Perret eee raat ta Itcan be used again and again throughout its! life. These are the energy resources which cannot be exhausted. It has low carbon emission and hence environment friendly. It is present in unlimited quantity Cost is low Renewable energy resources are pollution free. Life of resources is infinite Ithas high maintenance cost. ‘Large land area is required for the installation of its power plant. Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy ete. are the examples of renewable resources It cannot be used again and again because one day it will be exhausted They are the energy resources which can be exhausted one day. Ithas high carbon emission and hence not environment friendly It is present in limited quantity and vanishes one day Cost is high. The non-renewable energy resources are not pollution free Life of resources is finite and vanishes one day. It has low maintenance cost as compared with the renewable energy resources. Less land area is required for its power plant installation. Coal, petroleum, natural gases are the examples of non-renewable resourcesFossil fuels / Fossil fuels are natural resources formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals that lived millions of years go. Over geological time, these organic materials were buried under Tayers of sediment and subjected to heat and pressure, transforming them into energy-rich substances. Fossil fuels are considered non-renewable because they take millions of years to form and cannot be replenished within human timescales. The three primary types of fossil fuels are:Fossil fuels 1. Coal: Coal is a black or brownish sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon. It forms from the remains of plants that lived in swampy environments millions of years ago. The carbon-rich material -~—_ undergoes biochemical and geological processes to become coal. It is the most abundant fossil fuel and has been a significant energy source for electricity generation and industrial processes2» Fossil fuels 2. Oil (Petroleum): Petroleum is a liquid fossil fuel composed of hydrocarbons, which are organic compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms. It is formed from the remains of marine organisms such as plankton that lived in ancient oceans. Over time, the organic matter is transformed into crude oil through heat and pressure. Petroleum is a crucial resource used for transportation (in the form of gasoline and diesel), heating, and as a feedstock for the petrochemical industry. 3. Natural Gas: Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily methane (CH4). Like oil, it is formed from the remains of marine organisms, but the conditions and processes of its formation differ. Natural gas is often found in association with oil deposits or in separate gas fields. It is used for heating, electricity generation, and as a cleaner burning fuel compared to coal and oil.Biological Energy pore Biological Energy Sources: Biological energy sources are derived from living or recently living organisms and organic matter. These sMces are often considered renewable because they can be replenished over time Solar Energy Wind Energy Hydro Energy Wave Energy Geothermal Energy Tidal Energy ayeeneWind Energy Wind energy is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the power of the wind to generate electricity. It is one of the cleanest and most sustainable sources of energy available, Wind energy is primarily generated using wind turbines@y)hich are tall structures with large blades that rotate-when the wind blows. The kinetic energy of the moving air is converted into mechanical energy by the spinning blades, which then drives a generator to produce electricity. <—Rotor Blade peesWind Energy ‘A Wind farm is a collection of wind turbines strategically installed in a specific area to hamess the power of the wind for electricity generation. Wind farms are designed to efficiently capture and convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy on a larger scale. They play a significant role in the production of renewable energy and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change.a Wind Energy pee + Renewable and abundant resource. + Produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation. + Low operating costs once infrastructure is established. + Can be installed onshore or offshore, utilizing open spaces and coastal areas. + Contributes to energy independence and security. Demerits: + Intermittent energy source, dependent on wind availability. Visual and noise impacts on nearby communities. Initial high setup costs for wind turbines and infrastructure. Threatens wildlife, particularly birds and bats. + Transmission of electricity over long distances may be required.Hydro energy Hydro energy, also known as hydroelectric power, is a renewable and sustainable form of energy that harnesses the gravitational force of flowing or falling water to generate electricity. It is one of the oldest and most widely used sources of renewable energy globally. Hydro energy is primarily generated using hydroelectric power plants, which convert the kinetic energy of moving water into electrical energy. Inside a Hydropower Plant Reservoir dam Powerhouse TransformerHydro energy pee + Renewable and reliable source of energy. + Large-scale hydroelectric plants offer stable electricity generation. + Reservoirs created for hydroelectricity can provide water supply and irrigation. + No direct greenhouse gas emissions during operation. + Long lifespan of hydroelectric facilities. Demerits: + Disrupts natural river ecosystems and fish migration. + High upfront construction costs and