C For Cognition

7/6/23, 19:01 Units
Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL
Conceptualising cognition
Cognition is one of the four pillars of CLIL design and implementation. As explained in the
introduction, in this unit, we will deal with it through explaining 1) the relationship of CLIL to
cognitive theory; 2) its role in the 4Cs Framework; 3) the tool we will use for planning, Bloom’s
Taxonomy; and 4) the integration of cognition in the Formal Format. Before delving into its role
in the 4 Cs Framework along with its integration in the Formal Format, it is important to
understand what cognition is, which theory and methods are behind it, and, most importantly,
why it is
related to CLIL.
In order to put it simply, cognition generally relates to thought and learning, and specifically to a
group of learning-related skills human beings develop throughout life. Cognitive skills include
problem-solving, reasoning, decision-making, logic, learning through trial and error, discovery
learning, researching, eliciting information, meaning-making, facing dilemmas, categorising,
making analogies, making connections, observing, making hypotheses, or acquiring knowledge to
name a few.
Cognition: theories of learning
In terms of education and learning, cognition falls within the so-called theories of learning,
something which is fundamental in CLIL as, according to San Isidro (2017), an integration-
oriented approach like this is an amalgamation of different ways of learning (subject and
language oriented). Learning theories can be considered as an organised set of principles that
explain how individuals acquire, retain, consolidate and recall knowledge. By studying and gaining
an insight into the different learning theories, we will manage to better understand how learning
occurs as well as what is its relation to CLIL.
The principles of learning theories (cognition-related) can be used as a road map to help
select teaching and learning tools, techniques and strategies aiming to pro-mote learning.
Theories of learning can be classified as follows: behaviourism, cognitive information
processing
(cognitivism) and constructivism.
https://micampus.unir.net/courses/13860/external_tools/73337 2
7/6/23, 19:01 Units
Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL (II)
Behaviourism
Behaviourism goes back to the work of Skinner (1969) and the concept of operant conditioning.
Behaviourism theorists believe that knowledge exists as independent from and outside of people.
They understand the learner as a blank slate molded by experience. Behaviourists support the
idea that learning actually occurs when new behaviours or changes in behaviours are acquired
through associations between stimuli and responses. Consequently, those associations lead to a
change in behaviour.
▸ Learning process in behaviourism
The learning process is based on changes in behaviour, which are objectively observable.
Behaviourists define learning as the acquisition of a new behaviour or simply a change
in behaviour. Learning begins when a stimulus from the environment occurs and the
learner reacts to that stimulus with some type of response. The new behavioural pattern
can be repeated so that it becomes automatic. Teachers use behaviourism when
rewarding or punishing student behaviour.
▸ Examples and applications of the behaviourist learning theory:
▸ Rote work.
▸ Repetition-based practice.
▸ Use of bonus points.
▸ Use of participation points.
▸ Verbal reinforcement.
▸ Setting rules.
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The problem with behaviourism-based instruction is that it does not prepare learners for
problem-solving or creative thinking. Learners do what they are told and do not take the
initiative to change or improve things. Learners are only prepared for recalling basic
facts, automatic responses or performing tasks.
Cognitivism (Cognitive Information Processing)
Cognitive information processing is based on the thinking process existing behind the behaviour.
Cognitive theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather
than just responding to stimuli. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as a something
pointing out to what is going on in the learners’ minds. The learners’ minds process and develop
new knowledge and skills. Cognitive information processing happens when learners play an activ
role in looking for ways to understand and process information that they receive and relate it to
what is already known (previous knowledge activation). Cognitive learning theories are credited
to Piaget (1936, 1957).
▸ Learning process in cognitivism.
Cognitivists believe learning occurs through internal processing of information. As distinct

