to wheel cylinder.

Figure 6.1 : Hydraulic Brake

The master cylinder is connected to all the four-wheel cylinders by tubing or

piping. All cylinders and tubes are fitted with a fluid which acts as a link to
transmit pedal force from master cylinder to wheel cylinders.
Brake Fluid
The fluid filled in the hydraulic brake system is known as brake fluid. It is a
mixture of glycerine and alcohol or caster oil and some additives.
Master cylinder consists of a piston which is connected to peal through connecting
rod. The wheel cylinder consists of two pistons between which fluid is filled.
Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This drum is mounted on the
inner side of wheel. The drum revolves with the wheel. Two brake shoes which
are mounted inside the drum remain stationary. Heat and wear resistant brake
linings are fitted on the surface of the brake shoes.
Application of Brakes
When brake pedal is pressed to apply the brakes, the piston in the master cylinder
forces the brake fluid. This increases the pressure of fluid. This pressure is
transmitted in all the pipes and upto all wheel cylinders according to Pascal’s law.
This increased pressure forces out the two pistons in the wheel cylinders. These
pistons are connected to brake shoes. So, the brake shoes expand out against brake
drums. Due to friction between brake linings and drum, wheels slow down and
brakes are applied.
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Automobile Engineering As shown in Figure 6.2, two pipes carrying braked fluid are connected to front
wheel cylinders which may be same as rear wheel cylinders. The front wheels may
also have same type of brakes (drum brakes) as shown in the rear wheels. But, in
modern cars, there are disc brakes in the front wheels and drum brakes in the rear
wheels.

Figure 6.2 : Mechanical Brake (Internal Expanding Type)

Release of Brakes
When pedal is released, the piston of master cylinder returns to its original
position due to retractor spring provided in master cylinder. Thus, fluid pressure
drops to original value. The retractor spring provided in the wheel cylinders pulls
the brake shoes and contact between drum and brake linings is broken. Therefore,
brakes are released.

6.7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Advantages
(a) Equal braking action on all wheels.
(b) Increased braking force.
(c) Simple in construction.
(d) Low wear rate of brake linings.
(e) Flexibility of brake linings.
(f) Increased mechanical advantage.
Disadvantages
(a) Whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from brake linings.
(b) Presence of air inside the tubings ruins the whole system.

6.8 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF

MECHANICAL BRAKES
Internal expanding shoe brakes are most commonly used in automobiles. In an
automobile, the wheel is fitted on a wheel drum. The brake shoes come in contact with
inner surface of this drum to apply brakes.
The construction of internal expanding mechanical brake is shown in Figure 6.2. The
whole assembly consists of a pair of brake shoes along with brake linings, a retractor
spring two anchor pins a cam and a brake drum. Brake linings are fitted on outer surface
of each brake shoe. The brake shoes are hinged at one end by anchor pins. Other end of
brake shoe is operated by a cam to expand it out against brake drum. A retracting spring
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brings back shoes in their original position when brakes are not applied. The brake drum Braking System
closes inside it the whole mechanism to protect it from dust and first. A plate holds
whole assembly and fits to car axle. It acts as a base to fasten the brake shoes and other
operating mechanism.
How Brakes are Applied and Released
When brake pedal is pressed, the cam turns through brake linkages. Brake shoes
expand towards brake drum due to turning of cam. The brake linings, rub against
brake drum and therefore motion of wheels is stopped. The pedal force is
transmitted to the brake shoes through a mechanical linage. This mechanism also
multiplies the force to apply the brakes effectively.
When force on brake pedal is removed, the retractor spring brings back shoes in
original position and brakes are released.

