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Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN DATA,

PRINCIPLES, AND TOOLS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil and Structural For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CSE-109.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Analysis and Design of Steel Structures
Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools
MODULE COMPONENT PAGE
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
STRUCTURAL STEEL TYPES, MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES, AND STEEL SECTIONS ........................................................................ 5
Types of Steel....................................................................................................... 5
Ordinary Grades ........................................................................................ 5
High-Strength Steels.................................................................................. 8
Special Purpose Steels.............................................................................. 9
Factors Affecting Choice.......................................................................... 10
Definitions, Values, and Significance of Mechanical Properties ......................... 12
Tensile and Compressive Strength .......................................................... 12
Yield Strength .......................................................................................... 14
Shear Strength......................................................................................... 14
Elongation................................................................................................ 14
Ductility .................................................................................................... 15
Hardness ................................................................................................. 16
Chemical Composition ............................................................................. 16
Physical Properties............................................................................................. 17
Density..................................................................................................... 17
Thermal Expansion .................................................................................. 18
Types of Sections .................................................................................... 19
Designation and Dimensioning of Sections.............................................. 21
Properties of Sections.............................................................................. 33
SELECTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR STEEL STRUCTURES............................... 35
Allowable Stress Design (ASD) .......................................................................... 35
Basic Concepts ........................................................................................ 35
Allowable Stresses................................................................................... 37
Factor of Safety (F.S.) ............................................................................. 37
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) ...................................................... 39
Basic Concepts ........................................................................................ 39
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Load Factors and Combinations .............................................................. 40

Limit States .............................................................................................. 42
Design Strengths for Factored Loads and Serviceability
Requirements .......................................................................................... 43
Plastic Design (PD) ............................................................................................ 44
Basic Concepts ........................................................................................ 44
Relationships to LRFD ............................................................................. 44
Applications and Limitations of ASD, LRFD, and PD Principles ......................... 46
SELECTING COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR STEEL STRUCTURE
DESIGNS ...................................................................................................................... 47
Types of Computer Programs Available in Saudi Aramco .................................. 47
Mainframe Applications............................................................................ 47
PC Applications ....................................................................................... 47
General Purpose vs. Specialty Computer Programs .......................................... 47
Supported (Licensed) vs. Unsupported Computer Programs ............................. 48
Supported (Licensed) Programs .............................................................. 48
Unsupported Programs............................................................................ 49
Computer-Aided Design Packages..................................................................... 49
When to Use Computer Programs...................................................................... 50
Cautions and Limitations on the Use of Computer Programs ............................. 51
PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES.............. 52
Factors Affecting Design .................................................................................... 52
Safety and Reliability ............................................................................... 52
Function and Serviceability ...................................................................... 52
Maintenance ............................................................................................ 52
Economics and Cost ................................................................................ 52
Implications and Significance of These Factors.................................................. 53
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................... 54
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 55
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Ordinary Grades of Steel ............................................................................... 6

Figure 2. ASTM A6 Structural Section Size Groupings ................................................. 7
Figure 3. High-Strength Steel........................................................................................ 8
Figure 4. Special Purpose Steel .................................................................................. 10
Figure 5. Steel Selection Checklist.............................................................................. 11
Figure 6. Stress/Strain Relationship ............................................................................ 13
Figure 7. Elongation .................................................................................................... 15
Figure 8. Chemical Composition ................................................................................. 17
Figure 9. Common Types of Sections ......................................................................... 20
Figure 10. W Section Dimensioning ............................................................................ 21
Figure 11. M Section Dimensioning............................................................................. 22
Figure 12. S Section Dimensioning ............................................................................. 23
Figure 13. HP Section Dimensioning........................................................................... 24
Figure 14. Channel Section Dimensioning .................................................................. 25
Figure 15. MC Channel Dimensioning......................................................................... 26
Figure 16. Angle Section Dimensioning ...................................................................... 27
Figure 17. Tee Section Dimensioning ......................................................................... 28
Figure 18. Circular Hollow Section (Pipe) Dimensioning ............................................. 29
Figure 19. Square Hollow Section (Tube) Dimensioning............................................. 30
Figure 20. Rectangular Hollow Section (Tube) Dimensioning ..................................... 31
Figure 21. Example of Combination Section ............................................................... 32
Figure 22. Simple Boom Structure .............................................................................. 37
Figure 23. Load Combination Factor Formulas ........................................................... 39
Figure 24. Load Factors .............................................................................................. 40
Figure 25. Examples of Limit States............................................................................ 42
Figure 26. Beam/Bending Moment.............................................................................. 45
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

INTRODUCTION
This first module of the Analysis and Design of Steel Structures

course is Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools.
This module focuses on the application of design principles and
Saudi Aramco design considerations in the design of steel
structures. It also covers the types of structural steel and steel
sections with their mechanical and physical properties. In
addition, the module covers allowable stress, load and
resistance factor, and plastic design principles. Selection of the
most suitable computer program for the design of a given steel
structure and the rationale for that selection are also discussed.
An overview of the primary considerations in the design of steel
structures is given.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

STRUCTURAL STEEL TYPES, MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND

STEEL SECTIONS
Structural steel is typically described according to the type of

steel; the mechanical properties of the steel; the physical
properties of the steel; and, the shape and dimensions of the
steel.
Types of Steel
When designing steel structures, the engineer will primarily work

with three types of steel:
• Ordinary grades
• High-strength
• Special purpose
The American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) has

developed standardized specifications for these steels. The
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual of Steel
Construction refers to the ASTM grades of structural steel in its
charts and tables.
Ordinary Grades
Ordinary grades of steel are also called “carbon” steels and

have specified minimum yield points up to about 40 ksi. The
principal strengthening agents in these steels are carbon and
manganese. Ordinary grades of steel are normally selected for
Saudi Aramco construction. Grade A36 is the grade of steel
most used within Saudi Aramco. See Figure 1.