from behaviourism, cognitive information processing depends on an internal process
rather than on external circumstances. The cognitivist approach to learning theory
focuses on what happens inside the learners’ minds and puts the spotlight on mental
processes rather than on observable behaviour. Learning involves the rearrangement of
experiences, either by gaining new insights or changing the old ones. As a
consequence, learning is a change in previous knowledge, and not just a change in
behaviour.
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▸ Examples and applications of cognitivist learning theory:
▸ Classifying or grouping information.
▸ Linking previous knowledge and new knowledge.
▸ Structuring (mindmaps).
▸ Providing examples from the real world.
▸ Discussions.
▸ Problem-solving.
▸ Making analogies.
▸ Mnemonics.
Constructivism
Constructivist theory is based on the idea that we all build up our own perspective of the world,
based on our individual experiences and internal knowledge. Learning is based on how
individuals interpret and create the meaning of their experiences. Since everyone has a
different set of experiences and perceptions and every learner builds up their own knowledge of
the world, learning is unique and different for each person.
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Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL (V)
▸ Learning Process
Constructivist theorists (Bruner, 1961) believe that learning is a process where individuals
construct new ideas or concepts based on their previous knowledge and experience.
Everyone generates their own mental models, which are used to make sense out of
experiences. Learning is the process of adapting our mental models to accommodate
our new experiences. This theory is used to focus on preparing people for problem-
solving. Learners need a significant amount of knowledge upon which to interpret and
create ideas. Interestingly, in constructivism, outcomes are not always predictable
because it is learners that are building up their own knowledge.
▸ Examples and applications constructivism:
▸ Case studies.
▸ Research projects.
▸ Problem-based learning.
▸ Brainstorming.
▸ Collaborative and cooperative learning.
▸ Discovery learning.
▸ Simulations.
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The three theories of learning are related to the question of cognition, as they consider the level o
knowledge of the learners, the demands of the thinking process and the desired outcomes.
Questions such as experiential learning, scaffolding, activation of previous knowledge, schemas,
critical thinking, etc. have cognitive theory as a theoretical support and are part and parcel of CLIL
design and implementation.
Cognition: methodological features
Considering the theories of learning above and according to McLeod (2009), it is essential for
pupils to build on their existing schemas (in psychology and cognitive science, a schema (plural
schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behaviour that organises categories of
information and the relationships among them) and create new ones (previous knowledge and
experiences leading onto ac-quiring new knowlegde). This usually happens through discovery
learning and hands-on activities.
Stop here for a bit and watch the video «Schemas, Assimilation and
Accomodation» on the Resources section.
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There exist a number of methods teachers can use in order to activate and promote cognitive
development. An example, very important for CLIL planning and development, is the inquiry-
based method, related to the use of driving or triggering questions (seen in previous units).
Questions make content progress on a cognitive basis, as students learn subject matter out of
their curiosity for learning. Driving questions pose real world dilemmas in a simply stated way.
They raise predicaments that students find interesting and actually want to answer. The question
drives students to discuss, inquire, and investigate specific topics. In the process of investigating
the question and sharing their answers, students learn important content and skills. The more
cognitively demanding the questions, the more attention will be needed to ensure that learners
can access knowledge.
Another method, which is 1) based on constructivist theories, 2) developed out of the inquiry-
based approach above, and 3) focused on cognitive development is Discovery Learning.
Discovery Learning comes from the development of various people such as Bruner (1961). It takes
place in problem-solving situations where the learner draws on his own experience and prior
knowledge and is a method of instruction through which students interact with their environment
by exploring and manipulating objects, facing questions and controversies, or performing. The
point is that pupils will develop cognitive strategies while finding solutions to problems or
situations. The pupils need to use prior knowledge, and they will build upon it as they discover
new things through the activities. The activities can be: experiments, projects, designs, building
or designing things, etc.
Cognition-based methods aim to activate critical and creative thinking, something paramount in
CLIL (see Bloom’s Taxonomy below). Critical thinking activities allow the pupils to face challenging
problems, make decisions, find solutions, and create.
Let us now put the spotlight more specifically on the relationship of cognition to language
learning and CLIL.
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Cognition, bilingualism and CLIL
Besides being an instrumental part in content-learning, cognition also has a par-amount role in
language acquisition and language learning. As seen in unit 1, there exists plenty of research
literature on the effects of bilingualism on cognition, and, considering the fact that one of
the pillars in CLIL is the C for cognition, it is important to mention some key points that have a
clear
relation not only to bilingualism but also to the conceptualisation of CLIL: 1) mental flexibility, 2)
executive cognitive control and 3) creativity. The three aspects are connected to some
important factors in bilingualism in general and CLIL implementation in particular: language
interdependence, code-switching, problem-solving, different learning strategies and
development of higher order thinking skills.
1. Developmental research has confirmed that the acquisition of two languages at the same
time entails «greater awareness and flexibility with respect to the use of language»
(Hakuta & Diaz 1985, 327). Several studies have reported differences between bilinguals
and monolinguals with a range of experimental tasks, suggesting that bilingualism
influences a broad scope of cognitive processes, such as the inhibition of irrelevant spatial
cues (Colzato et al. 2008).
2. As far as executive cognitive control is concerned, Costa et al. (2008) argued that the
acquisition of two competing languages systems creates a particularly strong demand for
attentional and executive control over the languages, thus influencing bilingual children
both from a cognitive and linguistic perspective. Regarding learning cognitive styles,
Bialystok (2007) suggested that bilingualism alters the way that individuals conceptually
structure information and states that selective attention is one of the primary cognitive
benefits of bilingualism.
3. Regarding the third of the aspects, a review of the literature (Adesope et al. 2010)
suggests that bilingualism has an effect on an individual's creativity, by enhancing their
mental
flexibility, their ability to solve problems and to perceive situations in different ways as well
as the ability to maintain or manipulate these perceptions to suit the task at hand, all in
ways that matched monolingual peers do not exhibit.
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Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL (IX)
Research seems to support the view that bilingualism positively influences mechanisms of
cognition in terms of mental flexibility, executive control and creativity, on the grounds of the
bilinguals’ metalinguistic ability and their capacity for code-switching. This is something really
relevant in CLIL, which develops different learning skills, problem-solving, understanding of things
from different cultural perspectives and development of higher order thinking skills.
Let us now try and understand the role of cognition in the Four Cs Framework along with CLIL
design as a journey towards higher order thinking skills, i.e. Bloom’s Taxonomy.
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C for Cognition in the Four Cs Framework
The 4 Cs Framework (already seen in previous units, and dealt with in depth in the subject
Curriculum Planning for the purpose of curriculum development) lays useful methodological
foundations for conceptualising and identifying CLIL practices. It integrates four
contextualised blocks, by means of which content and language become integrated within a
context: content, cognition, communication and culture. As seen in previous units, Coyle’s 4
Cs Framework (Coyle 2008), whatever the model/method used, holds that effective CLIL takes
place through:
▸ Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding of the subject matter.
▸ Engagement in associated cognitive processing.
▸ Interaction in a communicative context.
▸ Developing appropriate language knowledge and skills as well as acquiring a meaningful

