E-Notes PDF Unit-1 18052019090707AM

1 Current and Voltage Relations on a Transmission Line
1.1 Introduction
• A transmission line always has, series resistance, series inductive reactance and shunt
capacitive reactance.
• The resistance is dependent upon the material from which the conductor is made.
• The inductance is formed as the conductor is surrounded by the magnetic lines of force.
• The capacitance of the line is formed as the conductor is carrying current acts as a
capacitor with the earth which is always at lower potential then the conductor and the
air between them forms a dielectric medium.
• Thus, the performance of transmission lines is dependent upon these three line constants.
For instance, the voltage drop in the line depends upon the values of the above three line
constants. Similarly, the resistance of the transmission line conductors is the most
important cause of power loss in the line and determines the transmission efficiency.
1.2 Classification of overhead transmission lines

1. Short transmission lines: - upto 50 km – 80 km (<20 kV)
2. Medium transmission lines: - upto 80 km – 200 km (>20 kV - <100 kV)
3. Long transmission lines: - more than 150 km or 200 km (>100 kV)
1.3 Performance of transmission lines

While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is desirable to determine its voltage
regulation and transmission efficiency.
1. Voltage regulation: - When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage drop
in the line due to resistance and reactance of the line. The result is that receiving end
voltage VR is generally less than the sending voltage VS .
The Voltage drop (VS  VR ) in the line is expressed as a percentage of receiving end
voltage VR is called voltage regulation.
Mathematically
VS  VR
%Voltage Regulation  x100
VR
Obviously, it is desirable that the voltage regulation of transmission line should be low
i.e., the increase in load current should make very little difference in the receiving end
voltage.
2. Transmission efficiency: - The power obtained at receiving end of a transmission line is

generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance.
The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is known
as the transmission efficiency of line i.e.
Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 1

Receiving end power

%Transmission Efficency,  x100
Sending end power
V I cosR
 R R x100
VS IS cosS
VR IR cosR
 x100
VR IR cosR  losses
Where VR , I R and cosR are receiving end voltage, current and power factor while VS , I S
and cosS are sending end voltage, current and power factor.
1.4 Performance of single phase short transmission lines

• The capacitance of short lines is negligible and usually not considered. Therefore, only
resistance and inductance of the line are considered.
• The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line is shown in the fig. 1.1(a)
The vector diagram taking current as reference is shown in the fig 1.1(b).
• Here, the line resistance and inductance are shown as lumped or concentrated instead of
being distributed.
R XL
I
C
L VS IXL
VS VR O
A A IR B
D
VR
ΦR
ΦS I
O E D
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1 Short Transmission Line (a) Circuit and (b) Vector Diagram (Current as Reference)
I  load current
R  loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
X L  loop reactance
VR  receiving end voltage
cosR  receiving end power factor (lagging)
VS  sending end voltage
cosS  sending end power factor
(OC)2  (OD)2  (DC)2
 (OE + ED)2  (DB + BC)2
 (VR cosR  IR )2 + (VR sin R  IX L )2
VS  (VR cosR  IR )2 + (VR sin R  IX L )2

VS  VR
VR
OD
Sending end p.f., cosS 
OC
VR cosR  IR

VS
Power delivered =VR I cosR
VR I cosR
% Transmission Efficiency  x100
VS I cosS
VR I cosR
 x100
VR I cosR  losses
Losses =I 2R
Solution under complex notation. It is often convenient to make the line calculation in
complex notation.
Taking VR as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram is shown in the fig. 1.2(b). It is
clear that VS the phasor sum of VR and IZ
R XL
I
C
L
VS
VS VR O IZ
A ΦS
D α A IXL
O ΦR VR
IR
I B
(a) (b)
Figure 1.2 Short Transmission Line (a) Circuit and (b) Vector Diagram (Voltage as Reference)
VR  VR 0
 VR  j0
I  I   R (For lagging p.f.)
 I(cosR  j sin R )
Z  R  jX L
VS  VR  IZ
 (VR  j0)  I(cosR  j sin R )( R  jX L )
VS  VS S

VS  VR
VR
Sending end p.f.= cosS
Power delivered =VR I cosR
VR I cosR
% Transmission Efficiency  x100
VS I cosS
VR I cosR
 x100
VR I cosR  losses
Losses =I 2R
(Note: Voltage regulation and power are scalar quantities)
1.5 Performance of medium transmission line

