2amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Explored Drilling Fluids Explored Spread the word, not the oil. Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties — Oil and Gas Upstream Industry 1. INTRODUCTION The following document provides guidelines for selection and proper and cost-effective application of completion fluids. Because of the elaborate and varied nature of completing oil and gas wells, this documentation is meant for general purposes only. As with any well- planned operation, the specifics of using completion fluids in the field must be carefully considered before the completion is undertaken. For example, although information and guidelines for displacing a wellbore from drilling mud to completion fluid are provided in this document, no well-specific procedure is discussed. Rather, the principles of a good displacement and general procedural considerations and criteria are presented. Utilising Completion Fluids in Completion and Workover Operations With the recent proliferation of horizontal wellbores and open hole completions, many drilling and completion engineers now consider the ‘completion operation’ to begin as soon as the drill bit enters the productive interval. It is therefore necessary to plan procedures and implement practices to reduce formation damage and maximise productivity at the earliest possible stage. Proper selection and application of the completion fluid is an integral part of this process. Completion fluids can be defined as any fluid pumped downhole to conduct operations after the initial drilling of a well. Workover fluids are those used during remedial operations after a well has been completed and produced oil and/or gas. Clear, solids-free brine completion/workover fluids serve to control downhole formation pressures while reducing, the risk of permanent formation damage (permeability damage) resulting from solids invasion or some form of incompatibility between the completion fluid and the in-situ tips:iféilingfidexplore. wordpress. com2020/10/08intraducton o-compltion-brines-and-is-propertes-ol-and-gas-upstream-industry! a5:2ovon02e 11.98 troduction to Completion Exnes and its Properties ~ Oi and Gas Upsteam Inusty ~ Diing Fhids Explored matrix. The clear brines used for completion and workover applications are pure solutions of dissolved salt in water and must be stable at surface and downhole conditions. Depending on the application, other completion/workover fluid types are sometimes used, including solids-laden, oil based and emulsions. For the purpose of this document, no distinction is made between completion and workover fluids and the terms are used interchangeably throughout. Packer fluids are those that fill the annular volume above a production packer. The term drill-in fluid is recognised as referring to a drilling fluid designed specifically for the productive interval. Drill-in fluids are designed to minimise damage to the interval, typically by eliminating insoluble solids such as barite, minimising the total solids content and formulating such that a thin, resilient, removable, non-damaging filter cake is placed. Advertisement Bed ime in & Share! Join the conversation by commenting, subscribing, and sharing your ideas with us! Among the typical operations in which clear brines are applied are well kills, fishing, perforating, washing, drilling and gravel packing and as packer fluids. In order to perform the desired function, completion fluids must control formation pressures, circulate and transport solids, protect the productive zone, be stable under surface and downhole conditions, be safely handled, be environmentally friendly or used with controlled exposure, and be cost effective. Completion fluids have no purpose within the formation and may in fact reduce the permeability. The operator has two choices; 1.) minimise fluid losses to the formation and 2.) use a formation compatible fluid and accept partial losses. Clear brine completion fluids are formulated and applied in the field according to performance specifications that ensure well control with minimal permeability reduction. These specifications are not always expressly identified but should always be understood and assigned. Density and solids content (expressed as clarity - NTU) are typical performance specifications for clear brine, although selection of a particular completion fluid according to these