Availability of Shapes and Bars According to

ASTM Structural Steel Specifications
Shapes Plates and Bars
Fy
Group per Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over
Ordinary Grade
Mini- Fu
ASTM mum Ten- ASTM A6 1/2'' 3/4'' 1 1/4'' 1 1/2'' 2'' 2 1/2'' 4'' 5'' 6''
To to to to to to to to to to
Steel
Des- Yield sile

Steel a 1/2'' 3/4'' 1 1/4'' 1 1/2'' 2'' 2 1/2'' 4'' 5'' 6'' 8'' Over
igna- Stress Stress
Type tion (ksi) (ksi) b1 2 3 4 5 Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. Incl. 8''
32 58-80
A36
Carbon 36 58-80c
A529 42 60-85
a Minimum unless a range is shown.
b Includes bar-size shapes.
c For shapes over 426 lbs./ ft., minimum of 58 ksi only applies.
Available
Not available
Source: Manual of Steel Construction, page 1-7, copyright 1989. With permission from the
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Figure 1. Ordinary Grades of Steel
Grade A36 Low-Alloy Carbon Steel - Grade A36 steel is

available in minimum yield stress points of 32 and 36 ksi. The
tensile strength at minimum yield point of 36 ksi is 58 to 80 ksi.
Material at this rating is available in all five ASTM A6 sections
(Figure 2), including plates and bars up to and including 8 in.
The minimum yield stress available for material over 8 in. is
reduced to 32 ksi with tensile strengths at 58 to 80 ksi.

Structural Section Size Groupings for Tensile Property Classification
Structural Sections Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
W Sections W 24x55,62 W 44x198, W 44x248 W 40x362 to W 36x848

W 21x44 to 224 285 655 incl. W 14x605 to
57 incl. W 40x149 to W 40x227 to W 36x328 to 730 incl.
W 18x35 to 268 incl. 328 incl. 798 incl.
71 incl. W 36x135 to W 36x230 to W 33x318 to
W 5x16, 19 143 incl. 192 incl. 550 incl.
W 16x67 to W 14x145 to W 12x210 to
W 4x13 100 incl. 211 incl. 336 incl.
W 14x61 to W 12x120 to
132 incl. 190 incl.
W 12x65 to
106 incl.
W 10x49 to
112 incl.
W 8x58, 67
M Sections to 37.7 lb/ft
incl.
S Sections to 35 lb/ft
incl.
HP Sections to 102 lb/ft over 102
incl. lb/ft
American to 20.7 lb/ft over 20.7
Standard incl. lb/ft
Channels (C)
Miscellaneous to 28.5 lb/ft over 28.5
Channels (MC) incl. lb/ft
Angles (L) to 1/2 in. incl. over 1/2 to 3/4 over 3/4 in.
Structural in. incl.
Bar-size
Notes: Structural tees from W, M, and S sections fall into the same group as the structural section
from which they are cut.
Group 4 and Group 5 sections are generally contemplated for application as columns or
compression components. When used in other applications (e.g., trusses) and when
thermal cutting or welding is required, special material specification and fabrication
procedures apply to minimize the possibility of cracking.
Figure 2. ASTM A6 Structural Section Size Groupings

High-Strength Steels
High-strength steels are used when the design specification

requires better strength properties than provided by the ordinary
grades of steel. ASTM has established a standard specification
for these steels. Grade A441 is typically specified when the
design requirements exceed the strength limits of Grade A36
carbon steel. Grade A242 is used when improved corrosion
resistance is an additional design requirement and is the most
commonly used high-strength steel in Saudi Aramco. See
Figure 3.

Fy
Fu Group per Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over
Mini-
Des- Yield sile To to to to to to to to to to
Steel a 1/2'' 3/4'' 1 1/4'' 1 1/2'' 2'' 2 1/2'' 4'' 5'' 6'' 8'' Over
igna- Stress Stress
40 60
42 63
A441
46 67
50 70
A572 Grade
42 42 60
High - Strength
High- 50 50 65
Steel
Sterngth 60 60 75
Low-
Alloy 65 65 80
42 63
A242 46 67
50 70
42 63
A588 46 67
50 70

c For shapes over 426 lbs./ ft., minimum of 58 ksi only applies.
Available
Not available
Figure 3. High-Strength Steel

Grade A441 High-Strength Steel - Grade A441 is a general

purpose high-strength specification available in sections or
plates and bars at minimum yield points of 40 to 50 ksi. Tensile
strengths range from 60 to 70 ksi. Plates and bars are available
in thicknesses up to and including 8 in.
Grade A242 High-Strength Steel - Grade A242 provides the

same strengths as
Grade A441 but with improved corrosion resistance. Grade
A242 is limited in plate and bar thickness to 4 in.
Special Purpose Steels
Special purpose grades of steels are typically used when

unusually high loads are encountered, particularly in tension
members. Their increased strength is gained by the addition of
different elements and in the steel manufacturing processes.
Steels in this classification are quenched and tempered with
minimum yield points ranging from 70 to 100 ksi and tensile
stresses of 90 to 130 ksi. See Figure 4.


Fy
Fu Group per Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over
Mini-
Des- Yield sile To to to to to to to to to to
Steel a 1/2'' 3/4'' 1 1/4'' 1 1/2'' 2'' 2 1/2'' 4'' 5'' 6'' 8'' Over
igna- Stress Stress
Special Purpose
Quenched
Steel
&
Tem- A852d 70 90-
pered 110
Low-
Alloy
Quenched 100-
90
& 130
A514d
Tem-
pered 100-
Low- 100 130
Alloy

d Plates onlly.
Available
Not available
Figure 4. Special Purpose Steel
Factors Affecting Choice
The use of high-strength steels usually results in a reduced

structural weight. If the weight reduction lowers the cost of
foundations, supporting structures, or handling, transportation,
or erection costs, then the high-strength steels can and should
be used to advantage.