intercultural awareness through the positioning of self and otherness.
The effective cognitive processing above occurs hand in hand with the learning of multifaceted
content though communicative interaction and intercultural awareness. In CLIL, as seen in
previous units, acquiring content knowledge, skills and understanding is connected to learning
and thinking (cognition). Considering classroom planning and implementation, cognition is
inextricably connected to Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), which categorised
thinking skills as a progression from Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) to Higher Order Thinking
Skills (HOTS) , which we will deal with in section 8.4. below.
As regards its role in the 4 Cs Framework, cognition is the pillar:
▸ To formulate goals, assessment criteria, outcomes, or standards.
▸ To design learning experiences in alignment with the planning.
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C for Cognition in the Four Cs Framework (II)
In CLIL, content learning is related to the different cognitive levels and strategies. CLIL design and
implementation will be based on task-based (TBL) and project-based (PBL) work oriented to
creativity as the last stage of the process. Tasks must be designed to develop higher order thinking
skills, and lead to authentic communication in different interactive formats (individual work, pair
work, group work, etc). TBL and PBL will be dealt with in following units as well as in the subject
Curriculum Planning, in which they are an important part of curriculum development.
Regarding the 4 Cs Framework, cognition cannot be considered separately as it happens together

with the other three Cs. Cognition-based goals are formulated in a bidimensional way together
with the type of content —factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive— (see previous
units and the Taxonomy in section 8.4. below). Communication is used to learn content in
alignment with cognition. And the cultural and contextual perspective are dependent on and
adapted to both the language used and the content.
The C for Cognition (its formulation), the same as the C for Content, must be designed in
alignment with the planning of specific lessons (task-designing). In the design of tasks, we will
tak into account the cognitive progression from Bloom’s Taxonomy (see section 1.4 below) so as
to
endow our design with a structure aligned with our curriculum plan (dealt with in depth in the
subject Curriculum Planning). The final task will belong to the last categories and the pre-tasks
and micro tasks will be grouped in different stages regarding cognition. According to Cano (2013),
there are four clear stages for task development and implementation: introduction,
investigation, consolidation and creation. These stages are intimately connected to the cognitive
progression in goals.
▸ The introduction stage is related to activities/tasks which help the students see what they
know about the topic (watch a video, read a story, brainstorming...).
▸ The investigation or research stage is related to tasks in which students have to