• In short transmission line calculations, the effect of the line capacitance is neglected
because each line has smaller lengths and transmit power at relatively low voltages
(<20kV).
• As the length (usually >80 km) and voltage (usually >20 kV) of the line increases, the
capacitance gradually becomes of greater importance and cannot be neglected.
• The capacitance of the line is uniformly distributed over its entire length. However, to
make the calculations simple, the capacitance of the system is assumed to be divided up
in lumped or concentrated form of capacitors across the line at one or more points.
• The most common methods of representations of medium transmission lines are
1. End condenser method
2. Nominal T method
3. Nominal  method
1.5.1 End condenser method

IS IR
C
IC VS
IS Z
L ΦS
O α A ISXL
VS C VR
A O ΦR VR
D IS R
IS B
IR
IC
(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 End Condenser Method (a) Circuit and (b) Vector Diagram

• In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or concentrated at the receiving end
of the line as shown in fig. 1.3(a)
• This method of localizing the line capacitance at the load end overestimates the effect of
capacitance.
Taking VR as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram is shown in the fig. 1.3(b)
IR  load current per phase

R  resistance per phase
X L  inductive reactance per phase
C  capacitance per phase
X C  capactive reactance per phase
IC  capacitive current
Taking receiving end voltage VR as reference
VR  VR 0
 VR  j0
IR  IR   R
 IR (cosR  j sin R )
VR
IC  90
XC
 VRC 90
 jVRC
 jVR 2 fC
The sending end current I S is the vector summation of load current I R and capacitive current
IC i.e.
I S  I R  IC
 IR (cosR  j sin R )  j2 fCVR
 IR cosR  j( IR sin R  2 fCVR )
Voltage drop/phase = I S Z
 I S (R  jX L )
VS  VR  I S Z
 VR  I S (R  jX L )

VS  VR
VR
Power delivered / phase

 x100
Power delivered / phase + losses / phase
VR IR cosR
 x100
VR IR cosR  IS2R
Losses / phase = IS2R

Total losses = 3IS2R
(Note: Voltage regulation and power are scalar quantities)
1.5.2 Nominal T method

• In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle
point of the line.
• Half of the line resistance and reactance are lumped on the either side as shown in fig.
1.4(a). In this arrangement, full charging current flows over half the line.
Taking VR as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram is shown in the fig. 1.4(b)
R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2

IS IR
IC
L
VS C VC VR O
A
D
(a)
E
VS
/2
C I SZ ISXL/2
VC
α
ΦS
2 ISR/2 D
A I RZ/
O ΦR VR IRXL/2
IRR/2
IS B
IR
(b)
IC
Figure 1.4 Nominal T method (a) Circuit and (b) Vector Diagram


IC  capacitive current
VC  Voltage across capacitor C
VR  VR 0
 VR  j0
IR  IR   R
Z R X
 j L
2 2 2
Z
Voltage drop in half section= IR
2
Z
VC  VR  IR
2
R X 
 VR  IR (cosR  j sin R )  j L 
2 2 
VC
IC  90
XC
 VC C 90
 jVC C
 jVC 2 fC
I S  I R  IC
Z
Voltage drop other half section= I S
2
Z
VS  VC  I S
2
R X 
 VC  I S   j L 
2 2 

VS  VR
VR

 x100
VR IR cosR
 x100
2 R 2 R
VR IR cosR  IS  IR
2 2
R 2R
Losses / phase = IS2 I
2 R2
 R R
Total losses = 3 IS2  IR2 
 2 2
1.5.3 Nominal  method

• In this method, the capacitance of each conductor (i.e. line to neutral) is divided into two
halves; one half being lumped at the sending end and the other half at the receiving end
as shown in the fig. 1.5(a).
• It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop. However,
its charging current must be added to the line current to obtain the total sending end
current.
Taking VR as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram is shown in the fig. 1.5(b).

