COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A SEMINAR PRESENTATION IN ANIMAL HANDLING

AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY (ANA 402)
BY
GROUP 2
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN ANATOMY AND CELL BIOLOGY
FACULTY OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA.

DECEMBER,2023
 OUTLINE
● INTRODUCTION TO THE DIGESTIVE SYSYTEM
● PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
● FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
● EMBRYOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE MOUTH OF VERTEBRATES
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE PHARYNX OF
VERTEBRATES
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE OESOPHAGUS OF
VERTEBRATES
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE STOMACH OF
VERTEBRATES
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE SMALL INTESTINE OF
VERTEBRATES
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE LARGE INTESTINE OF
VERTEBRATES
● COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE RECTUM OF
INTRODUCTION
● The digestive system is a complex organ system within the
human body that carries out the process of breaking down
food into nutrients that can be utilized by the body and
discharge of undigested food
PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
● The digestive system is divided into two major parts. They
include;

● The Alimentary Canal, also known as the Gastrointestinal Tract,

is a long tube that extends from the mouth to the anus.
● It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines,
canal, rectum, and anus.

● The Accessory Organs that plays crucial roles in the process of

digestion.
● They include the salivary gland, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, and
appendix.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
● INGESTION; This is the process of taking in food through
the mouth, where it is broken down into smaller pieces by
chewing.

● DIGESTION; This is the breakdown of food into simpler

forms through the action of digestive enzymes.

● ABSORPTION; This is the process of absorbing digested

nutrients from the small intestine into the bloodstream.

● ASSILIMILATION; This is the process whereby body cells

makes use of the nutrients.
EMBRYOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
● During embryonic development, the digestive system forms
from the endoderm germ layer.
● It begins with the formation of the primitive gut tube, which
gives rise to the foregut, midgut and hindgut.
● The foregut develops into structures like the stomach, liver
and upper part of the small intestine.
● The midgut forms the lower part of the small intestine and
portions of the large intestine.
● The hindgut develops into the rest of the large intestine.
● Accessory organs like the liver, pancreas, and gall bladder
also develops.
● Blood vessels and the nervous system are established to
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE MOUTH OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● Fishes have jaws with various types of teeth, including sharp,
pointed, or flattened teeth, depending on their diet.
● The mouth of fishes are typically located on the anterior (front)
part of the head.
● Suction feeding is common in many fish species, where they
rapidly expand their oral cavity to create a vacuum for capturing
prey.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE MOUTH OF VERTEBRATES
● AMPHIBIANS
● The mouth of amphibians is located on the anterior part of the head.
● Many amphibians have relatively small mouth structures with small,
sharp teeth.
● Some amphibians, like frogs, have a long, sticky tongue that use to
catch prey
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE MOUTH OF VERTEBRATES
● REPTILES
● Reptiles exhibit diverse mouth structures depending on their diet
and feeding strategies.
● The mouth of reptiles is typically located on the anterior part of
the head.
● Most reptiles have well-developed jaws with various types of
teeth, including sharp, pointed teeth for capturing and tearing
prey.

.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE
MOUTH OF VERTEBRATES
● AVES
● Birds have beaks instead of jaws, which are adapted to their specific
feeding habits.
● The beak structure varies among bird species, ranging from short
and stout to long and slender.
● The mouth opening in birds is located at the tip of the beak.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE
MOUTH OF VERTEBRATES
● MAMMALS
● Mammals have a wide range of mouth structure reflecting their
diverse diets.
● Mammals teeth exhibit various forms, including incisors, canines,
premolars and molars adapted for different functions like cutting,
chewing, tearing or grinding.
● Mammals have well-developed jaw muscles that allow for
efficient chewing and processing of food.
● The mouth of mammals is located on the anterior part of the
head.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE PHARYNX OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCE (FISHES)
● The pharynx in fishes is a muscular structure located behind the
mouth.
● It serves as a passageway for food and water to enter the
esophagus.
● In some fish species, the pharynx may possess specialized
structures, such as gill rakers or pharyngeal teeth, which aid in
the processing of food.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE
PHARYNX OF VERTEBRATES
● AMPHIBIANS
● The pharynx in amphibians is located behind the oral cavity and serves as a
common passage for both food and air
● It connects the oral cavity to the esophagus and the respiratory system.
● Amphibians have a relatively simple pharynx compared to other groups, as
they do not possess specialized structures for food processing.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE PHARYNX OF
VERTEBRATES
● REPTILES
● The pharynx in reptiles is a muscular structure located behind
the oral cavity.
● It serves as a passage for food to enter the esophagus and air to
enter the respiratory system.
● Reptiles have a more developed pharynx compared to
amphibians, but it is still relatively simple without specialized
structures.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE
PHARYNX OF VERTEBRATES
● AVES (BIRDS)
● The pharynx in birds is located behind the oral cavity and serves as a
common passage for food and air.
● It connects the oral cavity to the esophagus and the respiratory system.
● Birds have a more complex pharynx compared to reptiles and amphibians,
with specialized structures like the syrinx, which is involved in vocalization.
THE PHARYNX OF
VERTEBRATES