Figure 5 illustrates some of the considerations for selecting a

high-strength steel as opposed to an ordinary grade steel.
CHECKLIST FOR USE OF HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL
In structural steel design, A36 is c. When deflections can be reduced

generally the most versatile and through design features such as
economical of the construction steels. continuity or composite design.
However, there are occasions where d. When weight is important.
the judicious use of high-strength e. When fabricating costs can be
steels can result in overall cost and reduced.
weight savings, such as: f. When architectural considerations limit
the beam dimensions.
Tensions Members
High-strength steels can usually be Columns and Compression
used to advantage in tension Members
members except when the members a. When steel dead load is a major
are relatively small in section or when portion of design load.
holes (i.e., for bolts or rivets) b. When the slenderness ration (l/r) of the
substantially reduce the net section of member is small.
the member. c. When weight is important.
d. When fabricating costs can be
Beams reduced.
a. When steel dead load is a major e. When architectural considerations limit
portion of design load the column dimensions.
b. When deflection limitations are not a
major factor in determining section.
Source: Design of Welded Structures, Checklist for Use of High-Strength Steel, by O.W. Blodgett,
page 7.1-12, 12th printing - March 1982, © 1966.
Figure 5. Steel Selection Checklist

Definitions, Values, and Significance of Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of a steel relate to how the material

behaves when loads are applied. This section covers:
• Tensile and compressive strength
• Yield strength
• Shear strength
• Elongation
• Ductility
• Hardness
• Chemical composition
Tensile and Compressive Strength
Tensile strength, sometimes called the ultimate strength ( u), is

the resistance of a material to a force that is acting to pull it
apart. Tensile strength is one of the most important properties
in evaluating steels.
The tensile strength is determined by testing a steel specimen,

that is, machined and ground, under specified conditions. It is
calculated by dividing the maximum load the specimen sustains
during the tensile test, by the specimen’s original cross-
sectional area. The tensile test applies and measures stress on
the specimen, and strain is the physical effect of the applied
stress. The test results are shown as stress ( ) in pounds per
square inch (psi). The elongation of the specimen represents
the strain ( ) expressed as inches per inch of length (in./in.) or
as a percentage of length. Figure 6 illustrates the stress/strain
relationship.
Compressive strength is the point at which a material under load

experiences crush failure. In normal design practice,
compressive strength for steel is assumed to be equal to the
tensile strength. The compression test uses a short specimen
and applies a load from two directions in axial opposition.
Depending on the material being tested, the compressive
strength may be somewhat greater than the tensile strength.

The formulas for computing normal stress and strain are:
Normal Stress Strain
σ= P ε = ∆L
A Lo
where: = Stress where: e = Strain
P = Applied load ∆L = Beam deflection length
A = Cross-sectional area Lo = Starting length
70
Ultimate Strength
60
Facture
50 Upper Yield
Stress, 1000 psi
Point
Lower Yield
40
Point
Proportional
30 Elastic Limit
20
10
0
0 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200
0.025 0.075 0.125 0.175 0.225
Strain, in. / in.
Source: Metals and How to Weld Them, Strain/Stress Figure, by T.B. Jefferson and Gorham
Woods, page 21, 1978 edition, ©1962.
Figure 6. Stress/Strain Relationship

Yield Strength
The yield point is the point, measured in ksi, beyond which the
material stretches briefly without an increase in load. For low-
and medium-carbon steels, the stress at the yield point is
considered to be the material’s tensile yield strength ( y). For
other metals, the yield strength is the stress required to strain
the specimen by a specified small amount beyond the elastic
limit.
Shear Strength
Shear strength is the resistance to tearing or ripping of the

material. There are no recognized standard testing methods for
shear. Shear strength can, however, be obtained from an
actual shearing of the metal. Pure shear loads are seldom
encountered in structural members, but shear stress frequently
develops as a by-product of principal stresses or the application
of transverse forces.
When it is not practical to physically determine shear strength,

the ultimate shear strength for most structural steels is generally
assumed to be three-quarters of the material’s tensile strength.
The formula for computing shear stress is:
τ=V
A
where: = Shear stress
V = Applied shear force
A = Cross-sectional area
Elongation
Elongation (eu), a measure of the amount of deformation that

occurs in a loaded material specimen before it ruptures, is
measured during the tensile test. Elongation is generally
expressed as a percentage of the material’s starting length.
See Figure 7.

The formula for computing elongation is:
L − Lo
e u = 100 u
Lo
where: eu = Elongation in percent
Lu = Length after elongation
Lo = Starting length
Original Distance
Between Points, Lo
2 in.
Original Test
Specimen
Final Test
Specimen
at Rupture
2 1/2 in.
Final Distance, Lu, or 25%
Elongation in 2 in.
Figure 7. Elongation
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to stretch and become

permanently deformed without breaking or cracking. Ductility
can be measured by the material’s elongation percentage and
the reduction of area percentage. Materials with a large
elongation are said to be ductile. Ductility is usually a desirable
property in a structural member because the elongation warns
of potential failure.

Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or

penetration and is measured by a hardness tester. Steel
hardness is typically measured using the “resistance to
indentation by a particular shape of indenter” method. The
Brinell test uses a steel ball and measures the diameter of the
indentation to determine the hardness rating. The Rockwell test
uses steel balls of various diameters or a diamond cone and
automatically indicates the depth of the penetration on a dial.
Both tests are reliable, but the data cannot be converted
between the two tests.
Hardness measurements provide a quick and rough indication

of the mechanical properties of a metal.
Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of steel defines the nature and

quantity of alloy added, as a percentage of weight. Low-carbon
steel consists primarily of iron, carbon, and manganese. Other
elements may be present but are in the form of impurities. In
structural steels, carbon content is the most significant factor.
Carbon content, as illustrated by Figure 8, affects the hardness
and tensile strength of the material. As the carbon content
increases in steel, the:
• Hardness and tensile strength increase.
• Ductility of the material decreases.

Maximum Hardness, Rockwell C 70
Equivalent Tensile Strength, ksi

60
Maximum Hardness for Carbon

50 255
and Alloy Steels
40 180
30 140
20
10
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0
Carbon, Percent
Source: Engineering for Steel Construction, page 2-4, copyright 1989. With permission from the
Figure 8. Chemical Composition
By adding selected alloys to low-carbon steel, yield strength and

ductility can be improved. In addition, alloying elements can
improve corrosion resistance while maintaining the advantages
of strength, hardness, and ductility.
Physical Properties
Density
Density is expressed as mass per unit volume and may be

referred to as specific weight. Density is often used to
determine loads due to self-weight, or dead load weight, of
materials.
Mass (Mass )
Density =
Volume (V)
The density of steel is typically 490 lb/ft3 for design purposes.

Thermal Expansion
Most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled.

Temperature changes affect the deflection (movement) or stress
in a structure. The coefficient of thermal expansion is used to
determine the strain of a structural member.
strain =  T
where: = Coefficient of thermal expansion
∆T = Change in temperature
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is the strain per unit

change in temperature.
e=  T L
where: e = Change in length
L = Original length
For steel design purposes, is typically 11.7 x 10-6 (°C)-1.

