Osmolarity is soluble concentration expressed as molarity or moles of solute per

litre of solution. The unit of measurements for osmolarity in milli osmole per
litre (mOsmolL-¹). Osmolarity of glomerular filtrate is same as that of blood
plasma 300mOsmoil-¹. The proximity between loop of Henle and Vasa recta as
well as the counter current in them help in maintaining an increased osmolarity
towards the inner medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmol L-1 in the
cortex to about 1200 mOsmol L-1 in the inner medulla.

VASA RECTA
 Interstitial fluid also plays an important role in the counter current
mechanism.
 The flow of blood through the 2 limbs of the vasa recta is also in opposite
directions towards the renal medulla in the descending limb and towards the
renal cortex in the ascending limb. The walls of the vasa recta are freely
permeable to ions, water and urea.
 As the blood flows in the descending limb of vasa rectum towards the renal
medulla, water is transported from blood plasma by osmosis into the
interstitial fluids increasing the concentration of the fluid. Na+ and Cl- ions
and urea enter into the blood plasma by diffusion.
 As the blood runs in the ascending limb of the vasa rectum towards the renal
cortex, the reverse takes place. Water renters the blood plasma and Na+ and
Cl- and urea leave due to decrease in interstitial fluid concentration.
 Some urea diffuses from the collecting duct into the interstitial fluid from
which urea enters the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. This the
concentration of interstitial fluid is increased which makes urine more
concentrated.
Significance of urea:
Besides NaCl, urea is also involved in counter current mechanism. The urea
diffuses out of the collecting ducts and enters into the thin ascending limbs. A
certain amount of urea is recycled in this way and is trapped in the interstitial
fluid.
Effect of Alcohol:
Alcohol decreases the level of ADH. This lowers the reabsorption of wate and
increases the loss of water in urine. Therefore, beverages having a high content
of alcohol causes excessive urination and dehydration.

Other excretory products

 i. Bile salts: Bile salts are the sodium and potassium salts of bile acids which
are conjugated with glycine or taurine. The conjugated bile acids namely
glycocolic acid and taurocholic acid form bile salts in combination with
sodium and potassium salts. The bile salts absorbed from intestine are
transported by hepatic portal vein back to lever via the enterohepatic
circulation. From liver the bile salts are re excreted through bile.
ii. Excretion of drugs, hormones and other substances: Deliver is well
known for its ability to detoxify or excrete into bile many drugs including
sulphonamides, penicillin, ampicillin, and erythromycin. Several hormones
secreted by the endocrine glands are either chemically altered or excreted by
the liver, including thyroxine and essentially all the steroid hormones such as
oestrogen, cortisol and also aldosterone. One of the major routes for
excretion calcium from the body is secretion by liver into the bile, which
passes into the gut and lost the face. The liver also excreted heavy metals
like lead, arsenic and bismuth. The other substances excreted in bile are
heavy metals such as copper and iron, some toxins, some bacteria like
typhoid bacteria, cholesterol, lecithin, and alkaline phosphate.
iii. Carbon dioxide: It is mainly expelled out by the lungs. Some carbon
dioxide is also excreted through sweat and defecation.
iv. Water
v. Vitamins: The excess of water-soluble vitamins like vitamin B complex and
Vitamin C is removed from the body in urine.
vi. Spice: Onions, garlic, and some other spices are volatile components which
leave the body through lungs, the rest are removed by the lungs.

GLOMERULAR MEMBRANE
 The 2 layers of bowman’s capsule are outer parietal layer and the inner
visceral layer. The parietal layer consists of squamous epithelial cells. The
visceral layer surrounds the glomerulus and is composed of special type of
cells, the podocytes.
 The membrane of glomerular capillaries is called glomerular membrane. The
endothelial cells forming the wall of the glomerular capillaries have
prospered between them called fenestrae. The endothelial cells rest on the
basement membrane. Basement membrane is made up of proteoglycans
which is negatively charged.
 The visceral Layer of the bowman’s capsule is made up of special type of
cells called podocytes. The podocytes are so called because they posses’
foot like processes, the pedicels. The podocytes have suits between pedicels
called slit pores or filtration suits through which glomerular filtration.
 ANF (Atrial Natriuretic Factor)
 An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release of
ANF from the arterial wall. ANF can cause vasodilation and hereby decrease
the blood pressure.
 ANF increases the Na+ concentration in the urine which increases the
excretion of Na+.
 ANF inhibits the effect of RAAS thereby increasing bloop pressure.
Myogenic mechanism
An increase the blood pressure will tend to stretch the afferent arteriole which
would be expected to increase the blood flow to the glomerulus. The wall of the
afferent arteriole however responds to stretch by contraction, this reduces the
diameter of the arteriole and therefore causes increase in the resistance of the
flow. This myogenic mechanism, thus, reduces variation in the flow to the
glomerulus in case of fluctuations in the blood pressure.
Micturition
 The expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder is called micturition. It is all
reflex process but in grown up Childs and adults this controlled voluntary to
some extent.
 The internal sphincter is supplied by both sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems of autonomic nervous system whereas the external
sphincter is supplied by the somatic nerve.
 The stimulation of sympathetic nerve causes relaxation of detrusor muscles
of the urinary bladder and constriction of the internal sphincter. So, it causes
 filling of the urinary bladder and the sympathetic nerve is called the nerve of
filling.
 The stimulation of parasympathetic nerve causes contraction of detrusor
muscle and relaxation of the internal sphincter leading to the emptying of the
urinary bladder. So, the parasympathetic nerve is also called the nerve of
emptying or nerve of Micturition.
 Somatic nerve maintains the tonic contraction of the skeletal muscle fibres
forming external finger so that the external sphincter is constructed always.