alone can be dangerous to the productivity of a well. Proper density is necessary for pressure control. Clarity is necessary to eliminate formation plugging by solids. In addition to these, the all-encompassing term “formation compatible” is also a requirement and must not be overlooked. In order to select a completion or workover fluid appropriate for the application, one must understand the various types and properties of clear brine fluids. The remainder of this section provides this introductory information. Types and Properties The most common types of completion fluids are selected from those listed in Table 1. nitps/erilingfuicexplorewordpress.com/2020/ 10/08/introcucton4o-completion-brines-and:ts-properies-oil-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ 262amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Explored Table 1 Brine Type Density Range (ppg) | Typical Density (ppg) NaCl 8.33 - 10.0 8.4-10.0 Kal 8.33 -9.7 8.4-9.0 NH,4C1 8.33-8.9 84-87 NaBr 8.33 -12.7 10.0- 12.5 NaCl/NaBr 8.33 -12.5 10.0- 12.5 NaHCO 833-111 9.0-10.5 KHCO 8.33 - 13.3 10.8 - 13.1 NaHCO3/KHCO2 | 8.33-13.1 84-127 CaCly 8.33 -11.8 29.0-116 CaBry 8.33 - 15.3 4120-142 CaCh/CaBry 8.33 -15.1 117-151 ZnBr2, #12-21.0 19.2-21.0 2nBr2/CaBry #12-19.2 #14.0- 19.2 ZnBr2/CaBr2/CaCly | +12 - 19.1 +14.2- 19.2 Density and Blending Advertisement Youthful Skin Now! Discover proven methods to rejuvenate your skin and prevent wrinkles. Buy now! tips:iféilingfidexplore. wordpress. com)2020/10/08introducton o-compltion-brines-and:is-propertes-ol-and-gas-upstream-industry! 352ovon02e 11.98 troduction to Completion Exnes and its Properties ~ Oi and Gas Upsteam Inusty ~ Diing Fhids Explored The density of clear brine is obtained by dissolving salt in water. The density achieved is directly related to the amount of salt in solution. Table 2 shows the maximum solubility of standard completion fluid salts in water at room temperature. Table 2 ze Maximum Solubility of Salt in Water (Room Temperature) Sol Density Specific Ibs / bbl Salt wt% = (ppg) Gravity Salt Water Sodium Chloride 26 10.0 1.200 109 SH Potassium Chloride 24 9.7 1.164 98 309 Sodium Bromide 46 12.7 1.525 245 © 288 Calcium Chloride 40 1.8 1.416 198 298 Calcium Bromide 37 15.3 1.837 366 277 Zinc Bromide 78 21.0 2.521 688 194 Sodium Formate 50 ILL 1.329 231 235 Potassium Formate 78 13.3 1.595 434 125 The data in Table 2 demonstrate that the solubility of these salts in water is extremely high, capable of producing densities up to 21 ppg (2.52 SG). Itis also evident that as the solubility increases, that the ratio of salt-to-water becomes increasingly small. In fact, the saturated nitps/erilingfuicexplorewordpress.com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-compltion-brines-and:ts-properies-ol-and-gas-upstreamindustry/2ovon02e 11.98 Invoducton to Completion Brines ands Properties ~ Oil and Gas Upstream Industy ~ Dalng Fluids Exolred solutions of several of these systems contain more salt than water. This fact is extremely important. It defines much of the ‘special chemistry’ and ‘peculiar’ properties of high-density completion fluids. (See Figure 4 and discussion), Commercial completion brines are often prepared with a combination of dry salts and liquid ‘stock fluids’. The cost of the finished barrel of completion fluid is related to the cost of these components (of course). In order to appreciate this relationship, it is necessary to understand the source of these components. Some salts such as NaCl and KCl are manufactured as dry material, ie,, they are mined or formed through simple evaporation. Other salts like sodium bromide, potassium formate, calcium chloride and calcium bromide are manufactured as liquids. The dry salts are obtained only after heating the brines and boiling the water off to dryness. This process is energy consumptive and expensive, so, solutions prepared with these salts are much more expensive than their all-liquid-blended counterparts. Still other salts, like zinc bromide, are never produced as dry material in sufficient quantity to be used in the completion fluid market. Zinc bromide blends are prepared only as liquids. Table 3 lists commercially available ‘stock’ fluids and dry salts. Comparing Tables 1 and 3 indicates the stock fluids are not produced as saturated solutions. In this way, the crystallisation temperature is low enough as to allow storage in unheated tanks. Table 