Types of Sections
The main types of sections used in structural design are as

follows:
• W sections: sections having parallel flanges
• M sections: sections that cannot be classified as W,

HP, or S
• S sections: American Standard beams
• HP sections: bearing pile section
• Channel Section (C): American Standard channel

section
• Miscellaneous channel sections (MC): channel

sections that cannot be classified as C sections
• Equal angle section (L)
• Unequal angle section (L)
• Tee section (WT or ST)
• Circular hollow section (pipe)
• Square hollow section (tube)
• Rectangular hollow section (tube)
• Combination sections: two or more sections used

together
Figure 9 illustrates the different sections.

W Section S Section HP Section C Section

M Section MC Section
L Section Tee Section Pipe Section

Equal / Unequal
Tube Section / Tube Section / Example of

Square Rectangular Combination Section
Figure 9. Common Types of Sections

Designation and Dimensioning of Sections
W Section - The W section is designated by the nominal depth

and weight per foot. (For example, W18 x 97 is nominally 18 in.
deep and weighs 97 lb per ft.) W sections have essentially
parallel flange surfaces.
Flange Y
tf k
k1
Web
d X X T
Root
tw Radius
Y
k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
k1 = Distance to root radius from web centerline
bf = Flange width
tf = Flange thickness
T = Distance between root radii
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of
flange
Figure 10. W Section Dimensioning

M Sections - The M designation applies to sections that cannot

be classified as W, HP, or S. Due to the unusualness of M
sections, they may be difficult to obtain, and the dimensions
may vary depending on the producer.
Flange Y
tf k
k1
Web
d X X T
tw
Y
k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
bf = Flange width
k = Distance to root radius from outside face of flange
Figure 11. M Section Dimensioning

S Sections - The S sections designate American Standard

beams and have a slope of approximately 16-2/3% on their
inner flange surfaces.
tf Y k
d X X T
tw
Y k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
bf = Flange width
T = Distance to root radius between root radii
Figure 12. S Section Dimensioning

HP Sections - HP, or bearing pile, sections have essentially

parallel flange surfaces and equal web and flange thickness.
Y
tf k
k1
d X X T
tw
Y
k
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
bf = Flange width
Figure 13. HP Section Dimensioning

Channel Section (C) - The C designation represents American

Standard channels, which have a slope of approximately
16f(2,3)% on their inner flange surfaces.
Y
tf
T X X d
tw
Y
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
bf = Flange width
Figure 14. Channel Section Dimensioning

Miscellaneous Channel (MC) Sections - The MC section

designation represents channel sections that cannot be
classified as American Standard channel (C) sections. Due to
the unusualness of MC sections, they may be difficult to obtain,
and the dimensions may vary depending on the producer.
Y
tf
T X X d
tw
Y
bf
where: d = Depth
tw = Web thickness
bf = Flange width
Figure 15. MC Channel Dimensioning

Angle Sections (L), Equal and Unequal Legs - The L

designation indicates equal and unequal leg angle sections.
b
k
t
where: k = Distance to root radius from outside face of leg

t = Leg thickness
a, b = Leg lengths
Figure 16. Angle Section Dimensioning

Tee Sections (WT or ST) - Tee sections are typically cut from
W or S sections and conform to the flange specifications of the
W or S section.
tf bf
tw
where: d = Depth of tee

tw = Stem thickness
bf = Flange width
Figure 17. Tee Section Dimensioning

Circular Hollow Section (Pipe) - See Figure 18.
OD
ID
where: OD = Outside diameter

ID = Inside diameter
t = Wall thickness
Figure 18. Circular Hollow Section (Pipe) Dimensioning

Square Hollow Section (Tube) - See Figure 19.
where: t = Wall thickness

a = Nominal size
Figure 19. Square Hollow Section (Tube) Dimensioning

Rectangular Hollow Section (Tube) - See Figure 20.
where: t = Wall thickness

a, b = Nominal size
Figure 20. Rectangular Hollow Section (Tube) Dimensioning

Combination Sections - Standard rolled sections are

frequently combined to produce structural members for special
applications. When sized and connected to satisfy the design
and specification criteria, combination members may be used as
struts, lintels, eave struts, and light crane and trolley runways.
X X
Figure 21. Example of Combination Section

Properties of Sections
Steel sections have certain geometric properties depending on

the sections and sizes of the cross sections.
The properties that are most important for design purposes are:
• Area of the section (A)

• Moment of inertia ( )
• Section modulus (S)
• Radius of gyration (r)
Area of Section (A) - The area of a member’s cross section is
used in calculating simple tension, compression, and shear.
Area is expressed in square inches.
Moment of Inertia (I) - The moment of inertia of the cross

section of a structural member measures the resistance to
rotation offered by the section’s geometry and size. It is used to
solve design problems involving a bending moment. The
moment of inertia is expressed in inches to the fourth power
(in.4).
When working with a section’s moment of inertia, you must

locate the neutral axis (NA) of the section. To compute the
neutral axis, (1) compute the moment of each element of the
section, about a reference axis, and (2) divide the total of the
moments by the total area of the section. The result is the
distance (n) of the neutral axis from the reference axis.
There are four methods for computing the moment of inertia:
• Use the simplified formulas given for typical sections.

• Break the whole section into rectangular elements.
Find the neutral axis for the whole section first. Then
compute the moment of inertia for each element
about its own centroid or center of gravity (c.g.).
In addition, there is a much greater moment of inertia
for each element because of the distance of its center
of gravity to the neutral axis of the whole section.
This moment of inertia is equal to the area of the
element multiplied by the distance of its c.g. to the
neutral axis squared.
Thus, the moment of inertia of the entire section about
its neutral axis equals the sum of the two moments of
inertia of the individual elements.