During micturition this nerve is inhibited thus the somatic nerve is
responsible for voluntary control of micturition.

IMPORTANT POINTS
 Allantoin: it is framed from uric acid as a result of and oxidation reaction
characterized by the enzyme uricase. Allantoin is the excretory product of
embryos of amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals). In embryo, the
excretory matter is stored in allantois (embryonic membrane)
 In muscular dystrophy, a disease, it is eliminated in urine in great amount
 Dual excretion: Earthworm excreted ammonia when sufficient water is
available while it excretes urea in drier surroundings. Lung fishes and
Xenophus (African toad) excrete ammonia in water bit they excrete urea
when they lie immovable in moist air or mud during summer. Tadpole of
frog excrete ammonia but during metamorphosis it excretes urea. Crocodiles
excrete ammonia in water but excrete urea on land. Aquatic turtles excrete
both ammonia and urea.
 Ammonia molecules are readily soluble in water, so they easily cross the
membrane barriers.
 In soft bodied invertebrates, ammonia diffuses out across the whole-body
surface into the surrounding environment. In fishes, most of the ammonia is
lost as ammonia ions across gill epithelial. Kidneys play a minor role in
ammonia excretion.
 The theory of counter current mechanism was given by Berliner
 Man can concentrate urea in urine more than 100 times it’s concentration in
blood.
 Alkaptonuria: Condition characterized by excretion of large amounts of
homogentisic acid in urine as a result of incomplete metabolism of amino
acids. This causes blackening of urine during standing.
 Renal Tubular acidosis: In this condition the person is unable to secrete
adequate quantities of H+ ions and as a result, large amounts of sodium
bicarbonate are continuously lost into the urine.
 Oedema (=Dropsy): Accumulation of excess fluid in tissues is called
Oedema. It is an increase in the volume of extracellular (interstitial) fluids
without a change in their osmolarity. It is usually caused by an excess of
sodium ions which in turn causes water retention.
 Euryhaline are organisms that can tolerate a wide range of salinity,
stenohaline, are organisms that can live in narrow rate of salinity.
 Diuretics: Drugs that increase the rate of flow of urine (naturally occurring
diuretic include caffeine in coffee l, tea, Cola soda, which inhibit Na+
reabsorption and alcohol in beer, wine, and mixed drinks inhibit secretion of
ADH)
 Cytology: Stone of bladder
 Aminoaciduria: Urine with amino acids like cystine, glycine, etc.
 Ptosis: Displacement of kidney
 A starving person will excrete more urea because during starvation proteins
are broken down for energy production
 Urine gives a pungent smell when left for sometime. This smell is of
ammonia formed by the conversion of urea into ammonia by bacterial action.
 Both kidney and ureter are retroperitoneal organ.
 The most frequent protozoan seen in urine is Trichomonas vaginalis, a
cause of vaginitis in female and urethritis in males.
 In mammals, the total amount of urea produced is not excreted immediately.
Instead, some portion of it is retained in the kidneys for osmoregulation.
 Sharks also retain a good amount of urea in blood as a good osmolyte to
balance osmolarity of the body fluids with surrounding sea water.
 Uricotelism is particularly advantageous to the land vertebrates those lay
shelled eggs. Soluble wastes like ammonia and urea can pass out of the
shell- less eggs of fish or amphibians, or may be carried away by the
mother’s blood, as in mammalian embryo. However, the shelled eggs of the
birds and most reptiles possess many fine pores and are permeable to gases
only.
 Had an embryo produced ammonia or urea within the shelled egg, the
soluble nitrogenous waste would have been accumulated to the level of toxic
concentration. Uric acid on the other hand precipitates out of the solution
and can be stored in the shell as a solid waste which is left behind when eggs
hatches.
 The concentration of uric acid is so high in guano (waste matter dropped by
sea birds, used as a fertiliser) that uric acid is commercially extracted from it,
which is collected for inhabited marine or littoral islands.
 The different oases through which the urine becomes hypersonic in reaction
to body fluids have been studied by Wirz and associates (1951) and later
on by Bray (1960)
 Some tortoises can even modify their nitrogenous wastes when their
environment is changed.
 Urology: Branch of medicine related to male and female urinary system and
the male reproductive system.
 Nephrology: Specialized branch of medicine that deals with structure,
functions, and diseases of male and female urinary system and male
reproductive system.
 Nephrotic syndrome refers to protein in urine particularly albumin, that
results in oedema and hyperlipidaemia (high blood level of cholesterol,
phospholipids, and triglycerides)
 The last 2 pairs of floating ribs protect the kidney.
 The cells of PCT have numerous mitochondria near the isobilateral
surface which allows the absorption of salt by active absorption.
 Diabetes Insipidus: It is due to the deficiency of ADH or vasopressin. The
blood glucose is normal and glucose does not appear in urine. Patient
passing excess of water, tasteless urine. It causes dehydration of body and
thirst.
 Rate of Urine formation = Ultrafiltration rate – Selective Reabsorption
+ Tubular secretion rate
 A 0.9% solution of NaCl or 5% glucose solutions are approximately
isotonic. If the normal body cells are placed in such medium, they would
neither swell or shrink.
 NaCl solution of greater than 0.9% concentration is concentration is
hypertonic. Any solution has NaCl with less than 0.9% concentration is
hypotonic.
 Substances which are reabsorbed by the body are demand of variable
threshold substances for example electrolytes and water.
 A healthy human excretes on an average 25gm urea/day.
 Workers in deep mimes usually suffer from dehydration because of water
loss along with salt in the form of sweat.
 Urea formation takes place in liver.
 Urea elimination= kidney
 Blood vessel with maximum Urea is Hepatic vein.
 Blood vessel with minimum Urea is renal vein.