3 Stock Flu that are manufactured as liquids 11.6 ppg (1.39) [38%] CaCl, (US) 11.3 ppg (1.36) [35%] CaCl, (Europe) 12.5 ppg (1.50) [45%] NaBr 14.2 ppg (1.70) [52%] CaBr, 13.1 ppg (1.57) [78%] KHCO, 19.2 ppg (2.30) [53% / 23%] ZnBry/ CaBry Fluids Prepared From Salts 10 ppg (1.20) NaCI Stock, 3-8% KCI, 3-8% NH,Cl Stock Salts NaCl, NaBr, KCI, NH,CL CaCh, CaBr;, NaHCO3, KHCO, nitps/erilingfucexplore wordpress. com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-compltion-brines-and:ts-properies-oil-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ 5152amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Explored “Standard” Blended Brine Systems 8.33 ppg (1.00) > 10.0 ppg (1.20) (10.0 ppg (1.20) NaCI Stock Fluid) 10.0 ppg (1.20) > 12.5 ppg (1.50) ==> NaClV/NaBr (12.5 ppg (1.50) NaBr Stock Fluid) 8.33 ppg (1.00) > LL8 ppg (1.42) ==> CaCl, (1L.6 ppg (1.39) CaCl, Stock Fluid plus dry CaCl, ) (1L.3 ppg (1.36) Stock Fluid - Europe) 11.8 ppg (1.42) > 15.1 ppg (1.81) ==> CaCL/CaBr, (14.2 ppg (1.70) CaBr, Stock fluid plus dry CaCl,) 15.1 ppg (1.81) > 19.2 ppg (2.30) ==>CaCl,/CaBr,/ZnBr, (19.2 ppg (2.30) ZnBr3/CaBr, Stock Fluid Plus CaCh/CaBr5 8.33 ppg (1.00) > 13.3 ppg (1.60) ==> NaHCO,/KHCO, Crystallisation Temperature (TCT) NaCl Advertisements Devenir auteur, ga vot tente? Editions U. Ev REPORT THIS AD As salt is dissolved in water, it lowers freezing point of the solution. Increasing the salt concentration is possible until the salt reaches saturation. The concentration at which the solution is saturated is a function of its temperature. As shown in Table 2, calcium chloride is soluble in water to a final concentration of 40-wt% at room temperature. This solution is referred to as “saturated at room temperature”. Excess calcium chloride salt will simply fall to the bottom of the container if added. If the solution is heated, additional salt will dissolve. If the solution is cooled, salt will precipitate from solution. That temperature at which a salt is saturated, is called the crystallisation temperature (TCT ~ True or Thermodynamic Crystallisation Temperature), nitps/erilingfuicexplore wordpress. com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-completion-brines-and:ts-properies-ol-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ ens2ovon02e 11.98 troduction to Completion Exnes and its Properties ~ Oi and Gas Upsteam Inusty ~ Diing Fhids Explored There are many instances where the crystallisation temperature of brine is a primary selection criterion. For example, when stored in cold weather or when used offshore where the seawater may be cold, the temperature at which a salt solution crystallises is an important consideration. Figures 1 and 2 show the crystallisation curves for various completion fluids. Figure 1 Crystallization Curves For CaCl, and CaBr, 66 18 cafe 87 91 95 95 fe 419 128 127 434 136 aaa 147 184 [=== Ter (cs08) —s— Ter (cara) nitps/erilingfuicexplore wordpress. com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-completion-brines-and:ts-properies-oil-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ 7182amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Exolored 60 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE zt 4 3 SODIUM CHLORIDE Ts © as 20 = eo a -20 -40 -60 -80 8 8s 9 95 10 105 1 115 (12 Brine Density (Ib/gal) Figure 2 An important consideration for crystallisation temperature that has only become evident with recent ventures into deepwater is the influence of pressure on TCT, a phenomenon commonly referred to as PCT (pressurised crystallisation temperature). A completion fluid in a deepwater environment is influenced by the combination of high pressure and cold temperatures, due to the column of fluid between the seafloor and the surface and the cool seawater at sea bottom. Before these influences were understood and accounted for, several instances of completion fluid crystallisation at the sea floor were reported. In those situations, the crystallisation point was raised above its TCT by the pressure exerted by a combination of pump pressure and the hydrostatic column. The total pressure on the cool fluid (38 °F at the sea floor), caused the TCT to be greater than 35 °F, which was its target TCT when the fluid was formulated at the brine plant, Although the available record of PCT data is not very extensive at this time, M-I has demonstrated rises in TCT on the order of 15 ~ 25 degrees