• For built-up sections, use this formula:
M2
In = I y –
A
where: In = Moment of inertia of whole section about its neutral axis,

n-n
Iy = Sum of the moments of inertia of all elements about a

common reference axis, y-y
M = Sum of the moments of all elements about the same

reference axis, y-y
A = Total area, or sum of the areas of all elements of section
• Refer to the steel tables found in the AISC handbook

and other steel handbooks. The values in these
tables are for standard steel sections.
Section Modulus (S) - The section modulus is found by

dividing the moment of inertia ( ) by the distance (c) from the
neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the section.
I
S=
c
Radius of Gyration - The radius of gyration (r) is the distance

from the neutral axis of a section to an imaginary point where
the whole area of the section could be concentrated and still
have the same moment of inertia. This property is used
primarily in solving column problems.
I
r=
A

SELECTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR STEEL STRUCTURES
Three basic design principles are used in the design of

structural members or assemblies. These are:
• Allowable stress design (ASD)
• Load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
• Plastic design (PD)
Selecting the correct principle of design for the application is

essential to safe design. The applications, limitations, and uses
of the three principles are reviewed in this section.
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Basic Concepts
The allowable stress design (ASD) principle is generally used by

Saudi Aramco for the design of structures and is based on
elastic theory. It states that when complete external loading is
applied to a structure, the stresses that arise must not exceed
certain allowable values.
At the design stage it may not be possible to predict all the

applied loads. Some of the uncertainties are:
• An overload applied in the life of the structure.
• Defects in the materials used.
• Poor workmanship during construction.
• Differential settlement of supports.
If a structure is designed to a stress that is close to the elastic

limit, the yield stress may be exceeded in the life of the
structure. However, if a suitable safety factor is introduced, the
design stress will be well below the yield stress.
The ASD principle of design can be represented by the following

inequality:
∑Qi ≤ Rn / F.S.

The left side of the inequality is the required strength, which is

the sum of the load effects, Qi (that is, forces or moments). The
right side, the design strength, is the nominal strength or
resistance (Rn) divided by a factor of safety (F.S.). When
divided by the appropriate section property (for example, area or
section modulus), the two sides of the inequality become the
actual stress (left side) and allowable stress (right side).
The left side of the inequality can be expanded as follows:
∑Qi = the maximum (absolute value) of the following combinations:
D + LI
(D + LI + W) x 0.75
(D + LI + E) x 0.75
D–W
D–E
LI = L + (Lr or R)
where: D = Dead load effect
LI = Live load effect
W = Wind load effect
E = Earthquake load effect
L = Live load due to occupancy and
movable equipment
Lr = Roof live load
R = Nominal load due to initial rainwater
exclusive of ponding contribution
0.75 = The reciprocal of 1.33, which
represents the 1/3 increase in
allowable stress when wind or
earthquake is taken simultaneously
with live load
ASD, then, is characterized by the use of unfactored “working”

loads in conjunction with a single factor of safety applied to the
resistance.

Allowable Stresses
The engineer needs to proportion all structural members,

connections, and connectors so the stresses, due to the working
loads, do not exceed the specified allowable stresses. The
specified allowable stresses are compared with the stresses
determined by the analysis of the design load effects on the
structure. The specified allowable stresses do not apply to peak
stresses in regions of connections. In some cases, highly
localized peak stresses may exceed allowable stresses. You
need to exercise engineering judgment in this situation.
Factor of Safety (F.S.)
The ratio of the material’s yield stress to the allowable stress is

called the safety factor (factor of safety). In a structure made
from a linearly elastic material, the safety factor is also the ratio
of the load required to produce this yield stress to the working
load. A typical safety factor ratio for steel is about 1.5.
Sample Problem: Allowable Stress Design Problem
Given:
Select a suitable tubular member (b) to carry a load of 20 kips,
as shown, in Grade A36 steel using the allowable stress design
approach, with a factor of safety of 1.5.
(b)
30°
(a)
Applied Load = 20 kips
Figure 22. Simple Boom Structure

Solution: Allowable Stress Design Problem
Determine the design axial force in member (b) by force resolution:
Design Axial Load (b) = 20 = 40 kips

Sin 30°
Yield stress of Grade A36 steel = 36 ksi
Determine the allowable stress with a factor of safety (F.S.) of 1.5:
Allowable stress = Yield stress

F.S.
36
Allowable stress = = 24 ksi
1. 5
Determine the required cross-sectional area:

Design axial load
Cross − sec tional area =
Allowable stress
40
Cross − sec tional area = = 1.7 in 2
24
Using the determined cross-sectional area, 1.7 in.2, and the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction, select the tube section dimension that most closely approximates the
required cross-sectional area.
Answer:
Reference the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, p. 1-96, the Square Structural Tube
section chart. A 2 x 2 in. section with a wall thickness of 5/16 in. has a cross-sectional
area of 1.86 in.2.

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Basic Concepts
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is the principle of proportioning structures so
that no applicable limit state is exceeded when the structure is subjected to all
appropriate factored load combinations. Although not widely used at this time, LRFD is
gradually becoming the design standard of the future.
LRFD uses separate factors for each load and for the resistance. Because the different
factors reflect the degree of uncertainty of different loads and combinations of loads and
the accuracy of predicted strength, a more uniform reliability is possible than with the
ASD principle.
The LRFD principle may be summarized by the following inequality:
Σγ i Q i ≤ φR n
On the left side of the inequality, the required strength is the sum of the various load
effects (Qi) multiplied by their respective load factors ( i). The design strength, on the
right side, is the nominal strength or resistance (Rn) multiplied by a resistance factor ( .
iQi = The maximum of the following combinations.
Load Combination Load Combination Factor Formula
1 1.4D
2 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or R)
3 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or R)
5 1.2D + 1.5E + 0.5L
6 0.9D – (1.3W or 1.5E)
Figure 23. Load Combination Factor Formulas

Load Factors and Combinations
The load factors (1 through 6) recognize that when several loads act in conjunction, only
one assumes its maximum lifetime value at a time. Other loads are at their “arbitrary-
point-in-time” (APT) values. Each combination models the total design loading condition
when a different load is at its maximum.
Load Combination Load at Its Lifetime (50-Yr) Maximum
1 D (during construction; other loads not present)
2 L
3 Lr or R (a roof load)
4 W (acting in direction of D)
5 E (acting in direction of D)
6 W or E (opposing D)
Figure 24. Load Factors
The APT loads have mean values considerably lower than the lifetime maximums. To
achieve a uniform reliability, every factored load (lifetime maximum or APT) is higher
than its mean value by an amount depending on its variability.
In general, the resistance factors are less than one ( <1). Several representative
LRFD factors for steel members are:
t 0.90 for tensile yielding

t = 0.75 for tensile fracture
c = 0.85 for compression
b = 0.90 for flexure
v = 0.90 for shear yielding
Resistance factors for other member and connection limit states are given in the AISC
LRFD Specification.
An example of a load combination problem follows.