 Amount of urea in urine is proportional to protein diet.
 If glucose remains unabsorbed from PCT than comes out through urine. This
condition is called glycosuria. Whereas this disease is called diabetes
mellitus. It is due to hypo secretion of insulin.
 Polyuria: Excessive urination.
 Proteinuria: Presence of proteins in urine.
 Albuminuria: Presence of albumin in urine, usually occurs in nephritis
(inflammation of glomeruli) when the size of the filtering slits enlarges and
basement membrane loses its negative charge.
 Ketonuria: Presence of abnormally high ketone bodies in the urine.
 Haemoglobinuria: Presence of Hb in urine.
 Haematuria: Presence of RBC/blood in urine.
 Pyuria: Presence of WBC in nature.
 Renal colic is an excruciating pain on account of Kidney stones. The
incidence of kidney stones in males is slightly more than females.
 Largest number of sweat glands in man are found on the palms.
 The sweat glands in rabbit are mostly concentrated on the lips.
 The concentration in the blood of a substance such as glucose at the point
where it just begins to appear in the urine is called its renal threshold. The
renal threshold of the glucose is about 180 gm per 100ml blood. When this
value is exceeded, glucose begins to appear in the urine.
 If one kidney is removed from the body of human being than the other one
increases in size and try to perform the function of the removed kidney also.
It is an example of regeneration method called compensate hypertrophy.
 Diabetic nephropathy: It is a complication due to diabetes mellitus where
the kidney progressive gets damaged leading to death ultimately due to renal
failure
 PCT
First part of nephron
Transport glomerular filtrate from
bowman’s capsule to descending
limb.
80% of glomerular filtrate which
includes glucose, amino acids, water
and NaCl is reabsorbed.
Helps in selective reabsorption.
The wall of this part consists of
cubical cells and numerous
microvilli.
ADH has no control.
Cortical nephron
Vasa recta is absent/ highly reduced. Vasa recta present.
The DCT is located away from the
mouth of the Bowman’s capsule,
afferent and efferent arterioles.
The diameters are of afferent and
efferent vessels are not equal.
The efferent arterioles form a
peritubular capillary network around capillary network around the tubules
the tubules.
These are fine branches of renal
artery which enter in each kidney
and arise from dorsal aorta.
The blood flowing in it is rich in
waste products.
They bring arterial blood to the renal They carry venous blood away from
corpuscles.
DCT
Latter part of the nephron
Transport Rena filtrate from
ascending limb to collecting tubule.
Adds materials to the filtrate from
the blood. These includes potassium,
hydrogen, ammonia, uric acid, drugs,
etc.
Helps in tubular secretion.
Contains cubical cells and less
microvilli
Reabsorption of water and salts is
controlled by ADH.
Juxtamedullary nephron
The initial of DCT is located close to
the mouth of the Bowman’s capsule
in contact with both afferent
arterioles.
The diameters of affluent and
efferent arterioles are equal.
The efferent arterioles don’t form a
but drains into the venous system
after a short distance.
These are the fine branches of renal
vein which leaves the kidney and
joins with the inferior vena cava.
The blood flowing in it is poorer in
waste products.
the renal corpuscles.
 Sweat
Secreted by sweat or sudoriferous
glands.
Contains water, NaCl, traces of urea,
lactic acid, amino acids, and glucose.
Keeps the body cool.
Secretion is stimulated by rise in
body temperature.
Secretion is watery.
Discharged onto the surface of skin.
Sebum
Secreted by sebaceous or oil glands.
Contains waxes, sterols, fatty acids,
and hydrocarbons.
Lubricates the hair and makes the
skin waterproof.
Secretion is continuous.
Secretion is oily.
Discharged into the hair follicles
 EXCERCISES

Passive diffusion
1. Secondary active transport across the walls of the PCT
2. Filtration pressure exerts on the fluids in the loop of Henle
Physiologically urea is produced by
1. Urinase
2. Urease
3. Arginase
4. None
Blood fraction remaining unchanged after circulation through the kidneys
1. Urea and uric acid
2. Urea and proteins
3. Urea and proteins
4. Glucose and proteins
Which of these is not the general function of the mammalian kidney?
1. Regulation of blood volume
2. Regulation of vitamin A synthesis
3. Regulation of solute concentration in the blood
4. Regulation of the pH of the blood
Which of the following terms is used for both a part of kidney and a part of
skeleton in the mammals?
1. Pelvis
2. Cortex
3. Medulla
4. Calyx
Which of the following is first formed nitrogenous waste of vertebrae?
1. Ammonia
2. carbon dioxide
3. Urea
4. Alanine
Which animal is not ammoniotelic?
1. Whale
2. Bony fishes
3. Crocodile
4. Tadpole
Excretion of nitrogenous waste product in semisolid form occurs in
1. Amniotic
2. Aquatic animal
3. Uricotelic animal
4. Ureotelic animal
To convert ammonia into Urea, the liver cells require
1. Water
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Sulphur
4. Oxygen
In which of the following regions of nephron does maximum reabsorption
of useful substances take place?
1. PCT
2. DCT
3. Henle’s loop
4. Glomerulus
Sodium reabsorption from DCT will be increased of there is an increase in
1. ADH
2. Plasma volume
3. Mean arterial pressure
4. Plasma potassium concentration
Which one is an important constituent of the RAAS?
1. JGA cell
2. Plasma cell
3. Glomerulus
4. Erythropoietin
The function of angiotensinogen II is
1. To enhance the water and sodium reabsorption from renal tubule
2. Stimulation of adrenal medulla to secrete aldosterone
3. The decrease the heartbeat and dilate arterioles
4. All of these
Which of the following substances is actively secreted into the glomerular
filtrate of the kidney tubule?