IC1 and IC2  capacitive current

IL  line current

R XL
IS IL IR
IC2 IC1
L
VS C2 C1 O
VR
A
D
(a)
VS C
IL Z
ΦS
α A
ILXL
O IS VR
ΦR
IL R
IC2 B
IR
IC1
(b)
Figure 1. 5 Nominal π Method (a) Circuit Diagram and (b) Vector Diagram
VR  VR 0
 VR  j0
IR  IR   R
C
IC1  VR 90
2
C
 jVR
2
 jVR fC
I L  I R  IC 1
Z  R  jX L
Voltage drop in line = I L Z
VS  VR  I L Z
 VR  I L  R  jX L 
C
IC 2  VS  90
2
C
 jVS 
2
 jVS  fC
I S  I L  IC 2

VS  VR
VR

 x100
VR IR cosR
 x100
VR IR cosR  IL2R
Losses / phase = IL2R

Total losses = 3IL2R
1.6 Long transmission lines

R XL R XL R XL R XL
IS n n n n n n n n IR
L
G B G B G B G B O
VS V
n n n n n n n n R A
D
Figure 1.6 Equivalent Circuit of Long Transmission Line
• Fig. 1.6 shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-
neutral basis. The whole line is divided into n sections, each section having line constants
1
th of those for the whole line.
n
• The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line.
• The resistance and inductive reactance are series elements.
• The leakage susceptance ( B ) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt elements. The
leakage susceptance is due to capacitance exist between line and neutral. The leakage
conductance considers the energy losses occurring through leakage over the insulators
or due to corona effect between conductors. Admittance = G2  B2
• The leakage current through shunt admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line
and decreases continuously as the receiving end of the circuit is approached at which
point its value is zero.

1.6.1 Performance of long transmission line

IS I + dI zdx I
IR
L
VS ydx V VR O
V + dV
A
D
dx x
Figure 1.7 Small Element of a Long Transmission Line
• Consider a small element in the line of length dx situated at a distance x from the
receiving end
z  series impedance of the line per unit length
y  shunt admittance of the line per unit length
V  voltage at end of the element towards receiving end
V  dV  voltage at the end of element towards sending end
I  dI  current entering the element dx
I  current leaving the element dx
• For the small element dx

zdx  series impedance
ydx  shunt admittance
dv  Izdx
dv
 Iz
dx
• Similarly, current entering the element is I  dI and current leaving is I . Therefore,

current through the shunt element is dI
dI  Vydx
dI
  Vy
dx
• Now differentiating above equation
d 2V dI
 z
dx dx
d 2V
 Vyz
dx
d 2V
 yzV  0
dx

 y  CF 
 
2
 D2  yz  0  
  C1e  C2e for ODE 
m1 x m2 x
D   yz and D  yz
V  C1e yz x
 C2e  yz x
dV
Now  C1 yze yz x
 C2 yze  yz x
 Iz
dx
y y 
I  C1 e yz x
 C2 e yz x
z z
At x  0 , V  VR and I  IR ,
VR  C1  C2
y
IR  C  C 
z 1 2
1  z 
  C1  C 2    ZC 
ZC  y 
 
Z C I R  C1  C 2
VR  Z C IR V  Z C IR
C1  and C2  R
2 2
 V  Z C IR  yz x  VR  Z C IR  
V  R e  e
yz x
 2   2 
 VR   VR 
 Z  IR   Z  IR 
I  C e yz x
 C  e yz x
 2   2 
   
   
 e yz x  e  yz x   e yz x  e  yz x 
V  VR  
 C R 
Z I 
 2 2
   
V  e yz x  e  yz x   e yz x  e  yz x 
I R   IR  
Z C  2 


 2 
 e yz x  e  yz x   e yz x  e  yz x 
V  VR    Z C IR  
 2 2
   
VR  e yz x  e  yz x   e yz x  e  yz x 
I    IR  
Z C  2   2 

ex  ex ex  ex
Now, sinh x  and cosh x 
2 2
V  VR cosh yzx  Z C IR sinh yzx
VR
I sinh yzx  IR cosh yzx
ZC
Now, if x=l
VS  VR cosh YZ  Z C IR sinh YZ
VR
IS  sinh YZ  IR cosh YZ
ZC
 ZY Z 2Y 2 
And cosh YZ   1    ..... 
 2 24 
  ZY   ..... 
3/2
sinh YZ   ZY 
 6 
 
 x100
Power input / phase
V I cosR
 R R x100
VS I S cosS
Losses / phase = VS I S cos S  VR IR cos R
Total losses = 3xLosses / phase
1.7 Generalized circuit constants of a transmission lines

• In any four terminal network, the input voltage and input current can be expressed in
terms of output voltage and current.
• Therefore, the input voltage VS and input current I S of a 3-phase transmission line can
be expressed as:
VS  AVR  BIR
IS  CVR  DIR
Where,
VS  sending end voltage per phase