Sample Problem: Determining Load Combinations
Determine which load factor combination is the critical loading.
Given:
Roof beams W16 x 31, spaced 7.0 ft center-to-center, support a superimposed dead
load of 40 lb/ft2. Specified roof loads are 30 lb/ft2 downward (due to roof live load or
rain) and 20 lb/ft2 upward or downward (due to wind).
Solution:
Determine the critical loading for LRFD.
D = 31 lb/ft + 40 lb/ft2 x 7.0 ft = 311 lb/ft
L = 0
(Lr or R) = 30 lb/ft2 x 7.0 ft = 210 lb/ft
W = 20 lb/ft2 x 7.0 ft = 140 lb/ft
E = 0
Load Combination Factor Loads
1 1.4(311 lb/ft) = 435 lb/ft
2 1.2(311 lb/ft) + 0 + 0.5(210 lb/ft) = 478 lb/ft
3 1.2(311 lb/ft) + 1.6(210 lb/ft) + 0.8(140 lb/ft) = 821 lb/ft
4 1.2(311 lb/ft) + 1.3(140 lb/ft) + 0 + 0.5(210 lb/ft) = 660 lb/ft
5 1.2(311 lb/ft) + 0 + 0 = 373 lb/ft
6 0.9(311 lb/ft) – 1.3(140 lb/ft) = 98 lb/ft
Answer:
The critical factored load combination for design is the third (3), with a total factored
load of 821 lb/ft.

Limit States
Limit states are strength or serviceability conditions that represent a limit of structural
usefulness. Limit states may be dictated by functional requirements such as maximum
deflection. They can also be conceptual, such as plastic hinge or mechanism formation.
They may also represent the actual collapse of the whole or part of the structure.
The two main limit states are:
• The ultimate limit state when the structure becomes incapable of carrying
the applied loads.
• The serviceability limit state when the structure becomes unusable from
the owner’s point of view.
See Figure 25.
Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State
Strength (including yielding, rupture, Deflection

buckling, and transformation into a
mechanism) Vibration (for example, wind-induced
oscillation)
Stability against overturning and sway
Repairable damage due to fatigue
Fracture due to fatigue
Corrosion and durability
Brittle fracture
Figure 25. Examples of Limit States
Ultimate limit states are related to safety and load carrying capacity. Serviceability limit
states relate to performance under normal service conditions. Typically, a structural
member will have several limit states. For a beam, as an example, the limit states
include flexural strength, shear strength, vertical deflection.
Because the primary concern is safety, ultimate limit states are generally emphasized.
The load combinations for determining the required strength are given in expressions 1
through 6, as shown in Figure 23. Other load combinations with different values of
are appropriate for serviceability.

Design Strengths for Factored Loads and Serviceability Requirements
The design strength of each structural component or assembly

must equal or exceed the required strength based on the
factored nominal loads. The design strength ( Rn) is calculated
for each applicable limit state. The required strength is
determined for each applicable load combination.
The overall structure and the individual members, connections,

and connectors should be checked for serviceability. The four
items shown in the right column of Figure 25 should be
considered for serviceability.
Deflection, or deformation, is an essential limit check in

structural design. During design, definitive values cannot
always be given for each situation met. Situations may arise
when the published limits are either too strict or, more likely, too
lenient. In these cases the designer has to use his judgment.
When calculating deflections, he uses unfactored imposed and
wind loads and carries out the analysis on an elastic basis.
The vibration limit state may not be clearly defined for a given
situation. Modifying the natural frequency of the structure is
recommended when vibration is a critical factor. Designing to a
higher load factor does not always correct the situation and can
possibly make it worse.
The limit state of repairable damage due to fatigue covers those

cases where a fatigue crack can be found and repaired without
risking major structural damage.
The approach to the corrosion and durability limit state is to

consider the various factors involved in the deterioration of steel
and ensure that the structure has a reasonable life expectancy.
Factors affecting corrosion and durability are the:
• Environment
• Degree of exposure
• Shape of the members and structural detailing
• Protective measures applied, if any, to the surface of
the steel
• Possibility of future maintenance

Plastic Design (PD)
Basic Concepts
In some cases a design based on elastic theory (ASD or LRFD)

is conservative and wasteful. An alternative is the plastic design
(PD) principle. The plastic design principle is based on
calculating the load required to produce sufficient plastic hinges
in the structure to turn it, or at least part of it, into a mechanism.
This load is then divided by the load factor (rather than the
safety factor) and the value of the working load is determined.
In practice, of course, the problem is presented the other way
around. The approximate working loads are known, and the
sections of the various members are determined for a particular
load factor.
If instability may occur or if the design requires that deflections

be kept to a minimum, it may not be possible to use the plastic
design principle.
If a statically determinate structure has a set of working loads

(Pw) applied, the bending moment at any point is some function
of Pw. If the loads are all increased by the same factor ( all the
bending moments increase by since the structure is statically
determinate). When the fully plastic bending moment (Mp) is
reached at any point on the structure, a hinge forms, the
structure becomes a mechanism, and collapse occurs. The
value of that causes collapse is called the collapse load
factor ( c).
Relationships to LRFD
Plastic design is a special case of limit-state design, which

requires the limit state for strength to be the attainment of plastic
strength. This limit precludes having limit states based on
instability, fatigue, or brittle fracture. In plastic design, the
inherent ductility of steel is recognized and used. In LRFD
ductility is not considered, and only the elastic property is used.
The following sample problem illustrates the selection of a steel

section using the plastic design principle.