1. Glucose
2. H+
3. Amino acids
4. Chloride ions
Which of the following will not lead to diuresis?
1. Excessive sweating
2. Deficiency of ADH
3. Deficiency of insulin
4. Excessive water intake
Which of the following is recovered into the collecting duct of the nephron?
1. Potassium
2. Water
3. Glucose
4. Proteins
A fluorescent dye is utilized to ‘tag’ antidiuretic hormone receptors. The
greatest concentration of dye is expected in which of the following
structures?
1. PCT
2. Renal capillaries
3. Loop of Henle
4. Collecting Duct
Consider the following statements and mark the correct ones. For
osmoregulation in Aquatic medium
1. A freshwater fish has to drink water continuously
2. A marine Bony fish has to drink water continuously
3. A freshwater fish produces copious urine Which is hypo- osmotic to the
blood
4. A marine fish produces scanty urine Which is hypotonic to blood
The human kidney
1. Is responsible for the storage of nutrients such as glycogen
2. Produces more dilute urine when the collecting ducts become less permeable
to water
3. Responds to the ADH by increasing urine output
4. Get rid of urea from the body by the secreting it into the descending
arm of the loop of Henle
In ornithine cycle, which of the following wastes are removed from the
blood?
1. Carbon dioxide and ammonia
2. Carbon dioxide and urea
3. Ammonia and urea
4. Urea and urine
Urea synthesis takes place primarily in liver because
1. Ammonia and carbon dioxide are present in liver only
2. Hormone ADH is found in liver only
3. Enzyme arginase is present in liver only
4. Kidney is smaller than liver
ADH Deficiency shows the following condition
1. Only polydipsia
2. Polyuria
3. Polydipsia and Polyuria
4. Glucosuria
A fall in GFR activates
1. JG cells to release renin
2. Adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
3. Adrenal medulla to release adrenaline
4. Posterior pituitary to release vasopressin
At which stage of ornithine cycle arginase is used?
1. Arginase- ornithine
2. Ornithine- citruline
3. Fumuric acid – arginine
4. Glycolysis- urea
Excretory material are formed in
1. Kidney
2. Rectum
3. Liver
4. Every body cell
Workers in deep mines usually suffer from dehydration because
1. Water is lost due to evaporation
2. Water is lost due to defecation
3. Water is lost in the form of urine
4. Water is lost along with salt in the form of sweat
Urine of a human being suffering from diabetes insipidus is
1. Tasteless and thick
2. Sweet and thick
3. Tasteless and watery
4. Sweet and watery
Kidney stone is produced due to
1. Deposition of sand particles
2. Precipitation of proteins
3. Crystallization of calcium oxalate
4. Blockage of fat
Which regulates reabsorption of salts from glomerular filtrate?
1. Oxytocin
2. Vasopressin
3. Glucocorticoides
4. Mineral corticoids
If the afferent arteriole diameter is less than efferent arteriole than what
happens?
1. No effect
2. Ultrafiltration reaction is slow
3. Ultrafiltration is not possible
4. Ultrafiltration will stop and tubular secretion starts
In cortex area, all structures are found except
1. Bowman’s capsule
2. DCT
3. Majority of collecting duct
4. Malphigian tube
What is true about DCT?
1. Na+ reabsorption requires energy
2. K+ reabsorption doesn’t require energy
3. Ammonia is excreted
4. Water reabsorption requires energy
Blood leaving liver and moving to heart will have more concentration of
1. Bile
2. Urea
3. Glycogen
4. Amino acid
Deamination occur in
1. Liver
2. Kidney
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Nephron
Longest loop of Henle is found in
1. Kangaroo rat
2. Rhesus monkey
3. Opposum
4. All of these
Which of these is not the part of uriniferous tubule?
1. Loop of Henle
2. Collecting duct
3. Bowman’s capsule
4. DCT
Uric acid is the chief component of the excretory products of
1. Earthworm
2. Cockroach
3. Pelvis
4. Radius
Which one doesn’t filter out from blood to Bowman’s capsule in
glomerular Ultrafiltration?
1. Amino acids
2. Polypeptide
3. Glucose
4. Fatty acids
Hippuric acid, creatinine and ketone are added to urine through
1. Reabsorption
2. Glomerular filtrate
3. Tubular secretion
4. Both 2 and 3
Which of the following is both osmoregulator as well as nitrogenous waste
product?
1. Ammonia
2. Urea
3. Uric acid
4. All of these
RAAS secrete which of the following hormone?
1. Mineralocorticoid
2. Glucocorticoids
3. Both 1 and 2
4. None of these
Afferent and efferent arterioles
1. Both are arterial in nature
2. Both are venous in nature
3. Afferent is arterial whereas efferent is venous in nature
4. Afferent is venous whereas efferent is arterial in nature
Which of the following featured is not of the renal corpuscles that enhance
its filtering capacity ?
1. Large glomerular capillary surface area
2. Thick, selectively permeable filtration membrane
3. High glomerular capillary pressure
4. Mesangial cells regulating the filtering surface area
The glomerular filtrate consists of
1. Urea, NaCl, fibrinogen and water
2. Glucose, amino acids, urea, oxytocin and calcitonin
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Urea, glucose, salts and water
Almost all the aquatic animals excrete ammonia as the nitrogenised waste
product. Which of the following statement is not in agreement with this
situation?
1. ammonia is easily soluble in water
2. ammonia is released from body in a gaseous state
3. ammonia is highly toxic and needs to be eliminated as and when
formed
4. ammonia gets converted into a less toxic form called urea
Aquatic reptiles are
1. Ammoniotelic
2. Ureotelic over land
3. Ureotelic
4. Ureotelic in water
Which of the following is a metabolic waste of protein metabolism?
