SED 111

Hormonal coordination in animals

In animals, the tissues and organs cooperate to maintain homoeostasis and other body
functions. Two systems are devoted to this regulation: the nervous system and the endocrine
system. The endocrine system is a coordination system made of hormones and endocrine
glands. A hormone is a regulatory chemical that is secreted into the blood by an endocrine
gland. The blood carries the hormone to every cell in the body, but only the target cells for a
given hormone can respond to it. Endocrine glands are ductless glands, that is why they
secrete hormones directly into the blood. Exocrine glands on the other hand have ducts
through which they secrete enzymes onto substrates but not directly to the blood. We’ll
describe the major endocrine glands and the hormones they secrete.

The pituitary gland

The pituitary gland hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus of the brain. The hypothalamus
controls most of its actions. The hormones secreted by the pituitary gland include:

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): The antidiuretic hormone is secreted by the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland and targets the kidneys. When there is an increase in the osmotic
concentration of the blood (low amount of water), the pituitary gland is stimulated to produce
ADH, which promotes water retention in the kidneys. This ensures the osmotic concentration
of the blood is returned to normal.

Oxytocin: Oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland. It has a range of functions such causing uterine contractions during
childbirth, promoting milk ejection in nursing mothers, and promoting bonding. Because of
the latter, it is referred to as the “love hormone” as it is secreted in people after hugging or
orgasm. It also promotes bonding between parents and their offspring.

Growth hormone (GH) or somatropin: As the name suggests, the growth hormone
stimulates growth, cell reproduction and cell regeneration in animals. Deficiency in this
hormone leads to dwarfism.

Luteinising hormone (LH): The luteinising hormone is produced in both males and females
where they have different functions. In females, it is needed for ovulation and the formation
of a corpus luteum in the female menstrual cycle. In males, it stimulates the testes to produce

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testosterone, which is needed for sperm production and for the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH is required for the development of ovarian
follicles in females. In males, it is required for the development of sperm. FSH and LH are
both known as gonadotropins because they stimulate metabolism in the gonads.

Prolactin (PRL): Prolactin stimulates milk production in mammals. It also helps regulate
kidney function in vertebrates.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin: The TSH stimulates the thyroid

gland to produce thyroxine.

Thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is shaped like a shield and lies just below the Adam’s apple in the front of
the neck. It secretes the hormones- thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.

Thyroxine or T4: Thyroxine stimulates the cellular consumption of oxygen (aerobic

respiration) and thus the metabolism of all cells and tissues in the body. In amphibians such
as toads and frogs, thyroxine is important for the metamorphosis of their tadpoles to adults.
Without thyroxine, tadpoles will never mature to adult toads or frogs. In children, thyroxine
promotes growth and development of the nervous system. Children with underactive thyroids
suffer from stunted growth and severe mental retardation, a condition called cretinism. Also,
iodine is needed for thyroxine production. Lack of iodine in diet leads to swelling of the
thyroid gland, a condition known as goitre.

Triiodothyronine or T3: T3 is has similar effects and function as thyroxine. It is however

recognised as the main thyroid hormone. Its effects on target tissues are roughly four times
more potent than that of T4. It is also more in supply representing 80% of all thyroid
hormones, with T4 representing just 20%. It affects almost every physiological process in the
body including growth and development, metabolism, body temperature and heart rate.

Calcitonin: Calcitonin is another hormone secreted by the thyroid gland. It maintains proper
levels of calcium (Ca+ +) in the blood. When the blood Ca+ + levels is too high, calcitonin
stimulates the uptake of Ca+ + into bones, thus lowering its concentration in the blood. Its
involvement in human physiology is however controversial, but this effect has been observed
in other animals.

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 Parathyroid glands

The parathyroid glands are four small glands attached to the thyroid. Because of their size,
researchers ignored them until well into the 20 th century. They secrete the parathyroid
hormone.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH): The parathyroid hormone is one of the only two hormones in
humans that are essential for survival (the other hormone is aldosterone). PTH is secreted in
response to falling levels of Ca + + in the blood. Ca+ + must not be allowed to fall continuously
without correction as this would lead to spasm of muscles, including that of the heart. Ca + + is
also necessary for the proper functioning of the nervous and endocrine systems.

When blood Ca+ + level is low, PTH stimulates the bone cells (osteoclasts) to dissolve the
calcium phosphate crystals of the bone matrix and release Ca + +
into the blood. It also
stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb Ca+ + from the urine and leads to the activation of vitamin
D, needed for the absorption of Ca+ + from food in the intestine.

Adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys. They secrete adrenaline,
noradrenaline, aldosterone, and cortisol.

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine): These hormones are

secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland. The actions of these hormones trigger “alarm”
responses and prepares the body for “fight or flight”. These hormones increase heart rate,
blood pressure, dilate the bronchioles, elevate blood glucose levels, and reduce blood flow to
the skin and digestive organs. Norepinephrine doubles as a hormone and a neurotransmitter.

Aldosterone: Aldosterone is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal gland. It regulates the
levels of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) in the blood. It stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb
sodium from urine when it is low and secrete potassium into the urine to maintain the osmotic
balance of the blood.

Cortisol (hydrocortisone): Cortisol is known as the stress hormone. It helps the body deal
with stress by managing how the body uses carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; reducing
inflammation, regulating the blood pressure, increasing the blood glucose levels, controlling
the sleep/wake cycle and boosting energy. Sustained elevated levels of cortisol signals that
the body needs rest.

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 Pancreas

The pancreas is in the duodenal loop and serve both as an endocrine and exocrine gland. It
secretes insulin and glucagon.

Insulin: Insulin is secreted by the beta cells (β cells) of the Islets of Langerhans found in the
pancreas. Its function is to maintain normal levels of glucose in the blood by converting
excess glucose to glycogen. Glycogen is a storage form of sugar. It is stored in the liver and
skeletal muscles. People suffering from diabetes mellitus 1 or insulin-dependent diabetes lack
the insulin-producing β cells and must receive shots of insulin at intervals. In contrast, those
with diabetes mellitus 2 or non-insulin-dependent diabetes have normal insulin levels, but
their cells have a reduced sensitivity to insulin. It is the most common form of diabetes, and
the sufferers do not require insulin shots but must control their diabetes through diet and
exercise.

Glucagon: Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells (α cells) of the Islets of Langerhans. It
antagonises the action of insulin by converting stored glycogen back to glucose. It is secreted
when blood glucose levels become low.

Ovaries

The ovaries are the female gonads and secrete two hormones-oestradiol and progesterone.

Oestradiol: This is the main form of oestrogen produced by the ovaries. It has several
functions stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristics in females, stimulates
growth of sex organs at puberty and prepares the uterus monthly for pregnancy.

Progesterone: Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary. It completes the
preparation of the uterus for pregnancy and plays a role in the development of the foetus to
full term. It also stimulates the development of the mammary glands during pregnancy and
strengthens the pelvic wall muscles in preparation for labour.

Testis

The testes are the male gonads. They secrete testosterone.

Testosterone: This is the main male sex hormone. It stimulates the development of
secondary sex characteristics in males and growth spurt at puberty. It also stimulates the

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development of sex organs and spermatogenesis. It also regulates libido, fat distribution,
muscle mass and strength.