environmental impact assessment. + Limited locations suitable for lange-s: projects. + Vulnerable to droughts affecting water flow. + Sediment buildup in reservoirs reduces capacity over time. le hydroelectricWave energy Wave energy is a renewable form of energy that harnesses the power of ocean waves to generate electricity. It is a promising technology that aims to utilize the constant and predictable motion of ocean waves to produce sustajgable energy. Wave energy is considered a clean cneray Arce since it does not emit greenhouse gases or other harmful pollutants during its operation.owc iN OWC Impulse turbine Impulse turbine ‘Wave crest/wiki/Wave_powerWave energy Merits: + Renewable energy source driven by ocean waves. * Low greenhouse gas emissions during operation. + Predictable wave pattems make energy generation more reliable. * Minimal visual impact when installed offshore. * Potential to coexist with other marine activities. Demerits: + Emerging technology with high upfront costs. + Environmental impacts on marine ecosystems during installation. + Variability in wave pattems affects consistent energy production. + Corrosion and maintenance challenges in harsh marine environments. + Limited deployment due to lack of standardized technologies.Geothermal Energy Geothermal Energy is a renewable and sustainable form of energy that harnesses the heat from the Earth's interior to generate electricity and provide heating @d cooling for various applications. It relies on the natural heat emanating from the Earth's core, which is a virtually limitless and constant source of energy. Geothermal energy is considered a clean and environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels as it produces minimal greenhouse gas emissions during its operation. Geothermal EnergyGeothermal Energy (pe Merits: + Renewable and constant energy source from the Earth's heat. + Minimal greenhouse gas emissions during operation. + Small land footprint, suitable for various geographic locations. + Provides baseload power for continuous electricity generation. + Geothermal fluids can be used for direct heating. Demerits: *+ Limited to specific geothermal reservoir locations. + High upfront exploration and drilling costs. + Potential for reservoir depletion over time. + Water usage and the release of gases from geothermal fluids. Seismic risks associated with geothermal operations.\Bseee Tidal Power Tidal Power Station Tidal power, also known as tidal energy, is a renewable form of energy that hamesses the natural rise and fall of ocean tides to generate electricity. Itisa @ type of hydropower that takes advantage of the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on Earth's oceans, causing regular tidal movements. Tidal power is considered a sustainable energy source as the tides are predictable and occur twice daily, making it a reliable and consistent form of renewable energy. X \yTidal Power pu Merits of Tid Power: + Renewable and predictable energy source based on tidal cycles. + No greenhouse gas emissions during electricity generation, making it environmentally friendly. + Relatively high energy density in specific locations with strong tides. + Provides a constant and reliable source of energy due to the predictable nature of tides. + Can complement other renewable energy sources, like wind and solar, in a balanced energy mixTidal Power per + Limited locations: Suitable tidal sites are geographically restricted to areas with significant tidal ranges or tidal currents. + High initial costs: Building tidal barrages or tidal stream systems can be capital-intensive. + Impact on marine ecosystems: Tidal barrages may disrupt tidal habitats and affect aquatic species’ movements. + Navigation interference: Tidal barrages might hinder ships and boats’ passage through estuaries or river mouths. + Technological challenges: Tidal__ power technology is still developing and requires further advancements for widespread adoption. ese a idal Power:A fluid may be defined as follows: “A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing.” or “A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing force.” A fluid has the following characteristics: 1. Ithas no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel 2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo a de- formation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied. A fluid may be classified as follows: A. () Liquid, (ii) Gas, (tii) Vapour. B. (i) Ideal fluids (ii) Real fluids.PROPERTIES OF FLUID pee DENSITY 1.4.1 Mass Density “The density aso known as mass density or speefe mass) of quid may be defined asthe mass peri voune () ara standard temperature and presse Kiss denoted by ph) Its units are kg/m’, ie, P a(t) 1.4.2 Weight Density ‘The weight density (also known as specific weight) is defined as the weight per unit volume at the standard temperature and pressure. Wis usually denoted by w. g 0.2) For the purposes of all calculations, relating to Hydraulics and hydraulic machines, the specific ‘weight of water is taken as follows: In SAL. Units w = 9.81 kNim? (or 9.81% 10 N/mm’) InMKS. Units: w = 1000 kgy/m? Itis defined as volume per unit mass of fluid. is denoted by v. ‘Mathematically, vol Hol 13) noe (13)SPECIFIC GRAVITY pee Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of a standard fluid. Its dimensionless and has no units. It is represented by S. For liquids, the standard fluid is pure water at 4°C. aa Spocificweightof liquid __ Wigit Spovfic avi = Srecitieweightof PUTEWOLET Wr Example 1.1. Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and specific gravity of aliquid having a volume of 6 m? and weight of 44 IN. Solution: Volume of the liquid = 6 m* Weight ofthe liquid = 44 kN pecitie weight, we = Meightoftiquid 44 «7.535 evn! (An Volumeofliquid = 6 ~ 7953 KN/m (Ans) Specific mass or mass density; p : © = = 2333x1000 g. 98) 147.5 kg/es® (Ans.) Specific volume, agg = 0.00134 msg (Ans.) Specific gravity, 8viscosity. Unique Viscosity (pass Viscosity may be defined as the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow. It is primarily due to cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, and as flow occurs, these effects appear as shearing stresses between the moving layers of fluid, An ideal fluid has no h can be classified as a perfectly ideal fluid. Mathematically ro ae Upper layer ay (Lower layer or a “ y t ata where, =Constnt of proportionality andisknown ascoaficlent of dmanteviscstyoronly | : ¢ = Rate of shear stress or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient, Solid boundary Fig. 1.1 Velocity variation near a solid boundary.TYPES OF FLOW IN CHANNELS The flow in channels is classified into the following types, depending upon the change in the depth of flow with respect to space and time: 1, Steady flow and unsteady flow 2. Uniform flow and non-uniform (or varied) 1@y 3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow 4, Subcritical flow, critical flow and supercritical flow. 16.2.1 Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow «© When the flow characteristics (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the flow rate at any cross-section) do not change with respect o time, the low in a channel i sid tobe stead. 2-0 a x _) H ematically, 2 = 0, 2° =0, or Mathematically, $= 0,5-=0, o1 where y, Vand Q are depth of flow, velocity and rate of flow respectively. @ The flow is said to be unsteady flow when these flow parameters vary with time, 2 a Mathematically, rf #0; 2 #0 or #0,Una 16.2.2 Uniform and Benes varied) Flow p low in a channel is said to be uni/9#n if the depth, slope, cross-section and velocity remain constant over a given length of the channel. icaly 2-0 2”. Mathematically, >= 0, 57 Uniform flows are possible only in prismatic channels only. A uniform flow may be either steady or unsteady, depending upon whether or not the discharge varies with time; unsteady uniform flow is rare in practice. Flow in a channel is said to be non-uniform (or varied) when the channel depth varies con- tinuously from one section to another. oy. Mathematically, 2 ¢ 0,2" 20 athematically, 7 # 0, 5 16.2.3 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow ‘The flow in the open channel may be characterised as laminar or turbulent depending upon the value of Reynolds number, defined as: Re om (16.1) where, I” = Average velocity of flow in the channel, and = Hydraulic radius (defined as the ratio of area of low to wetted perimeter) When Re < $00 flow is laminar Re > 2000 Alois turbulent 500 < Re<2000 flow is ransitional,16.2.4 Subseritical flow, Critical Flow and Supercritical Flow Since gravitational force is a predominant force in the case of channel flow, therefore Froude Vv a c depth of the lo channel respectively) is an important parameter for analysing open channel flows. Depending upon Froude number the channel flow may be characterised as: (i) When Fr<1 (or '< fg ): The flow is described as subcritical (or ranguil or streaming) (ii) When Fr= 1: The flow is said to be in a critical state. iii) When Fr > 1: The flow is said to be supercritical (or rapid or shooting or torrential) (where V and D are the mean velocity of flow and hydraul number, Fi peesContinuity equation Bernoulli's TheoremFORCE EXERTED BY A FLOWING FLUID ON A ney Whenever there is relative motion between a real fluid and a body, the fluid exerts a force on the body. The body exerts an equal and opposite force on the fluid. If the body is moving at a constant velocity in a stationary fluid, the fluid motion is unsteady, (@ause at a given point in space, the velocity changes with ime. However if the body is stationary and fluid flows at a constant velocity, itis steady motion. The magnitude of the force is same in both the cases. A body wholly immersed in a real fluid may be subjected to fllowing two kinds of forces due to relative motion between the body and the fluid (Fig. 14.1); these are: (i) Drag force. The component of force in the direction of flow body is called the drag force, Fy: (Giree stream) on a submerged (i Lift force. The component of force at right angles to the direction of flow is called the lift force, Fy, Airfoil Chora —F Fig. 14.1. Lift and drag on an airfll‘The contribution of shear stresses 10 the lift may be neglected since shear stresses are small ‘as compared to the pressure and act in direction roughly perpendicular to F,. For a body moving through a fluid of mass density p, at a uniform velocity U, the mathematical expression for the calculation of the drag and the ift may also be written as follows: 2 = ¢, Ale (143) 2 2 =o ee (144) Co-efficient of drag (dimensionless), Coefficient of lift (dimensionless), Density of fuid, U = Relative velocity of fluid wt. the body A = Some characteristic area — For calculating the drag force (Fp), usually the area A is taken as the area projected on the plane perpendicular to the relative motion of the fluid. — For calculating the lift force (F), the area 4 is taken as the projected area of the body on a plane at right angles to the direction of lift force. — In the case of airfoil, the projection is conventionally taken on the plane of the chord, ie.the area of the wing itself, independent of its inclination to the direction of flow. Area, (A) = Span (J) x mean chord (c) (14s) where, pues