1. Ammonia, urea and carbon dioxide
2. Urea, oxygen and nitrogen
3. Urea, ammonia and alanine
4. Urea, ammonia and creatinine
A person is undergoing prolonged fasting. his urine will be found to contain
abnormal quantities of
1. Fats
2. amino acids
3. Glucose
4. Ketones
Urea is directly produced in mammals from
1. Ammonia released by oxidative deamination
2. Oxidative deamination of purines
3. breakdown of arginine
4. breakdown of ornithine
Which of the following does not have an excretory system?
1. Myxine
2. Carcharodon
3. Balanoglossus
4. Asterias
5. Calta
Which one of the following iscorrectd with reference to haemodialysis?
1. Absorbs and resends excess of ions
2. The dialysis unit has a coiled cellophane tube
3. blood is pumped back through a suitable artery after haemodialysis
4. Anti heparin is added prior to haemodialysis
5. Nitrogenous wastes are removed by active transport
The nephrostomes in the kidneys are functional in
1. Rabbit
2. Adult frog
3. Tadpole
4. Cockroach
In the tadpoles of frogs, the ciliated funnels, nephrostomes, internally open into
the uriniferous tubules
Maliphigian tubules remove excretory products from
1. Haemolymph
2. Alimentary canal
3. Both 1 and 2
4. None of these
Columns of Bertini in the kidneys of mammals are formed as the extensions
of
1. Medulla into cortex
2. Cortex into medulla
3. Medulla into pelvis
4. Pelvis into ureter
What is the characteristic of metaphoric kidney?
1. Hypotonic urine production
2. Excess secretion of uric acid
3. Loop of Henle
4. Hormone production
Intergumentary nephritis are also called
1. Enteronephric
2. Exonephric
3. Sometime enteronephric and sometimes exonephric
4. Both 1 and 2
In the urinogenital organization of rabbit which one of the following part is
present in male but not in female?
1. Urethra
2. Vas deferens
3. Fallopian tube
4. Vagina
Loop of Henle is meant for the absorption of
1. Potassium
2. Water
3. Glucose
4. Carbon dioxide
Which of the following passageway is part of cloaca of vertebrates?
1. Rectum
2. Reproductive tract
3. Urinary tract
4. All of these
The plasma resembles in its composition to the filtrate produced by the
glomerulus except the presence of
1. Glucose
2. Chloride
3. Proteins
4. Amino acids
What for the ascending limb of loop of henle is permeable?
1. Glucose
2. Ammonia
3. Na+
4. Water
Urinary excretion of Na is regulated by
1. Anterior pituitary
2. Posterior pituitary
3. Adrenal cortex
4. Adrenal medulla
Through the mineralocorticoid which is secreted by Adrenal cortex.
Mechanism of uric acid excretion in the nephron is called
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Secretion
4. Ultrafiltration
Protein rich diet brings about relatively no change in one of the following
constituents of urine
1. Urea
2. Creatinine
3. Uric acid
4. ammonium salt
Which of the following disease shows the Blockage of kidney tubules and
causes severe back pain?
1. Renal calculi
2. Kidney failure
3. Uraemia
4. Nephritis
Which of the following function is performed by collecting tubule of
kidney?
1. In maintenance of pH and ionic balance of blood by the secretion of H+ and
K+ ions
2. Maintenance of pH of blood and removal of Na+ and K+
3. Absorption of glucose and ammonia from blood
4. None of the above
Maintenance of body potassium level is primarily by tubular
1. Absorption in PCT
2. Secretion in DCT and/or in cortical collecting duct
3. Absorption in DCT
4. Secretion in PCT
Which one of the following pairs of waste substances is removed from
blood in ornithine cycle?
1. Carbon dioxide and urea
2. ammonia and urea
3. carbon dioxide and ammonia
4. urea and sodium salt
The extraction of urine from blood takes place through
1. Glomerulus
2. Bowman’s capsule
3. Henle loop
4. Pelvis
Blackening of urine when exposed to air to metabolic disorder in human
beings. This is due to
1. Phenylalanine
2. Tyrosine
3. Valine replacing glutamine
4. Homogentisic acid
5. Glutamine replacing valine
Prostaglandin affects
1. Blood pressure
2. Defaecation
3. Osmoregulation
4. Oxygen metabolism
Thromboxane are synthesized in platelets and upon release cause constriction
and platelet aggregation. Prostaglandin released by blood vessels affect the
blood pressure.
Which of these is not a ketone body?
1. Acetoacetic acid
2. Acetone
3. Succinic acid
4. Beta hydroxy butyric acid
In humans and many other mammals, acetyl Co-A formed in the liver during
oxidation of fatty acids can enter the Citric acid cycle or can be converted to the
ketone bodies (e.g., acetone, acetoacetate and D-B hydroxy butyrate) for export
to other tissues.
This is not a nitrogenous waste
1. Creatinine
2. Purines
3. Allantoin
4. Citrulline
In peritoneal dialysis,
1. The blood is removed from the body and a natural filter is employed
2. The blood is not removed from the body and a natural filter is used
3. The blood is not removed from the body and an artificial filter is
employed
4. The blood is removed from the body and an artificial filter is employed
Podocytes are present in
1. Cortex of nephron
2. Inner wall of bowman’s capsule
3. Outer wall of bowman’s capsule
4. Wall of glomerular capillaries
Podocytes possess foot like projections, the pedicers. Hence called as foot cells.
Freshwater Bony fishes maintain water balance by
1. Excreting a hypotonic solution
2. Excreting salt across their gills
3. Drinking small amount of water
4. Excreting wastes in the form of uric acid
Which one of the following statements is correct with respect to salt water
balance inside the body of living organisms?