manipulate, research and discover (matching, classifying, in-depth reading...).
▸ In the consolidation stage, the students structure what they have learned/discovered by
means of organising tasks (mapping, graphic organisers...).
▸ In the creation stage, students use H.O.T.S. to analyse, evaluate or create as well as share
what they have learned (make a presentation, record a video, make a poster…).
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C for Cognition in the Four Cs Framework (III)
The C for cognition must be also planned in alignment with integrated assessment procedures
(dealt with in previous units as well as in the subjects Curriculum Planning and Evaluation and
Assessment). As explained when we dealt with Meyer’s CLIL Pyramid (2010), when designing a CLIL
unit, the first thing to do is select content, i.e. the main topic, to later design the unit around
it: task-sequencing considering the content, the language and the cognitive demands.
Assessment will be multi-purpose, diversified, multifaceted and rubric-oriented, because it will
integrate the
four Cs. As regards cognition, assessment criteria will be formulated considering Bloom’s
Taxonomy. Let us now adress Bloom’s Taxonomy so as to gain a deeper understanding of
why cognition is one of the sinews of CLIL.
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Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy was developed in 1956 by psychologist Benjamin Bloom and several colleagues
as a method of classifying educational goals for student performance evaluation. It has been
revisited and revised over the years and is still used in education today.
Originally, the taxonomy was due to focus on three major domains of learning: cognitive,
affective and psychomotor. The cognitive domain is the one used for CLIL curriculum planning
(dealt with in depth in the subject Curriculum Planning), as it covers the recall or recognition of
knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities and skill; the affective domain covers
changes in interest, attitudes, and values, and the development of appreciations and adequate
adjustment; and the psychomotor domain encompasses the manipulative or motor-skill area.
Despite the creators’ intent to address all three domains, Bloom’s Taxonomy applies only to
acquiring knowledge in the cognitive domain, which involves intellectual skill development. The
original Taxonomy contained six cognitive categories: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In 2001, one of Bloom’s students, Lorin Anderson together with
Krathwohl and other colleagues, revised the original taxonomy. In the new version of Bloom’s
Taxonomy –which is the one people usually refer to when talking about Bloom’s Taxonomy–, the
names of the major cognitive process categories were changed to verbs so as to indicate action,
because thinking involves active engagements. Besides, instead of listing knowledge as a part of
the taxonomy, the category is divided into different types of knowledge, content or subject
matter (see previous units): factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Here lies
the relationship between cognition and content which will be the basis for goals, standards
and
criteria formulation when starting to plan CLIL curricula and units (C for cognition and content).
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Bloom’s Taxonomy (II)
This newer taxonomy of content also moved the evaluation stage down a level and the highest
element becomes «creating».
Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Source:

http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/Bloom%27s+Digital+Taxonomy
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Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used across levels and content areas. By using Bloom’s Taxonomy in
the classroom, teachers can assess students on multiple learning outcomes that are aligned with
national-level or school-level standards and objectives and to instructional goals, contents, etc.
in specific units or learning experiences. Within each level of the taxonomy, there are various
tasks that move students through the cognitive processes. In order for teachers to plan curricula
and
develop lesson plans that integrate Bloom’s Taxonomy, they should write their lessons in the
language that focuses on each level. Bloom’s Taxonomy provides an important framework for
teachers to use so as to focus on higher order thinking. By providing a hierarchy of levels, this
taxonomy can assist teachers in designing curriculum, lesson plans, performance tasks and
providing feedback on student work.
Anderson, Krathwohl et al. (2001), turn to cognition for goal formulation and curriculum design.
Objectives —describing intended learning outcomes as the result of the teaching-learning process
— are usually stated in terms of a cognitive verb plus:
▸ Some subject matter content.
▸ A description of what is to be done with or to that content.
According to them, statements of objectives consist of a noun or noun phrase —the subject
matter or content— and a verb or verb phrase —the cognitive process—. For example, in the
objective «The students shall be able to (or The learner will) remember the parts of the body»,
should be presented as «The students shall be able to», «The learner will», as formulae
introducing goals are common to all objectives since an objective states what students are
expected to learn. Statements of objectives should omit —and they often do— this kind of
introductory formula phrase, specifying just the process by means of a cognitive verb followed b
the subject matter phrase (e.g., Remember the parts of the body).
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Bloom’s Taxonomy
In this two-dimension interpretation of educational goals (cognitive process-content), the