F at 15,000 psi. Advertisements nitps/erilingfucexplore wordpress. com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-compltion-brines-and:ts-properies-oil-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ ans2amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Explored REPORT THIS AD Figure 3 demonstrates the effect of pressure on the TCT of a 14.5 ppg CaClz-CaBrp fluid blended to a 40 °F TCT at atmospheric pressure. Figure 3 Increase in TCT with Increasing Pressure 14.5 ppg / 40F TCT CaCl,-CaBr, 45 40 TCT degF 35 7 a 0 5000 10000 15000 Pressure (psi) Density Reporting Like most solutions, completion fluids expand when heated and contract when cooled. Thus, the density reported for a completion fluid depends on the temperature and pressure at which it is measured. In order to ensure that reporting of density is consistent and that the customer and supplier understand each other, standard reporting conditions are necessary. For years, 60 °F was the reporting temperature for a number of the completion fluid service nitps/erilingfuicexplore wordpress. com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-compltion-brines-and:ts-properies-ol-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ ons2ovon02e 11.98 troduction to Completion Exnes and its Properties ~ Oi and Gas Upsteam Inusty ~ Diing Fhids Explored companies, however, at least one of the companies used 70 °F. In Europe, the standard has been 20 °C (68 °F). In its most recent publication of Recommended Practice for Testing High Density Brine (RP 13], Revision 1, 1996), the API has recommended standard conditions of 70 degrees F and 1 atmosphere. In any case, a completion fluid is either measured under standard conditions or the measurements must be corrected to standard conditions when reported. M-I’s policy is to use the API standard except in Europe, where 20 °C is used. Density Prediction Depending on the completion, the hydrostatic pressure against the formation is expected to be balanced, underbalanced or overbalanced. The ability to predict the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is therefore necessary. For example, a 14.8 ppg CaClp- CaBrp completion fluid (1 atm / 70 °F) has a density of 14.5 ppg at 15,000 feet and 300 °F, Because pressure is cumulative with depth and is directly related to density, which is decreasing with depth (temperature), it is necessary to mathematically predict the density of the completion fluid under the combined influence of compression and temperature. Temperature expansion and compression factors are available for this purpose (see Appendix B). Proprietary M-I computer software programs provide simple means to obtain this, necessary information. PCMOD™ is available to all M-I field engineers. Virtual CF™ is available on a limited distribution basis. Formation Damage and Completion Fluid Compatibility As stated earlier, completion fluids must perform two primary functions. The first is to control the well, accomplished with a column of fluid with the proper density and accounting for the influence of temperature and pressure on the total hydrostatic pressure. The second function is to maintain the inherent permeability of the productive interval. This second function requires that the fluid of choice be compatible with the formation matrix, which includes not only the in-situ fluids and rock, but also any fluids or materials that invaded the pore space while drilling or completing the well. Advertisements REPORT THIS AD In most instances, completion fluids will invade the formation matrix at least to some degree. For this reason, it is important to understand both the chemical compatibility of the pure solution brine-completion fluid with the matrix, as well as additives or contaminants in the completion brine. One prime source of contaminants in the completion fluid is residual mud solids or wellbore scales picked up off the tubulars. These solids have an immediate and often permanent plugging effect on the permeability of the producing formation. nitps/erilingfuicexplorewordpress.com/2020/ 10/08/ntrocucton4o-completion-brines-and:ts-properies-ol-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ 10152ovon02e 11.98 troduction to Completion Exnes and its Properties ~ Oi and Gas Upsteam Inusty ~ Diing Fhids Explored Other sources of additives that impact the permeability are the fluid loss control pills and breakers