1. when water is not available camels do not produce urine but store urea in
tissues
2. Salman fish excretes lots of stored salt through gill membrane when in
freshwater
3. Paramecium discharges concentrated salt solution by contractile
vacuoles
4. the body fluids of freshwater animals are generally hypotonic to
surrounding water
Camels produce nearly dry faeces and highly concentrated urine. In the scarcity
of water they use only metabolic waste and store urea in their body tissues.
Due to insufficient filtration in the bowmans capsule all are likely to
happen except
1. accumulation of fluid in the body
2. increase in blood pressure
3. increase in blood urea level
4. loss of glucose through urine
Insufficient filtration will increase the blood urea level because all the quantity
of urea produced by liver would not be filtered through glomerular capsule.
Loss of glucose through urine always takes place due to the insufficient
reabsorption
In which of ha boy following organisms Malphigian tubule is found?
1. Honey bee
2. Frog
3. Ascaris
4. Rabbit
Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa
mainly because of
1. Change in N levels
2. Change in levels of thermal tolerance
3. Variation in light intensity
4. Osmotic pressure
5. Spectral quality of solar radiation
Select the incorrect statement from the following:
1. Ammonia is readily soluble in water
2. Ammonia is generally excreted by the process of diffusion
3. Ammonia is secreted as ammonia ions through the gill surface in fishes.
4. Ammonia is the major and urea and uric acid are the minor forms of
nitrogenous waste excreted by animals.
Which of the following is ureotelic?
1. Mammals
2. most of the terrestrial amphibians
3. Marine fishes
4. all of the above
The animal which retains urea for hypertonicity is (most appropriate) :
1. Elasmobranch
2. Man
3. Bird
4. Amphibian
The extensions of cortex in medulla is known as
1. Columnae carneae
2. Column of bertini
3. Renal columns
4. Both 2 and 3
Mammalian kidney serve to excrete
1. Excess water, urea and amino acids
2. Excess salts, urea and Excess water
3. Excess salts, Excess water and Excess amino acids
4. Excess salts, urea and water
The glomerular filtration rate would be decreased by
1. Constriction of the efferent arteriole
2. An increase in afferent arteriole pressure
3. Compression of the renal capsule
4. An increase in the renal blood flow
The amount of filtrate formed by the kidneys are
1. 125 ml/min
2. 7.5 litre/hr
3. 180 litre/day
4. All of these
Choose corrected statement about absorption in renal tubule from the
following
1. Glucose, amino acids and sodium ion reabsorbed actively
2. Nitrogenous waste are absorbed by passive transport
3. 70 to 80% of electrolyte and water are absorbed in PCT
4. all after above
Which of the following is an incorrect statement about filtration?
1. selective process
2. non selective process
3. Performed by glomerulus
4. it occurs through the usage of capillary blood pressure
Which of the following part has minimum reabsorption?
1. PCT
2. Henle’s loop
3. DCT
4. Collecting duct
Which of the following is incorrect about counter current mechanism?
1. the flow of filtrate into limbs of vasa recta is in opposite direction
2. The flow of blood into limbs of vasa recta is also in opposite direction
3. NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is
exchanged with the descending limb of vasa recta
4. NaCl is returned to its interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa
recta
Which of the following is most likely to cause an increase in the glomerular
filtration rates?
1. Blockage of ureter
2. Dilation of the afferent arterioles
3. Release of renin from the juxtaglomerular apparatus
4. volume depletion
When a person is suffering from poor renal reabsorption which one of the
following will not help in maintenance of blood volume?
1. Increased ADH secretion
2. Decreased glomerular filtration
3. Increased arterial pressure in kidneys
4. Decreased arterial pressure in kidneys
What is the ratio of concentration of outer medulla to outer portion of
inner medulla? ¼
The functioning of kidney is regulated by
1. Hypothalamus
2. JGA
3. Heart
4. All of these
ADH causes
1. Increased water absorption in DCT & CT
2. Increased GFR by increasing blood pressure
3. Increased reabsorption of electrolyte from distal tubules
4. All of these
Select the correct matching:
Colour pH Odour
Light yellow 7.0 Characteristic
Light yellow 6.0 Characteristic
 Light yellow 6.5 Pungent
Light yellow 6.0 Almond
Sweat contains
1. Watery fluid with NaCl
2. Urea
3. Lactic acid
4. All of these
Primary function of sweat is
1. Removal of excess of water
2. Removal of urea
3. Cooling of body surface
4. All of these
Nitrogenous waste is eliminated through
1. Kidney
2. Sweat
3. Saliva
4. All of these
Which of the following is not the part of renal tubule?
1. PCT
2. DCT
3. Bowman’s capsule
4. Collecting duct
Medullary gradient is developed by all the following except
1. Reabsorption of Na+ from ascending limb of Henle’s loop into the
medullary interstitium
2. Reabsorption of Na+ from the descending limb of Henle’s loop
3. Diffusion of small amount of urea from collecting duct into the
medullary interstitium
4. Proximity between Henle’s loop and Vasa recta as well as the counter
current in them
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by the changes in
1. Body fluid volume
2. Blood volume
3. Ionic concentration
4. All of these
Constriction of the affluent arteriole would result in
1. An increase in blood flow into the efferent arteriole
2. A decrease in glomerular filtration
3. An increase in hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus
4. An increase in the protein concentration of the glomerular filtrate
In response to increased levels of aldosterone, the kidneys produce
1. Urine with lower concentration of sodium ions
2. urine with lower concentration of potassium ions
3. a larger volume of urine
4. Urine with less urea
Which of the following reasons cannot be attributed to cause of renal
failures?
1. Uremia
2. Hypertension
3. Diabetes mellitus
4. Diabetes insipidus
Which statement most accurately describes the primary role in the loop of
Henle in urine formation?