Sample Problem: Beam Selection Using Plastic Design
Given:
Using the plastic design principle, select the Grade A36 steel
section to carry a uniformly distributed superimposed load of 1
kip/ft on a 20-ft simply supported span, using a load factor of
1.7.
Solution:
The compression flange of the beam is fully supported against

lateral movement.
Beam
w = 1kip/ft
20 ft
Bending Moment Diagram
Mmax = 50 ft kips
Figure 26. Beam/Bending Moment
The load factor 1.7 is applied to the service load first, and the
required plastic moment is then computed.
wu = 1.0(1.70) kips/ft
Required Mp = 1.7 x 50 = 85 ft-kips
Mp 85(12 )
Re quired Z = = = 28.4 in. 3
Fy 36

Answer:
Using the AISC Manual, pp. 28-29, Plastic Design Selection
Table, select W12 x 22 with Zx = 29.3 in.3.
Applications and Limitations of ASD, LRFD, and PD Principles
Saudi Aramco typically uses the ASD principle for structural

design. ASD uses unfactored working loads in conjunction with
a single factor of safety applied to the resistance. Because of
the greater variability and unpredictability of live loads and other
loads in comparison with the dead load, uniform reliability is not
possible.
The major advantage to using ASD is its simplicity: it has no

load factors to apply to loading. The major disadvantage is that
ASD may be conservative and result in a waste of material.
LRFD is gradually becoming accepted as the best design

approach. The major advantage to using LRFD is that it
provides a more uniform reliability than ASD. This reliability is
achieved by applying different load factors, reflecting the degree
of uncertainty of different loads (combinations of loads) and the
accuracy of predicted strength. The major disadvantage of
LRFD is that it is more time consuming than ASD because load
and resistance factors must be applied to each load
combination.
Plastic design (PD) is the least used design principle. However,

when it is appropriate, it can produce the most economical
designs in terms of weight. Some disadvantages of PD are that
it:
• Requires an understanding of where plastic hinges

and their mechanisms will form in the structure.
• Requires consideration of different collapse
mechanisms to determine which will occur first.
• Depends on the inherent ductility of the steel.
• Requires that structural sections be capable of
developing the full plastic moment (plastic hinge
formation).
If instability may occur or if the design requires that the
deflections be kept to a minimum, it may not be possible to use
the plastic principle of design.

SELECTING COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR STEEL STRUCTURE DESIGNS
Types of Computer Programs Available in Saudi Aramco
Saudi Aramco uses a variety of computer software to support its

structural engineering applications. The computer programs
can be classed by the type of hardware on which they are run:
• Mainframe applications (for example, Oceans,

Strudyl)
• Personal computer (PC) applications (for example,

STAAD III, Algor, ANSYS)
Mainframe Applications
Typically, installation of mainframe computers requires a large

space and certain environmental considerations. Mainframes
have a large storage capacity and allow multiple users to work
simultaneously. Because of their large storage capacity,
mainframe systems are well suited to working with large
structural problems that are beyond the capability of smaller PC
systems. Depending on the number of users, the mainframe
computer system may be either slower or faster than a PC
system for a particular application.
PC Applications
PC systems are smaller than mainframes and are generally

considered desktop computers. In some situations the PCs
may be linked by a local area network (LAN), allowing
information exchange via the computer network. Even though
the PC is user dedicated, it has limited storage capacity due to
its size and supporting hardware limitations. This storage
limitation may restrict the use of PCs on large, complex
structural problems.
Some software applications are designed for mainframe use

only and some for PC use only. Other applications may be
compatible with either.
General Purpose vs. Specialty Computer Programs
General purpose programs (for example, STAAD III) are

capable of dealing with a large variety of structures. Specialty
programs are written specifically to analyze particular types of
structures or parts of a structure.

Some types of specialty program applications are:
• Finite element programs for plate/shell structures
• Marine structure analysis programs
• Foundation analysis programs
Although general purpose programs may be capable of

simulating special types of structures, they usually require
simplifying assumptions that result in a less accurate solution.
The analysis of certain complex or unusual structures may
require a specialty program.
STAAD III is a general purpose structural analysis program

used by Saudi Aramco. STAAD III allows both frame and
plate/shell elements to be modeled and analyzed. It also
provides dynamic analysis, including the calculation of the
natural frequencies of a structure and response spectrum
analysis.
STAAD III has design capabilities for steel sections. For steel
design STAAD III compares actual stresses with allowable
stresses as defined by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) code.
Supported (Licensed) vs. Unsupported Computer Programs
Supported (Licensed) Programs
Programs of this type are commercially available and are

accompanied by a full range of support functions such as:
• User manuals
• Telephone help lines (voice or fax)
• Upgrades when published
An advantage of using these programs is that the software has

been verified to perform within the limitations published in the
supporting documentation. When used appropriately,
applications of this type of software provide a high degree of
reliability.

Unsupported Programs
Unsupported programs are generally written in-house and are

sometimes referred to as “home-grown” programs. These
programs are primarily for in-house company use and are not
commercially available. Typically, they have only a limited
number of users and are poorly supported by documentation.
A disadvantage to using unsupported programs is that they may

not be properly verified. The information provided by these
programs must be considered suspect if proper verification of
the program has not been carried out.
Computer-Aided Design Packages
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) packages are sophisticated

drafting tools for the design engineer. Using a CAD system
permits greater flexibility in the design process and replaces the
traditional drawing board.
CAD applications allow drafting to become easier and quicker

with more flexibility in scaling, layout, copying, and presentation.
Being able to access the drawing for changes without having to
start over is an improvement over the board method. CAD
programs can also perform certain computational functions,
such as determining material quantities and component weights
from the drawings produced. Combined with the 3-D modeling
capabilities of some packages, CAD has made model building
redundant in some cases. In addition, interference, or “clash”
checks, can be performed from 3-D models to identify and
eliminate conflicts between components such as pipe routing
and cable trays.

When to Use Computer Programs
A computer program can assist the designer when:
• The complexity of a problem prohibits manual

calculation methods. When manual calculations
take too long, a computer program can speed up the
process. Often a more accurate solution is required;
manual calculations may require a gross
simplification of the problem resulting in a less
accurate solution.
• A large number of repetitive calculations and

analyses are required. When dealing with a large
number of repetitive calculations, using a computer
program reduces the time required for analysis
significantly.
• Fine tuning an analysis or design initially performed

by manual calculation. Computer analysis of a
previous problem solved by hand calculation
provides more accurate results and can be used as
a verification procedure. Computer programs are
also suitable when analyzing modifications to an
existing design.