used for these pills. One interesting aspect of selecting a ‘non-damaging’ completion fluid is the fact that the density requirement often limits the choices available. In such cases, it is important to determine formation compatibility and to plan for preventative measures to reduce fluid invasion, remedial treatments in case of excessive fluid losses or, using formation damage reducing additives. Special surfactants, buffers, etc. are available that can be used to reduce the interaction of high-density brines on the formation matrix. For example, if the bottom hole pressure requires a 16.0 ppg completion fluid, zinc-calcium bromide based brine is the only commercially viable choice. Zinc and calcium bromides have a propensity to de- stabilise asphaltene particles in crude oils which can then produce stable water-in-oil emulsions. M-I surfactants SAFE-BREAK CBF and SAFE-BREAK ZINC prevent this interaction. Other surfactants, such as SAFE-SURF LT are used to reduce the surface tension of high-density brines to aid their recovery or ‘flow-back’. See M-I’s SAFE-SERIES of completion fluid additives for more details. Zinc bromide fluids must be handled with extreme care because, in addition to being extremely hygroscopic, they are considered an environmental hazard in most places of the world. Furthermore, as previously stated, introducing zinc and calcium to the productive interval requires additives to reduce their impact on formation crude oil and waters. The recent introduction of a more formation and environmentally friendly fluid - caesium formate, has not made a significant impact on the completion fluid market due, in part, to the lack of supply. Caesium formate is cost prohibitive at this time and as such, is not discussed at length. Another formation damage situation often overlooked is the compatibility between remedial stimulation or acid pre-packed gravel packs in which HF acid is pumped. Those who design the acid jobs take great care to account for the mineralogy of the formation and to formulate and size the acid job accordingly. However, the type and amount of completion fluid lost to the formation prior to the gravel pack is often not taken into account. This misrepresentation can have serious affects on the outcome of the acid stimulation. Calcium and zinc based fluids are not compatible with HF acid, producing acid insoluble calcium or zinc fluoride precipitates. In fact, even the sodium and potassium completion fluids are incompatible with HF acid if the ionic content of the brine is high. The simplest method to account for completion fluid in the formation is to ensure a large acid pre-flush is part of the stimulation program. In some cases, a pre-flush of ammonium chloride is warranted in addition to an HCI pre-flush, particularly if significant quantities of high-density completion fluid were lost to the formation. Other Completion Fluid Properties The pH of brine solutions is an often-misunderstood property. pH is defined by equation 1. As shown, it is the chemical activity of hydrogen ion in solution that determines the pH. For dilute solutions, the hydrogen ion concentration can be substituted for activity with no significant affect on the measurement or the meaning of pH. However, the ionic strength of high-density brines is so high that the activity of ions in solution losses meaning and consequently, the measurement and recording of the pH of high-density completion fluids is considered a deviation from the scientific rule, Even with such a disclaimer, pH of completion fluids are measured and recorded, it should simply be understood that the number recorded is not a ‘true’ pH, but rather, a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of the fluid. To be sure, these measurements are useful for tracking changes in the brines and a nitps/erilingfuicexplorewordpress.com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-compltion-brines-and:ts-properies-ol-and-gas-upstreamindustry/ 11152ovon02e 11.98 troduction to Completion Exnes and its Properties ~ Oi and Gas Upsteam Inusty ~ Diing Fhids Explored discussion of the numbers is relevant. For the purpose of this manual, use of the term pH will not be concerned with a truly scientific interpretation, but will rely on direct measurement with a standard pH probe. Advertisements REPORT THIS AD pH =- log (yz) equation 1 The pH of the chloride and bromide salts of sodium, potassium