1. Henle’s loop deposits Na+ and Cl- in the medullary region of the kidney
increasing its osmolarity
2. ADH acts in loop of Henle to increase water reabsorption
3. The ascending loop of Henle contributes to the high osmolarity of the
medullary region by depositing urea
4. The loop of Henle is responsible for most of the Na+ reabsorbed by the
nephron tubule
The amount of Na+ excreted in the urine is primarily determined by
1. The amount of ADH released by the posterior pituitary gland
2. Hormonal regulation of Na+ reabsorption in the DCT
Which of the following would result in the production of hypotonic urine?
1. Dehydration in an individual
2. An increase in the permeability of the collecting duct to water
3. A decrease in ADH release by the brain
4. A decrease and water reabsorption by the loop of Henle
The transfer of fluid from the glomerulus to bowman’s capsule
1. Results from active transport
2. Transfers large molecules as easily as small ones
3. Is very selective as to which the protein sized molecule are transferred
4. It’s mainly a consequence of blood pressure in the capillaries of the
glomerulus
Which of the following process of osmoregulation by the kidneys is the least
selective?
1. Salt pumping to control osmolarity
2. H+ pumping to control pH
3. Reabsorption
4. Filtration
The high osmolarity of the renal medulla is maintained by all of the
following except
1. Diffusion of salt from the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s
loop
2. Active transport of salt from upper region of the ascending limb
3. The spatial arrangement of juxtamedullary nephron
4. Diffusion of salt from the descending limb of Henle’s loop
Fish gills are ______ in function
1. Respiratory
2. Osmoregulatory
3. Excretory
4. All of these
Identify the correct statement regarding the excretion of acids by the
human kidney
1. The filtered carbonic acid is absorbed by anion transport
2. Intercalated disc of distal tubule secretes H+ to reabsorbed carbonic acid
from tubular fluid.
3. All the filtered carbonic acid ion are normally absorbed in the first half
of DCT
4. Urine pH is usually greater than that of plasma
The main disadvantage of urea as excretory product for animals would be
1. It’s is highly toxic
2. Needs a lot of water to be eliminated
3. It’s being osmolyte
4. Energy expenditures to produce it

 FILL IN THE BLANKS:

 A person with high blood volume than the normal would show increased
Na+ in urine
 Proper functioning of the human kidney requires considerable active
transport of Na on he kidney tubules if these active transport
mechanisms were stopped completely, then how would urine production
be affected? A greater than normal volume of iso-osmotic urine would be
produced
 Which two compounds play a main role in maintaining the osmolarity
gradient in medulla? Sodium chloride and urea
 Which substance present in a urine sample, would likely be caused by a
trauma? Erythrocytes
 What would account for increased urine production as a result of
drinking alcoholic beverages? Inhibition of ADH
 How does ADH function at the cellular level? It causes an increase in the
number of aquamarine molecules of collecting duct cells
 Organisms categorized as osmoconformers are most likely marine
 Creatinine is formed by breakdown of creatine phosphate in muscle.
 Which substance is secreted by the PCT cells and prevents the pH of
urine from becoming too much acidic? Ammonia
 Which hormones coordinate with each other to maintain ideal blood Ca
level? Thryrocalcitonin and Parathyroid hormone
 In old age people, defects in kidney is due to nephron degeneration
 In a laboratory experiment with 3 groups, one group of people drink
water, a second group drink equal amount of beer and a third group
drinks and equal amount of concentrated salt solution all during the
same time. Their urine production is measured for several hours. At the
end of the measurement period, which group will have produced the
greatest volume of urine and which group the least? Beer the most, salt
solution the least
 What will happen to GFR if the affluent arteriole smooth muscle is
contracted? GFR will increase
 GFR can be determined by calculating the renal clearance of insulin.
 A blockage in glomerulus would directly obstruct blood flow into
efferent arteriole
 If the pH of the blood decreases, the pH of urine will decrease
 Peristaltic muscular contractions are important from conveying urine
through the excretory system. Peristalsis of the detrusor muscles of the
urinary bladder is controlled by parasympathetic nervous impulses
 Aldosterone stimulates the secretion of K+ from the peritubular blood into
the DCT
 The osmoregulatory tissue in all the animals is epithelial.
 Marine telecasts, undergoing putrefaction, emit sharp characteristic
odour which is due to the production of trimethylamine. Marine teleost
form trimethylamine from their ammonia by methylation process which
produce foul smell on oxidation.
 Blood doping means the use of banned substances by athletes that have
a favourable effect on the erythrocytes count by stimulating the bone
marrow. The source of such a hormone can be on human kidney
 The part of nephron involved in active reabsorption of sodium is PCT.
 Intake of ORS inhibits the secretion of vasopressin
 The greatest amount of H+ secreted by the PCT is associated with
reabsorption of bicarbonate ion.
 The amount of K+ excreted by the kidney will decrease if Na+
reabsorption by the distal nephron decreases.
 ADH is synthesized by Hypothalamus, released by Neurohypophysis and
acts on DCT & CT
 The projections of renal pelvis are called calyces
 Ammonia is very toxic substance especially for a brain cell. Injections of
very dilute solutions of it in the blood can comatose a person because.
This is because ammonia ions affect the brain cell function by changing the
polarity of the cell membranes.
 RAAS acts against a hormone, chemical nature of which is polypeptide.
 What is the difference between CSF & glomerular filtrate? 0
 The blood supply to the kidney’s changes from arterial to venous blood
upon leaving The peritubular capillaries
 Which urine formation process results in acid elimination? Secretion
 If the efferent arteriole constricts while the affluent arteriole remains
unchanged, the glomerular filtrate rate increases
 Death of mitochondria in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle would
result in increase Na+ and Cl- ions in the urine output
 The absorption of amino acids and glucose when filtered concentration
is high is by facilitated diffusion.