cognitive process dimension reflects Bloom’s categories or levels of learning —from lower order to
higher order thinking skills— going from simple to complex:
▸ Remember: recognising or recalling relevant knowledge, facts or concepts.
▸ Understand: constructing meaning from instructional messages.
▸ Apply: using ideas and concepts to solve problems.
▸ Analyse: breaking something down into components, seeing relationships and overall
structure.
▸ Evaluate: making judgments based on criteria and standards.
▸ Create: rearranging diverse elements to form a new pattern or structure.
As to the second dimension, content or subject matter is related to knowledge, which Anderson,
Krathwohl et al. (2001) divide in four categories: factual, conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive (see previous units).
This two-dimensional quality refers to the two parts a goal comprises, referring to both cognition
and knowledge (content or subject matter). According to Bloom’s Taxonomy, from a cognitive
poin of view, in any learning process, students need first to remember and understand content
to
later apply their knowledge. Only then will they be able to analyse and evaluate it so as to
finally be able to create. This cognitive progression has to be taken into consideration for the
sake of
planning and designing. In the taxonomy, there is a cognitive progression from the lower order
thinking skills (L.O.T.S.) to the higher order thinking skills (H.O.T.S.). Each cognitive category can be
semantically related to verbs introducing educational goals or objectives signifying what students
are expected to attain:
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Bloom’s Taxonomy (V)
COGNITIVE PROCESSES & KNOWLEDGE DIMENSIONS
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
Table 1. Cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions.

Based on: Anderson, Krathwohl et al (2001).
Let us use an example that you will analyse in the subject Curriculum Planning. In a unit about the
Solar System, a possible enumeration of cognition-based content-related goals could be:
1. Review and identify the main stars in the universe.

2. Know the solar system and the stars it comprises.
3. Recognise the Moon as a satellite of the Earth and know its phases.
4. Understand the movements of translation and rotation as well as their consequences.
5. Describe the movements of translation and rotation.
6. Relate the movements of translation and rotation to day/night and seasons.
7. Research about solar system distances and dimensions.
8. Solve problems about hypotheses on the movement of the planets, tidal movements, seasons
and Moon phases.
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Bloom’s Taxonomy (VI)
9. Hypothesise about the size of the universe.

10. Review and practise data collection and data-representation through graphs.
11. Collect data comparing the differences in day/night times with a twin school in Scotland.
12. Organise data in tables.
13. Represent data in a graph —using an online application— and share them online.
The formulation of the subject-related goals above seems to show the intended cognitive
progression in the students’ learning experience in this unit. We can check it by placing
the
numbers of the objectives in the taxonomy table so as to classify goals in their two-dimensional
perspective, regarding cognition and content (knowledge). In this way we will know if the intended
objectives/outcomes cover the whole cognitive/knowledge binomium spectrum (something
teachers have to do when planning their specific Formal Format Planners —see below—):
COGNITIVE PROCESSES & KNOWLEDGE DIMENSIONS
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Factual 1
Conceptual 3 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 8 7, 8, 9 9 9
Procedural 10,11, 8 13
12
Metacognitive 10
Table 2. Taxonomy table checking the cognitive/knowledge