6.9 DISC BRAKES

Modern motor cars are fitted with disc brakes instead of conventional drum type brakes.
In Santro car and Maruti-800, front wheels are provided with disc brakes whereas rear
wheel are provided with drum brakes. A disc brake consists of a rotating disc and two
friction pads which are actuated by hydraulic braking system as described earlier. The
friction pads remain free on each side of disc when brakes are no applied. They rub
against disc when brakes are applied to stop the vehicle. These brakes are applied in the
same manner as that of hydraulic brakes. But mechanism of stopping vehicle is different
than that of drum brakes.
Advantage of Disc Brakes
(a) Main advantage of disc brakes is their resistance to wear as the discs remain
cool even after repeated brake applications.
(b) Brake pads are easily replaceable.
(c) The condition of brake pads can be checked without much dismantling of
brake system.
Disadvantage of Disc Brakes
(a) More force is needed be applied as the brakes are not self emerging.
(b) Pad wear is more.
(c) Hand brakes are not effective if disc brakes are used in rear wheels also.
(Hand brakes are better with mechanical brakes).

6.10 PARKIG BRAKE OR EMERGENCY BRAKE

Parking brakes or emergency brakes are essentially mechanical brakes operated by hand.
These are used to prevent the motion of vehicle when parked at a place or when parked
on slopes. In cars, these brakes are generally attached to rear wheels. In this type, a cable
connects the hand lever to the brake. Brakes are applied by pulling the lever and released
by pushing a button (provided on lever) and pressing the lever down.

6.11 BLEEDING OF BRAKES

When air enters, into the brake system and any brake line is disconnected, bleeding of
brakes has to be done. Since air is compressible so any presence of air inside brake
lining does not allow to transmit brake force to apply brakes. Therefore, the system must
be free from presence of air. Bleeding is the process of removal of air from the braking
system.
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Automobile Engineering Bleeding Procedure
Following steps are followed for bleeding of brakes :
(a) Remove all dirt from the master cylinder filler plug. Then fill the
master cylinder upto lower edge of the filler neck by removing the
filler plug.
(b) Clean all the bleeding connections provided on all wheel cylinders.
(c) After this bleeder hose and fixture is connected to that wheel cylinder
which has longest brake line. The other rend of bleeder hose is placed
in a glass jar, and submerge this end in the brake fluid.
(d) How bleeder valve is opened by half to three quarter turn.
(e) Then press the foot pedal and allow it to return back slowly.
(f) This pumping action must be continued till all the air along with
some brake fluid comes out through bleeding hose.
(g) After this bleeding operation is carried out on all wheel cylinders.
This completes the bleeding operation. At the end master cylinder is
filled with brake fluid to required level.

6.12 ADJUSTMENT OF BRAKES

When pedal is pressed to apply brake, there should be atleast 1/2 inch free pedal
movement before breaking action starts. This may vary from company to company.
The brakes are adjusted as per the above mentioned recommendation before they are
ready to use. This is done by following a definite procedure.
(a) List the wheels by screw jack.
(b) Loosen the lock nut for the forward brake shoe and keep it in this position.
(c) Turn the eccentric with other wrench towards the front of automobile till
the brake shoe touches the drum.
(d) Release the eccentric while turning the wheel with one hand, till wheel
turns freely.
(e) Hold the eccentric in this position and tighter the lock nut.
(f) Repeat the same operation to adjust other shoe, but turn the eccentric in the
backward direction of the vehicle.
(g) Above procedure is repeated for all the four wheels.
SAQ 1
(a) Write the functions of brakes in an automobile.
(b) Explain the construction and working of mechanical brakes.
(c) Describe in brief the construction and working of hydraulic brakes.
(d) Write the advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic brakes.
(e) Write short notes on :
(i) Vacuum brakes,
(ii) Electrical brakes, and
(iii) Air brakes.

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SAQ 2 Braking System

(a) What are the functions of parking or emergency brakes?

(b) What do you mean by bleeding and adjustment of brakes?
(c) Describe the procedure of bleeding of brakes.
(d) Describe the procedure of adjustment of brakes.
(e) Why disc brakes are better than drum type brakes?

6.13 SUMMARY

6.14 KEY WORDS

6.15 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

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