IS  sending end current
VR  receiving end voltage per phase
IR  receiving end current
• A, B , C and D are the generalized circuit constants of the transmission line and are
complex numbers.
• The constants A and D are dimensionless whereas the dimensions of B and C are ohms
and siemens respectively. And for a given transmission line A=D and AD  BC  1 .
1.7.1 Short lines

• In short transmission lines, the effect of line capacitance is neglected. Fig. 1.8 shows the
circuit of short transmission line (1 Phase).
R XL
I
L
VS VR O
A
D
Figure 1.8 Circuit of Short Transmission Lines
Therefore,
I S  IR
VS  VR  IR Z
Comparing these equation with basic equation we get

A  1, B  Z , C  0 and D  1
1.7.2 Medium lines – Nominal T method

• In this method, the whole line to neutral capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the
middle point of the line and half of the resistance and reactance are lumped on either side
as shown in fig. 1.9.
R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2

IS IR
IC
L
VS C VC VR O
A
D
Figure 1.9 Circuit of Nominal T Method
Z
VC  VR  IR
2
Z
VS  VC  I S
2

VC
IC  90
XC
 VC C 90
 jVC C
 VCY
I S  I R  IC
Z
VS  VC   IR  IC 
2
Z
 VC   IR  VCY 
2
 YZ  Z
 VC  1    IR
 2  2
 Z  YZ  Z
  VR  IR  1    IR
 2  2  2
 YZ   Z YZ 2
Z
 1   VR      IR
 2  2 4 2
 YZ   YZ 2 
VS   1  V   Z  I
 2  R  4  R
I S  IR  VCY
 Z
 IR   VR  IR Y
 2
 YZ 
I S  VRY  IR  1 
 2 
 YZ   YZ 2   YZ 
A  1   , B Z   , C  Y and D   1 
 2   4   2 

1.7.3 Medium lines – Nominal  method

• In this method, the line to neutral capacitance is divided into two halves; one half being
concentrated at load end and other half at the sending end as shown in fig. 1.10.
R XL
IS IL IR
IC2 IC1
L
VS C2 C1 VR O
A
D
Figure 1.10 Circuit of Nominal π Method
I L  I R  IC 1
C
IC1  VR 90
2
C
 jVR
2
Y
 VR
2
VS  VR  I L Z
 VR   IR  IC 1  Z
 Y
 VR   IR  VR  Z
 2
 YZ 
VS   1  V  ZIR
 2  R
C
IC 2  VS  90
2
C
 jVS 
2
Y
 VS
2
I S  I L  IC 2
Y  YZ  Y
 IR  VR   1   VR  ZIR 
2  2  2
 Y 2Z   YZ 
IS   Y  VR   1  I
 2   2  R

 YZ   Y 2Z   YZ 
A   1   , B  Z , C  Y   and D   1  
 2   2   2 
1.7.4 Long lines

• By rigorous method, the sending end voltage and current of a long transmission line are
given by
VS  VR cosh YZ  Z C IR sinh YZ
VR
IS  sinh YZ  IR cosh YZ
ZC
1
A  cosh YZ , B  Z C sinh YZ , C  sinh YZ and D  cosh YZ
ZC

1.8 Comparison between different methods for performance of transmission lines

(1. Short Lines, 2. End Condenser Method, 3. Nominal T Method, 4. Nominal  Method and 5. Rigorous Method)
Table 1.1 Comparison Between Different Methods
Sr.
ABCD
No Circuit Diagram Vector Diagram
Parameters
.
1 I
R XL
C
VS A1
IZ
L ΦS
A
BZ
O α IXL
VS VR
A O ΦR VR C 0
IR
D I B D 1
2 R XL
IS IR C
VS
IC
ΦS
IS Z A  1  YZ
α A
L I S XL BZ
O O ΦR VR
VS C VR
A IS
IS R
B C Y
IR
D
D 1
IC

3 R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2

IS IR E
 YZ 
VS
A  1  
IC I SZ
/2  2 
VC C ISXL/2
α  YZ 2 
L ΦS
2 ISR/2 D B Z  
A I RZ/ 4 
VS C VC VR O O ΦR VR IRXL/2 
A
C Y
IRR/2
D IR
IS B
 YZ 
D  1  
IC
 2 
4 R XL VS C
IS IL IR  YZ 
A  1 
ΦS
ILZ
 2 
IC2 IC1 α A
ILXL BZ
L O IS VR
O
ΦR
ILR  Y 2Z 
VS C2 C1 VR
A IC2 B C  Y  
D
IR  2 
 YZ 
IC1 D  1 
 2 
5 R XL R XL R XL R XL
IS n n n n n n n n IR
A  cosh YZ ,
B  Z C sinh YZ ,
L
G B G B G B G B 1
VS
n n n
V
n R
O
A
C sinh YZ ,
n n n n ZC
D
D  cosh YZ