spectrum.
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Bloom’s Taxonomy (VII)
As we can see, the whole spectrum for both cognition and knowledge is covered. Some goals are
placed in more than one cell because they can be related to different cognitive processes. The
formulation of subject-related goals can be said to be helpful in terms of aiding the transition
from curriculum to implementation, since it clearly guides the design of possible tasks and
activities. It is important to be aware of this procedure to be able to incorporate cognition in the
Formal Format Planner, which we will deal with in the next section.
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Cognition in the Formal Format Planner
In the previous sections we have analysed cognitive theory, the role of cognition in the 4 Cs
Framework, and the use of Bloom’s Taxonomy in relation to planning and implementation. In
previous units we started the design of our Formal Format Planner through the use of the
previous c, the c for content. We will now go on to incorporate cognition, which is, in some steps,
coincidental with what happens with content due to the bidimensional relationship between
content and cognition regarding formulation.
Steps related to cognition in the Formal Format
The step which is more clearly related to cognition in the Formal Format is step 4, aiming to
formulate subject-related goals in alignment with task-designing. As seen above, CLIL design and
implementation will be based on task-based (TBL) and project-based (PBL) work oriented to
creativity as the last stage of the process. TBL and PBL will be dealt with in unit 12 as well as in
the
subject Curriculum Planning, in which they are an important part of curriculum development.
The important thing is that, when teachers formulate goals, they have to do it 1) by covering the
whole cognitive spectrum (see section 1.4. above); and 2) by aligning them with tasks. In other
words, the formulation of the subject-related goals must show the intended cognitive progression
in the students’ learning experience in the unit, i.e. ranging goals from LOTS to HOTS, by using
Bloom’s Taxonomy. As said above, the intended objectives/outcomes must cover the whole
cognitive spectrum. Verbs introducing goals must be bare infinitives and must be related to the
cognitive processes below.
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Cognition in the Formal Format Planner (II)
FORMULATE SUBJECT-RELATED GOALS THROUGH COGNITION
Remember… Analyse…
Understand… Evaluate…
Apply… Create…
Table 3. Planning subject-related goals.
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An example could be the cognitive formulation of goals for the topic «Clothes» for Primary
Education:
Cognitive formulation of goals for the topic «clothes»
Remember Identify materials from which clothes are made.
Find a waterproof garment in the classroom.
Understand Classify fabrics based on the origin of fibres and raw materials: natural
from plants, natural from animal fur/skin or synthetic.
Compare materials, noting the differences in colour, texture and use.
Apply Put some fabrics into water and compare the time taken for them
to dry.
Distinguish the properties and characteristics of different fabrics:

air/water permeability, absorbency, durability, resistance.
Analyse Use ICT to explore how to make materials waterproof.
Test different fabrics (cotton, silk, linen, wool, polyester, nylon,

plastic) and detect which are the most and the least water
resistant.
Generate hypotheses about the effects of water on different types of

material: cotton, silk, linen, wool, polyester, nylon, and plastic.
Evaluate Reflect about the environmental impact of some fabrics and

about recycling clothes.
Choose the best fabrics for different winter and summer sports.
Create Design and make a waterproof outfit for a Teddy Bear.
Make and decorate a fancy dress and a mask for a celebration