and calcium is neutral, ie. pH=6-8. The pH of zinc bromide is acidic due to the hydrolysis of water by the zinc ion. The pH of 19.2 ppg stock zinc-calcium bromide brine is about 1 - 1.5. By ‘rule of thumb’, the pH ofa lower density blend of zinc bromide is approximately proportional to the volume fraction of 19.2 ppg fluid in the blend, i.e., a 17.15 ppg blend of 19.2 ppg Zn-CaBr2 and 15.1 ppg CaCly-Br2 should have a pH equal to about 3.5 The formate brines, on the other hand, are alkaline solutions and have a pH of greater than 9.5. In fact, these solutions need to maintain the pH above about 9.5 to prevent precipitation of the less soluble biformate solid. In chemical terms, the chloride (CI-) and bromide (Br7) ions, called anions, are non-reactive. The monovalent cations of sodium (Na*) and potassium (K*) are also non-reactive. On the other hand, the calcium (Ca**) and zinc (Zn**) cations are divalent (two positive charges) and as such, are reactive. These divalent ions form insoluble precipitates with multivalent anions like sulphate (SO4°), carbonate (CO3"), sulphide (S~) and others. For the purpose of categorising high-density brines in chemical terms, they can be divided into two chemical families, the monovalent cation salts of sodium and potassium salts and the divalent cation salts of calcium and zine. One example where this chemical difference is noteworthy becomes apparent when seawater is used as the make-up water for the brine. Sodium or potassium chloride will form a clear solution whereas calcium chloride will react with the sulphate in the seawater and precipitate calcium sulphate solids. Another example of the difference between these two ‘chemical family types’ is demonstrated by the differences in their dry salts. The dry salts of sodium or potassium chloride or bromide will remain dry under normal ambient conditions. The solutions of these salts will also evaporate. ‘The salts of calcium chloride and bromide will never stay dry unless they are protected from the atmosphere. Instead, these salts will dissolve in their own water of hydration as they pick up moisture form the air. The solutions of calcium and zine chloride and bromide will never evaporate. These properties have a tremendous impact on hitps/erilingfuicexplorewordpress.com/2020/10/08/ntrocucton4o-completion-brines-and:ts-properies-ol-and-gas-upstreamtindustry/ 1262amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Explored handling these brines and personal safety. For example, a spill of calcium chloride brine will remain wet and slippery until it is physically diluted and wiped up. A spill of dry calcium chloride powder will eventually tum to liquid. Figure 4 shows the activity of water in completion fluid solutions. As shown, the activity of water is reduced from that of pure water by up to a factor of 5 in high-density brine (by definition the activity of pure water is equal to one). This property explains why these brines are so very hygroscopic, i.e.; they absorb moisture from any source with which they are in contact that has a higher water activity. For example, high-density brines absorb moisture from the air, from skin and from water retaining minerals such as clay. A term loosely used to describe the level of water activity in completion fluids is “free water”. A solution that is saturated with respect to one salt is said to have no available or “free water”. A solution with no free water is not capable of dissolving other salts. Otherwise highly water-soluble substances may be only slightly soluble in such systems. Figure 4 Water 10 12 15.1 47 ppg ppg ppg Ppg Density Advertisements tips:iféilingfidexplore. wordpress. com2020/10/08intraducton o-compltion-brines-and-is-propertes-ol-and-gas-upstream-industry! 13852amozre026 11:98, Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties - Ol and Gas Upstream Industry — Drilling Fluids Explored REPORT THIS AD x October 8, 2020 Drilling Fluids Completion Fluids, Completion Fluids properties, Drilling fluids properties, oil and gas industry Published by Shailesh Walkunde View all posts by Shailesh Walkunde One thought on “Introduction to Completion Brines and its Properties — Oil and Gas Upstream Industry” 1. Pingback: Completion Equipment Design Requirements - Lecture 01 - Drilling Fluids Explored CREATE A FREE WEBSITE OR BLOG AT WORDPRESS.COM. 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