Cautions and Limitations on the Use of Computer Programs
When the correct application is selected and used properly,

computer programs provide a valuable service to the engineer.
The following, however, are some common pitfalls to be avoided
in the use of computer applications:
• Incorrect simulation of the problem. To create a

computer model of a structure, the user must have
some idea of how a structure will behave. With this
knowledge, the designer can make the correct
assumptions regarding the analysis. A lack of
understanding of the problem usually results in
wrong assumptions and, therefore, incorrect
simulations (for example, wrong loading, locations,
intensities, etc.).
• Input error. Carelessness or lack of follow-up

checking usually results in inputting the wrong
parameters into the model. Input files should
always undergo a thorough check, preferably by
another engineer, before the program is run. The
results will only be as good as the information
entered into the program.
• Incorrect interpretation of output. The user needs to

be aware of the nature of the computer output, what
the output represents, and how the output relates to
the behavior of the structure (for example, the basis
of design code checks performed, sign conventions
used, etc.).
• Lack of understanding of the program being used.

The user needs to be aware of the limitations of the
program and the conditions under which the
program results would be unreliable. The output
should be viewed with the limitations of the program
in mind.

PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Factors Affecting Design
For a given design problem involving a steel structure, it is

normally not possible to optimize all of the design factors
simultaneously. Design is always a compromise within the
constraints. Some of the factors to be considered in the design
process are:
• Safety and reliability

• Function and serviceability
• Maintenance
• Economics and cost
Safety and Reliability
The structure must be capable of sustaining the design loading

safely and reliably. It must have the required integrity against
collapse or partial collapse.
Function and Serviceability
The structure must be capable of performing its required

function within the desired serviceability requirements. For
example, the limiting deflection must be considered.
Maintenance
Future maintenance requirements should be considered in the

initial design of the structure. This consideration may require
provisions for access to inspect and perform periodic
maintenance on the structure. To reduce maintenance,
corrosion control should be considered.
Economics and Cost
The design should always keep costs as low as possible. All

the following have direct relationships to the cost of a structure:
• Materials (selection of the appropriate type and

grade)
• Construction methods (including labor,
transportation, etc.)
• Fabrication methods (bolted or welded connections)

Implications and Significance of These Factors
The design of any structure is always a compromise of the

individual design factors. For each project, the designer must
prioritize design considerations and proceed accordingly. For a
low-budget project, cost may be the priority, provided safety is
not compromised. Where parts of a structure are difficult to
access, maintenance considerations may be the priority.

SUMMARY
In this first module in the Analysis and Design of Steel

Structures course, the Participant has reviewed material
required for the practical application of structural analysis and
design to steel buildings and process plant steel structures.
The Participant was introduced to the types of structural steel

and steel sections most commonly used within Saudi Aramco
along with their mechanical and physical properties. Allowable
Stress Design, Load and Resistance Factor Design, and Plastic
Design principles were also presented with examples illustrating
these principles.
The Participant was introduced to the use and selection of

computer programs and the rationale for deciding which
programs to use in designing steel structures. Also presented
were the cautions and limitations of using computer programs
for analyzing and designing steel structures.
Finally, the Participant was introduced to the primary design

considerations for steel structures and the factors affecting
structural designs. The implications and significance of these
design factors was discussed.
In the evaluation the Participant will be asked to answer a series

of questions that represent the knowledge gained from this
module. Some questions will also require the Participant to
select data from the tables found in the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction.

GLOSSARY
allowable stress Material strength divided by the factor of safety.
compressive strength The material stress at which crush failure occurs.
dead load A fixed position gravity service load, for example,

weight of structure.
density The weight per unit volume of a material.
ductility The ability of a metal to stretch and become

permanently deformed without breaking or cracking.
elongation The lengthening of a material when stress is applied.
factor of safety Ratio of the nominal strength to nominal design load.
hardness The ability of a material to resist indentation or

penetration.
limit states Conditions that represent a limit of structural

usefulness.
live load Gravity load acting when the structure is in service, but
varying in magnitude and location (for example,
movable equipment, vehicles).
load factor Factor applied to nominal load to reflect the degree of

uncertainty of the load.
plastic flow The condition beginning at yield point and continuing to

the point of failure.
resistance factor Factor applied to material strength to reflect the degree

of accuracy of predicted strength.
shear strength The material stress at which a tear or rip failure occurs.
tensile strength The material stress at which tensile fracture occurs.
thermal expansion The change in length of a material as a result of

exposure to heat or cold.
working stress Material stress arising from unfactored loads.
yield point The material stress at which plastic flow starts.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN DATA,

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

MODULE COMPONENT PAGE

STRUCTURAL STEEL TYPES, MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Load Factors and Combinations .............................................................. 40

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Figure 1. Ordinary Grades of Steel ............................................................................... 6

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

This first module of the Analysis and Design of Steel Structures

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

STRUCTURAL STEEL TYPES, MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND

Structural steel is typically described according to the type of

When designing steel structures, the engineer will primarily work

The American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) has

Ordinary grades of steel are also called “carbon” steels and

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Availability of Shapes and Bars According to

Des- Yield sile

Figure 1. Ordinary Grades of Steel

Grade A36 Low-Alloy Carbon Steel - Grade A36 steel is

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Structural Section Size Groupings for Tensile Property Classification

Structural Sections Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5

W Sections W 24x55,62 W 44x198, W 44x248 W 40x362 to W 36x848

Figure 2. ASTM A6 Structural Section Size Groupings

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

High-strength steels are used when the design specification

Availability of Shapes and Bars According to

a Minimum unless a range is shown.

Figure 3. High-Strength Steel

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Grade A441 High-Strength Steel - Grade A441 is a general

Grade A242 High-Strength Steel - Grade A242 provides the

Special Purpose Steels

Special purpose grades of steels are typically used when

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Availability of Shapes and Bars According to

a Minimum unless a range is shown.

Figure 4. Special Purpose Steel

Factors Affecting Choice

The use of high-strength steels usually results in a reduced

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Figure 5 illustrates some of the considerations for selecting a

CHECKLIST FOR USE OF HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL

In structural steel design, A36 is c. When deflections can be reduced

Figure 5. Steel Selection Checklist

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Structural Steel Design Data, Principles, and Tools

Definitions, Values, and Significance of Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of a steel relate to how the material