(Halloween or Carnival); take a picture of it and share it with an English
friend via email or WhatsApp or email.
Table 4. Example: Clothes.
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Cognition: prior knowledge activation
The same as happened with content in the previous unit, steps 2 (previous knowledge) is clearly
related to the question of cognition, as explained in the previous sections. Step 2, as seen in
previous units, is about clarifying the starting point in language and content terms, considering
what the students are supposed to know from previous years or previous units on the grounds of
curriculum information. Prior knowledge related to subject-matter content must be cognitively
activated, i.e. what students already know is a useful tool for helping them learn some-thing new.
From a cognitive point of view, in CLIL the important thing is not to memorise large amounts of
information, but activate prior knowledge to help pupils acquire new content. Some ways to
activate prior knowledge when designing in CLIL could be:
▸ Brainstorm the topic.
▸ Use KWL charts ( what we know, what we want to know what we learned).
▸ Use multimodal materials.
▸ Introduce new vocabulary.
▸ Help students make connections.
▸ Use context for clues.
▸ Use prediction.
▸ Use schemata.
▸ Ask questions.
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Cognition in the Formal Format Planner (V)
▸ Pose a problem or a specific scenario.
▸ Relate the topic to real life (experience).
▸ Use physical actions and gestures.
▸ Use story-telling.
▸ Use background knowledge.
▸ Make analogies.
Stop here for a bit and watch the video «How to activate prior knowledge» on
the Resources section.
Cognition: differentiation and driving questions
The same as content, and due to the bidimensional binomium content-cognition, cognition is
also present in steps 8 and 19 — related to que question of differentiation— and, on the other
hand, steps 9 and 13 —related to driving questions—. Regarding steps 8 and 19, contents and
their development through tasks will be planned (the same as goals) considering differentiation,
by resorting to Gardner’s (Gardner & Hatch 1989) Multiple Intelligences theory (see examples in
previous units).
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Cognition in the Formal Format Planner (VI)
On the other hand, steps 9 and 13 are related to both the general driving question in the unit and
the secondary driving questions, which keep content-learning going on a cognitive basis. As seen
in previous units, in CLIL scenarios, where cognition is integrated with learning and
communication, the use of questions is one of the teacher’s most important resources. Teacher
questioning, which encourages learner questioning, is fundamental for:
▸ Developing higher-order thinking skills, creativity and language progression.
▸ Making content progress, as students learn subject matter out of the curiosity triggered
by questions. The more cognitively demanding the questions, the more attention will be
needed to ensure that learners can access the language needed to respond to and
develop them. When it comes to the Formal Format Planner, teachers will:
▸ Craft a central question to the unit/module, which will be related to the final product
(final task/project), i.e. main topic/content of the unit.
▸ Craft secondary questions for the different parts of the unit so that the learning process
keeps going. See examples in previous units.
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Cognition: task-designing, scaffolding and assessment
Besides the steps above, COGNITION is also related to steps 10, 11, 17, and 20 in the Formal
Format Planner. As seen in units 6 and 7, step 10 is about crafting a final task, which will
be focused on developing HOTS from a cognitive point of view. The rest of the tasks will be
structured (step 11) through:
1. Driving questions (step 13 mentioned above), which will be crafted aiming to arouse
students’ curiosity and motivation so as to keep their work up. Driving and challenging
questions are linked to Bloom’s taxonomy insofar as they are oriented toward developing
HOTS. See examples in unit 7.
2. Grouping tasks (step 11) in different stages related to cognitive progression and the way
the students learn the content planned beforehand: introduction, investigation,
consolidation and creation (Cano 2013). These stages are intimately connected to the
cognitive progression in goals seen above. Let us see some examples of tasks:
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Figure 2 shows a brainstorming task, used as a means to activate the students’ prior knowledge.
From a cognitive point of view, it clearly belongs to the cognitive process «Remember» in
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Regarding structuring, this activity should be included in the introduction
stage (Cano 2013).
Figure 3. Writing task task. Source: San Isidro (2017)
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Cognition in the Formal Format Planner (X)
Figure 3 shows a creativity-oriented task, which, from a cognitive point of view, clearly belongs to
the cognitive process create in Bloom’s Taxonomy, although it is dependent on previous cognitive
categories (apply and analyse). Regarding structuring, this activity could be included in either the
consolidation or creation stages (Cano 2013).
Figure 4. Spider diagram. Source: San Isidro (2017).
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Cognition in the Formal Format Planner (XI)
Figure 4 shows a hands-on task based on schemata (mindmap representation of what learners
know), which, from a cognitive point of view, is focused on LOTS and clearly belongs to the
cognitive process apply in Bloom’s Taxonomy, although depending on the previous cognitive
categories (understand or even remember). Regarding structuring, this activity could be included
in the consolidation stage (Cano 2013). However, it could also be used as an introduction activity
aiming to activate previous knowledge.
Regarding step 17, related to scaffolded instruction in task-designing, is also specifically related to
cognition in relation to activating prior knowledge through the use of materials and resources.
Scaffolding is connected to the use of materials and resources related to the learning of content
and language. Teachers must plan the kinds of materials and resources to use, which should aim
to provide rich multimodal input. The choice of materials and resources will be clearly
dependent not only on the language of instruction (e.g. word banks, dictionaries, videotutorials,
grammar schemes, multilingual wikis, etc), but also on the specific contents of the CLIL subject.
Finally, teachers will have to design assessment (step 20), which will be formative and
multifaceted and will be designed in the shape of a rubric, as teachers will have to consider
criteria referring to different kinds of learning, i.e. four parameters: content, cognition,
communication and culture
(community). Assessment is dealt with in the subjects Curriculum Planning and Evaluation and
Assessment.
«Stop here for a bit and watch the video ‘Cognition in the CLIL Module Formal
Format’, in which we will explain how to integrate cognition in the Formal Format
planner».
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References
Adesope O., Lavin T., Thompson, T. & Ungerleider C. (2010). A systematic review and meta-analysis
of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research 80(2), 207-245.
Anderson, L.W. (Ed.), Krathwohl, D.R. (Ed.), Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich,
P.R. Raths, J. & Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision
of
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Complete edition). New York: Longman.
Bialystok, E. (2007). Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism: How Linguistic Experience Leads to Cognitive
Change. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 10(3), 210-223.
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31(1), 21–32.
Cano, W. (2013). Manual CLIL para centros bilingües. Madrid: UNIR Ediciones.
Colzato, L.S., Bajo, M.T., van den Wildenberg, W., Paolieri, D., Nieuwenhuis, S., La Heij, W. &
Hommel, B. (2008). How does bilingualism improve executive control? A comparison of active and
reactive inhibition mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and
Cognition, 34(2), 302-12.
Costa, A., Hernández, M. & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution:
Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106(1), 59-86.
Coyle, D. (2008). CLIL —a pedagogical approach. In N. Van Deusen-Scholl & N. Hornberger,

Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2nd edition, 97-111. Berlin: Springer.
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References (II)
Gardner, H. & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the
theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8): 4. Retrieved
from:https://www.sfu.ca/~jcnesbit/EDUC220/ThinkPaper/Gardner1989.pdf
Hakuta, K. & Diaz, R. (1985). The Relationship Between the Degree of Bilingualism and Cognitive
Ability: A Critical Discussion and Some New Longitudinal Data. In K.E. Nelson (ed.), Children’s
Language, 5. Retrieved from:
http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/khakuta/research/publications/(1985)%20-
%20THE%20RELATIONSHIP%20BETWEE%20DEGREE%20OF%20BILINGUALISM%20AND.pdf
McLeod, S. (2009). Jean Piaget. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from:

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
Meyer, O. (2010). Introducing the CLIL-Pyramid: Key Strategies and Principles for Quality CLIL
Planning and Teaching. In M. Eisenmann, & T. Summer (Eds.), Basic Issues in EFL-Teaching and
Learning. Heidelberg: Winter.
Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
San Isidro, X. (2017). CLIL in a multilingual setting: a longitudinal study on students, families
and teachers (Doctoral thesis). Vitoria-Gasteiz: University of the Basque Country.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Des Moines, USA:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.

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7/6/23, 19:01 Units

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL

Cognition: theories of learning

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL (II)

▸ Learning process in behaviourism

▸ Examples and applications of the behaviourist learning theory:

▸ Use of bonus points.

▸ Use of participation points.

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL

Cognitivism (Cognitive Information Processing)

▸ Learning process in cognitivism.

Cognitivists believe learning occurs through internal processing of information. As distinct

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL

▸ Examples and applications of cognitivist learning theory:

▸ Classifying or grouping information.

▸ Linking previous knowledge and new knowledge.

▸ Providing examples from the real world.

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL (V)

▸ Examples and applications constructivism:

▸ Collaborative and cooperative learning.

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL

Cognition: methodological features

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL

Cognition, bilingualism and CLIL

Cognitive theory, methods and CLIL (IX)

C for Cognition in the Four Cs Framework

▸ Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding of the subject matter.

▸ Engagement in associated cognitive processing.

▸ Interaction in a communicative context.

▸ Developing appropriate language knowledge and skills as well as acquiring a meaningful

As regards its role in the 4 Cs Framework, cognition is the pillar:

▸ To formulate goals, assessment criteria, outcomes, or standards.

▸ To design learning experiences in alignment with the planning.

C for Cognition in the Four Cs Framework (II)

Regarding the 4 Cs Framework, cognition cannot be considered separately as it happens together

▸ The investigation or research stage is related to tasks in which students have to

C for Cognition in the Four Cs Framework (III)

Bloom’s Taxonomy (II)

Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Source:

▸ Some subject matter content.

▸ A description of what is to be done with or to that content.

In this two-dimension interpretation of educational goals (cognitive process-content), the

▸ Remember: recognising or recalling relevant knowledge, facts or concepts.

▸ Understand: constructing meaning from instructional messages.

▸ Apply: using ideas and concepts to solve problems.

▸ Evaluate: making judgments based on criteria and standards.

▸ Create: rearranging diverse elements to form a new pattern or structure.

Bloom’s Taxonomy (V)

COGNITIVE PROCESSES & KNOWLEDGE DIMENSIONS

Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create

Table 1. Cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions.

1. Review and identify the main stars in the universe.

Bloom’s Taxonomy (VI)

9. Hypothesise about the size of the universe.

COGNITIVE PROCESSES & KNOWLEDGE DIMENSIONS

Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create

Table 2. Taxonomy table checking the cognitive/knowledge

Bloom’s Taxonomy (VII)

Cognition in the Formal Format Planner

Steps related to cognition in the Formal Format

Cognition in the Formal Format Planner (II)

FORMULATE SUBJECT-RELATED GOALS THROUGH COGNITION