● MAMMALS
● The pharynx in mammals is a muscular structure located behind
the oral cavity and nasal cavity.
● It serves as a passage for food to enter the esophagus and air to
enter the respiratory system.
● Mammals have a well-developed and complex pharynx which
includes structures like the uvula and tonsils.
NasalCavity

Palate

OralCavity

Lips
Tongue Pharynx
-Epiglottis
Jaw
-Larynxopening
intopharynx

Larynx Esophagus
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE OESOPHAGUS OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● The esophagus in fishes is a muscular tube that connects the
pharynx to the stomach.
● It varies in length and diameter depending on the species.
● In some fish species, the esophagus may possess specialized
structures, such as expandable regions or valves, to aid in
swallowing and prevent regurgitation.

● AMPHIBIANS
● The esophagus in amphibians is a relatively short muscular tube
that connects the pharynx to the stomach.
● It is lined with mucous-secreting cells to facilitate the passage of
food.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE OESOPHAGUS OF
VERTEBRATES
● REPTILES
● The esophagus in reptiles is a muscular tube that connects the
pharynx to the stomach.
● It varies in length and diameter depending on the species and
their feeding habits.
● In some reptiles, such as snakes, the esophagus can stretch
considerably to accommodate large prey.

● AVES (BIRDS)
● The esophagus is relatively long and can expand to
accommodate food storage in the crop.
● Birds often have a specialized structure called the crop, which is
an enlarged portion of the eosphagus where food can be
temporarily stored before digestion.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE OESOPHAGUS OF
VERTEBRATES
● MAAMMALS
● The esophagus in mammals varies in length and diameter
depending on the species.
● Mammalian esophagi typically have a sphincter at the junction
with the stomach to prevent reflux of stomach contents.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE STOMACH OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● The stomach in fishes varies sin structure and function
depending on the species and their feeding habits.
● In general, fish stomachs are relatively simple and may consist of
a single chamber.
● The stomach lining secretes enzymes and acids to aid in the
digestion of food.

● AMPHIBIANS
● The stomach in amphibians is typically a simple, j-shaped
structure.
● It consists of a single chamber and secretes digestive enzymes
and acids.
● Amphibian stomachs are relatively less specialized.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE STOMACH OF
VERTEBRATES
● REPTILES
● Reptile stomachs can have different shapes and may be divided
into chambers.
● Some reptiles, such as snakes, have elongated and highly
expandable stomachs to accommodate large prey.
● The stomach lining secretes digestive enzymes and acids to
break down food.

● AVES (BIRDS)
● The stomach in bird is divided into two parts: the glandular
proventriculus and the muscular gizzard (ventriculus).
● The proventriculus is where gastric juices and enzymes are
secreted for initial digestion.
● The gizzard is the part that contains small stones or grit, which
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE STOMACH OF
VERTEBRATES
● MAMMALS
● Mammalian stomachs are of two types; Ruminant which is a four chamber
stomach and the Non-ruminant which is a single chamber stomach.
● The non- ruminant stomach have different regions, including the cardiac, fundus,
body and pylorus.
● The stomach lining secretes gastric juices, including enzymes and acids, to
breakdown food.
● Mammalian may have specialized adaptions in the stomach, such as the
presence of a rumen in ruminant animals for fermentation of plant materials.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE SMALL INTESTINE OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● It is lined with finger-like projections called villi, which increase
the surface area for nutrient absorption.
● It is relatively short compared to other groups.

● AMPHIBIANS
● It is lined with villi to increase the surface area for nutrient
absorption.
● Amphibians may have adaptations to facilitate the absorption of
nutrients from a diverse diet, including both plant and animal
matter.

● REPTILES
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE SMALL INTESTINE OF
VERTEBRATES
● AVES (BIRDS)
● It is lined with numerous villi to maximize the surface area for
nutrient absorption.
● Birds have a specialized structure called the duodenal loop,
which aids in the digestion and absorption of nutrients.

● MAMMALS
● Mammals have various adaptations in the small intestine, such
as the presence of specialized cells and enzymes, to facilitate the
digestion and absorption of nutrients.
● It is divided into three parts; the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE LARGE INTESTINE OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● It follows the small intestine and is responsible for reabsorbing
water and electrolytes from the remaining undigested materials.
● Fishes typically lack a distinct separation between the small and
large intestine, and the transition is gradual.