1.9 Power flow through a transmission line

VS  VR 0
G
S S  PS  jQS
S R  PR  jQR
Figure 1.11 Transmission Line
VR 0  Receiving end voltage

VS   Sending end voltage
  Angle between VS and VR
Line Constants
A  A
B  B
C  C 
D  D
S R  PR  jQR
 VR IR*
VS  AVR  BIR
I S  CVR  DIR
VS  AVR
IR 
B
VS   A xVR 0

B
VS      AVR     
 
B B
VS       AVR      
IR*  
B B
S R  VR IR*
VSVR       AVR2     
 
B B
 PR  jQR

VV AVR2
 PR  S R cos       cos     
B B
VV AVR2
QR  S R sin       sin     
B B
I S  CVR
IR 
D
B
VS  AVR   I S  CVR 
D
DVS  ADVR  BI S  BCVR
DVS  VR
IS 
B
 AD  BC  1
DVS   VR 0

B
DVS         VR     
 
B B
S S  VS I S*
DVS         VR 
I S*  
B B
S S  PS  jQS
DVS2      VSVR     
 
B B
2
DVS VV
 PS  cos       S R cos    
B B
2
DVS VV
QS  sin       S R sin    
B B
Equation of circle is
 x  h   y  g 
2 2
 r2
For receiving end circle diagram
AVR2 VV
PR  cos       S R cos     
B B
2
AV VV
QR  R sin       S R sin     
B B

Squaring and adding equation we have

2 2
 AVR2   AVR2  VS2VR2
 R
P 
B
cos      
  RQ 
B
sin        2 cos       sin      
B
2 2
   
AV 2
x-coordinate of the center   R cos     
B
AV 2
y-coordinate of the center   R sin     
B
VSVR
Radius 
B
For sending end circle diagram
DVS2 VSVR
PS  cos        cos    
B B
DVS2 VSVR
QS  sin        sin    
B B
Squaring and adding equation we have

2 2
 DVS2   DVS2  V 2V 2
 PS  cos        QS  sin        S 2R cos2      sin2     
 B   B  B
DVS2
x-coordinate of the center  cos     
B
DVS2
y-coordinate of the center  sin     
B
VV
Radius  S R
B

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1 Current and Voltage Relations on a Transmission Line

1.2 Classification of overhead transmission lines

1.3 Performance of transmission lines

2. Transmission efficiency: - The power obtained at receiving end of a transmission line is

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 1

Receiving end power

1.4 Performance of single phase short transmission lines

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 2

Power delivered =VR I cosR

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 3

Sending end p.f.= cosS

Power delivered =VR I cosR

1.5 Performance of medium transmission line

1.5.1 End condenser method

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 4

IR  load current per phase

Taking receiving end voltage VR as reference

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 5

Power delivered / phase

Losses / phase = IS2R

(Note: Voltage regulation and power are scalar quantities)

1.5.2 Nominal T method

R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 6

IR  load current per phase

Taking receiving end voltage VR as reference

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 7

Power delivered / phase

1.5.3 Nominal  method

IR  load current per phase

IC1 and IC2  capacitive current

Taking receiving end voltage VR as reference

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 8

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 9

Power delivered / phase

Losses / phase = IL2R

1.6 Long transmission lines

Figure 1.6 Equivalent Circuit of Long Transmission Line

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 10

1.6.1 Performance of long transmission line

Figure 1.7 Small Element of a Long Transmission Line

• For the small element dx

• Similarly, current entering the element is I  dI and current leaving is I . Therefore,

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 11

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 12

1.7 Generalized circuit constants of a transmission lines

VS  sending end voltage per phase

1.7.1 Short lines

Figure 1.8 Circuit of Short Transmission Lines

Comparing these equation with basic equation we get

1.7.2 Medium lines – Nominal T method

R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2

Figure 1.9 Circuit of Nominal T Method

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 14

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 15

1.7.3 Medium lines – Nominal  method

Figure 1.10 Circuit of Nominal π Method

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 16

1.7.4 Long lines

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 17

1.8 Comparison between different methods for performance of transmission lines

Prof. Vicky Doshi, EE Department Electrical Power System - II (2160908) 18

3 R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2