 The counter current mechanism helps to maintain a concentration
gradient. This gradient helps in inhibition of passage of water between the
collecting tubule and medulla so isotonic urine is formed.
 NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is
exchanged with descending loop of vasa recta
 The part of Henle loop impermeable to descending limb of loop of Henle
 The part of nephron impermeable to water is ascending limb of Henle’s
loop.
 In comparison to blood plasma, % glucose in glomerular filtrate is
equal.
 Decreased level of ADH results in production of hypotonic solution.
 Urine is concentrated with the help of aldosterone and ADH
 Uric acid is formed in humans from purine.
 Removal of amino group of amino acid to transform it to keto acid is
deamination.
 In renal tubules the permeability of the DCT and the collecting duct to
water is controlled by vasopressin.
 Diabetes insipidus is due to hypo secretion of hypothalamus hormone.
 Urea is the breakdown product of the amino acids
 Most insects are uricotelic
 The kidneys help regulate acid base balance by controlling the level of
H+ and Carbonic acid in the blood.
 The layer of fibrous connective tissue that surrounds each kidney is
renal capsule.
 The broad commencement of ureter in the mammalian kidney is renal
pelvis.
 The columns of the Bertini in the kidney of the mammals are formed as
extensions of cortex in the medulla.
 Duct of Bellini opens into the renal pelvis.
 The composition of extracellular fluid is regulated by kidneys.
 The animal that excretes amino acids without destination is Unio.
 Our lung removes 18L of carbon dioxide per hour from the body
 Renal transplantation is the ultimate method for the correction of acute
renal failure.
 Nephron produces how much concentrated urine? 5 times
 When 2 to 3 drops of Benedict l’s reagent ate added to a urine sample
and heated gently, it turns yellow. This colour change indicates that
urine contains 1% glucose
 Inner to the hilum of Kidney is a broad funnel shaped space called
pelvis.
 On average, 1100-1200 mL of blood is filtered by the kidney per minute
which constitute roughly 1/5th of the blood pumped out by each ventricle
of the heart in a minute.
 A X ray of the lower abdomen shows a shadow in the region of the
ureter suspected to be a ureteric calculus. A possible clinical symptom
would be Anuria and haematuria
 Reabsorption of chloride ions from glomerular filtrate in Kidney tubule
occurs by diffusion
 Each kidney has nearly how many nephrons? 1 million
 The urine is hypertonic to blood and isotonic to medullary fluid.
 Absence of factor VIII is called Haemophilia
 Which part of nephron is affected by aldosterone? Distal convoluted
tubule
 Renal corpuscles can be divided into Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus
 Vasa recta are tubular capillaries around Loop of Henle.
 Diuresis is a condition characterized by increase in volume of urine
 Broad funnel shaped space inner to the hilum of Kidney is called pelvis
 Medial surface of Kidney is concave while lateral surface is convex.
 Homeostasis term was proposed by Walter Cannon.
 Bowman’s capsule is lined by squamous epithelial
 Excess glucose in blood is called Hyperglycaemia
 Kidney crystals are solid crystal of phosphate and uric acid.
 The excretory organ in cockroach is Malpighian tubule.
 Waste product of adenine and guanine (purines) metabolism are
excreted by man as uric acid.
Main sources of uric acid are purine. Purine like adenine and guanine change
into xanthine which changes into uric acid.
 If 1L water is introduced in human blood then RBCs collapse and urine
production increases.
 All bowman’s capsule of the kidney is found in cortex.
 The glands which help in absorbing odoriferous substances to stimulate
olfactory nerve are Bowman’s capsule
 The size of filtration slits of glomerulus 25nm
 Urinary bladder is absent in snakes
 The most abundant, harmful and universal waste product of metabolism
is carbon dioxide.
 Excretory organ of Ascaris lumbricoides is made up of only one cell.
Ascaris has a H shaped tubular excretory system. It is supposed to be formed
by a huge single excretory repeatedly cell.
 Haemodialysis helps in the patient having uraemia.
 Which pollutant accumulates in kidney and liver? Mercury
 Mesonephric kidneys are found in amphibians.
 In rabbit the urinary bladder opens into urethra.
 Nitrogenous waste in the Malpighian tubule flows into intestine.
 Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals is called
as gout.
 Counter current mechanism maintains the concentration gradient in the
medullary interstitium. It helps in easy passage of water from collecting
duct.
 A minute vessel runs parallel to the Henle’s loop forming U-shaped vasa
recta is a part of peritubular network
 Neural mechanism of micturition is called micturition reflex.
 The human kidney produces how much concentrated urine than the
initial filtrate formed? Four times
 How much amount of blood is filtered by kidneys/ min? 1100-1200 mL
 Sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes are eliminated through sebaceous
glands.
 Which of the following substance is actively secreted into glomerular
filtrate of the kidney tubule? potassium ion
 How many layers do filtration membrane consists of? 3 layers
i. Endothelial of glomerular blood vessels
ii. Epithelial of Bowman’s capsule
iii. Basement membrane between the above 2 layers
 At menopause there is an increase in urinary excretion of FSH
 The amino acid that acts as a carrier of ammonia from skeletal muscles
to liver glutamine
 Marcello Malpighi after whom Malpighian corpuscles are named are
born in Italy
 Volume of urine is regulated by aldosterone and ADH
 Ornithine is converted into citrulline by an enzyme ornithine carbamoyl
transferase.
 Renal plasma flow is normally 660ml/min.
 A person who is starving, that is not having food and is surviving only
on water will have less urea in his urine.