● AMPHIBIANS
● Amphibians may have adaptations in the large intestine to
facilitate water conservation, especially in species that inhabit
arid environments.

● REPTILES
● Reptiles may have variations in the structure and length of the
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE LARGE INTESTINE OF
VERTEBRATES
● AVES (BIRDS)
● Birds have a specialized structure called the ceca, which is an
out pouching of the large intestine.
● The ceca may play a role in the fermentation of plant material in
herbivorous species.

● MAMMALS
● The large intestine in mammals is divided into several regions,
including the cecum, colon and rectum.
● The cecum is often more developed in herbivorous mammals
and plays a role in the fermentation of plant materials.
● It follows the small intestine and is involved in water and
electrolyte reabsorption, as well as the formation and storage of
feces.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE RECTUM OF VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● it follows the large intestine and is responsible for the storage of
fecal matter before elimination.

● AMPHIBIANS
● Amphibians may have adaptations in the rectum to facilitate
water conservation, especially in species that inhabit arid
environments.
● It follows the large intestine and is involved in the storage of fecal
matter.

● REPTILES
● Reptiles may have variations in the structure and length of the
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE RECTUM OF VERTEBRATES
● AVES (BIRDS)
● Birds have specialized structure called the cloaca, which is a
common chamber for the passage of feces, urine, and
reproductive products.

● MAMMALS
● It follows the large intestine and is involved in the storage of fecal
matter before elimination.
● The rectum in mammals typically ends with the anus, whish is
the opening through which feces are expelled from the body.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE ANAL CANAL OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● It follows the rectum and is responsible for the elimination of
fecal matter from the body.

● AMPHIBIANS
● Amphibians may have adaptations in the anal canal to facilitate
water conservation in species that inhabit arid environments.
● It follows the rectum and is involved in the elimination of fecal
matter.

● REPTILES
● Reptiles may have variations in the structure of the anal canal,
such as the presence of specialized structures or sphincters, to
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE ANAL CANAL OF
VERTEBRATES
● AVES (BIRDS)
● Birds have a specialized structure called the cloaca, which is a
common chamber for the passage of feces, urine, and
reproductive products.

● MAMMALS
● The anal canal in mammals typically ends with the anus, which is
the external opening through which feces are expelled from the
body.
● Mammals may have specialized structures and sphincters in the
anal canal to regulate the passage of feces and prevent
involuntary elimination.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE LIVER OF VERTEBRATES
● The comparative features of the liver of vertebrates includes
● The liver varies in size and shapes depending on the species of
the vertebrates
● It is typically a large organ located in the abdominal cavity.
● The liver performs numerous vital functions, including bile
production, detoxification, metabolism of nutrients, storage of
glycogen, synthesis of proteins, and production of clotting factors.
● Vertebrates have a gall bladder to store and concentrate bile
produced by the liver.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE PANCREAS OF
VERTEBRATES
● PISCES (FISHES)
● The pancreas in fishes is typically a diffuse organ composed of
scattered clusters of pancreatic cells throughout the mesentery

● AMPHIBIANS
● The pancreas in amphibians is usually a compact, elongated
organ located near the junction of the stomach and small
intestine.

● REPTILES
● The pancreas in reptiles is typically lobulated organ located near
the junction of the stomach and small intestine
COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF
THE PANCREAS OF
VERTEBRATES
● AVES (BIRDS)
● The pancreas in birds is typically a compact, elongated organ
located near the junction of the stomach and small intestine.

● MAMMALS
● The pancreas in mammals is a glandular organ composed of
both exocrine and endocrine tissues.
● The exocrine portion of the pancreas produces and secretes
digestive enzymes into the small intestine.
● The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of specialized
clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which produce and
secrete hormones like insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin into
the bloodstream.
 GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF
VERTEBRATES
COMPARATIVE PISCES AMPHIBIAN REPTILES AVES MAMMALS
FEATURES (FISH) S (BIRDS)

SALIVARY GLAND No No Yes No Yes

OESOPHAGUS Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth and

muscles muscles muscles muscles striated
muscles

STOMACH Some Monogastric Monogastri 2 Monogastric

lack / 1 c stomach polygastric
stomach

SMALL Relativel Long Long Relatively Relatively

INTESTINE y short long long and
highly coiled

LARGE Relativel Relatively Long Relatively Long and

INTESTINE y short short short complex

RECTUM Relativel Relatively Long Relatively Relatively

CONCLUSION
● In conclusion, the comparative features of vertebrates reflect
the evolutionary adaptations and physiological needs of each
group. While there are variations within each category and
among different species, understanding the comparative
anatomy of the digestive system provides valuable insights
into the diversity and functionality of these systems in
different organisms.