Team Performance Management: An International Journal

Employees, teamwork and social interdependence – a formula for successful business?

Pina TarriconeJoe Luca
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Pina TarriconeJoe Luca, (2002),"Employees, teamwork and social interdependence – a formula for successful business?",
Team Performance Management: An International Journal, Vol. 8 Iss 3/4 pp. 54 - 59
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Employees, teamwork
and social
interdependence ± a
formula for successful
business?
Pina Tarricone and
Joe Luca
The authors
Pina Tarricone (g.tarricone@ecu.edu.au) is based at and
Joe Luca (j.luca@cowan.edu.au) is a Lecturer, both at the
Downloaded by New York University At 01:01 13 June 2015 (PT)
School of Communications and Multimedia, Edith Cowan
University, Mount Lawley, Western Australia, Australia.
Keywords
Employees, Teamwork, Skills, Success
Abstract
Business expects far more from employees than technical
and generic skills. There is a growing emphasis on
employees to not just do their job but to contribute to
business success. As the emphasis is placed on individuals
contributing to the effective, positive perpetuation of the
business through the development of professional and
work related skills; the team culture of business today
places additional emphasis on the ability to work
effectively within a team environment. Specifically, this
paper will discuss the importance of social
interdependence and teamwork and the implications for
business success and team success
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Team Performance Management: An International Journal
Volume 8 . Number 3/4 . 2002 . pp. 54±59
# MCB UP Limited . ISSN 1352-7592
DOI 10.1108/13527590210433348
54
Introduction
Businesses today want much more from
their employees than just putting in a day's
work. They expect that employees have a
combination of attributes that will benefit
the business and contribute to the success of
the business (Johnson et al., 2000). Business
success specifically means profit-generation.
Profit-generation does not just mean
employees generating cash flow and
contacts for the business but also
includes the ability of employees to
create and maintain positive working
relationships with colleagues, clients and
superordinates.
The attributes needed for this consist of a
combination of technical, knowledge and
generic skills. Working in business team
environments demands much more from
employees than the traditional combination of
industry-specific knowledge and skills. Skills
such as problem solving, communication,
collaboration, interpersonal skills, social skills
and time management are actively being
targeted by prospective employers as essential
requirements for employability especially in
team environments. Employers consistently
mention collaboration and teamwork as being
a critical skill, essential in almost all working
environments. As most businesses rely on
teamwork to be productive these attributes
are then needed for successful teamwork. The
attributes can be viewed from different
perspectives, ranging in nature from ``visible
to invisible''
(Figure 1).
A team member, who is the programmer,
must have acceptable technical skills in
programming. This skill can be tested for
competence, and classified as a ``visible skill''
(Wysocki et al., 1995). Also, having
acceptable generic and team skills is highly
desirable but not always easily testable, i.e.
testing for time management, problem solving
or collaboration skills can be challenging? An
element of team skills, known as ``social
interdependence'' (Salovey and Mayer, 1990)
is increasingly being promoted as being
necessary for successful teamwork. This
paper will discuss the relationship between
successful teams and social interdependence
and how these ``invisible skills'' such as team
skills have a direct impact on team and
business success.
 Employees, teamwork and social interdependence
Pina Tarricone and Joe Luca
Figure 1 A spectrum of skills needed for teamwork
The business of teamwork
Successful teamwork and its influence on
business success is not unheard of, but the
relationship between social interdependence
theory and teamwork and its effect on
business success is a relatively new concept.
Kets De Vries (1999) explains that research
has identified effective teamwork as one of the
fundamental elements of high-performing
business. Businesses that continue to perform
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successfully rely on teamwork as an essential
basis for everyday operations. Productivity,
quality improvements, client focus, flat
management structure, efficient and effective
communication, and increased employee
morale are the selling points of team-oriented
businesses (Hayes, 1995). Kets De Vries
(1999) points out that many companies
describe themselves as team oriented but in
reality many companies have a long way to
go before they have successfully created a
team-oriented culture.
Creating an effective teamwork
environment largely depends on management
structures, leadership styles and the flexibility
of the organization. Scarnati (2001, p. 8)
explains that individuals do not work in teams
``. . . unless the structure, conditions,
organization, and purpose of the enterprise
support[s] the team effort''. Even so, once a
team structure has been established
management are not solely responsible for
nurturing effective working teams, it is also
the responsibility of team members to
perpetuate the success of the team. Managers
then need to employ highly skilled individuals
who can contribute to a team environment
and its success. Teams are the management
practice choice of businesses wishing to be
flexible and employ employees who can work
within this type of work structure. These
employees are expected to take on more
responsibility, make informed decisions
within a team structure and make use of their
intellectual and creative skills (Wageman,
1997; Johnson et al., 2000).
55
Team Performance Management: An International Journal
Volume 8 . Number 3/4 . 2002 . 54±59
Well designed business teams help
organizations to:
. Minimise and reduce costs and number
of employees.
. Increase profits and reduce the
hierarchical structure of the business.
. Improve customer relationships and
maintain a client focus.
. Increase employee motivation and
commitment.
. Improve processes for the recognition of
team and individual contribution
(Elmuti, 1996).
Scarnati (2001) has identified a number of
factors within businesses that do not support
teamwork and fail to promote team success.
When businesses realise the effect
unsuccessful teams have on productivity, the
corporate climate and the eventual impact on
profits, they are more likely to take teamwork
much more seriously and put into place
strategies to promote and nurture team
success:
. Structure. Most business structures are
based on the performance of the
individual and not the team effort. This
structure creates a competitive team
environment that does not promote social
interdependence.
. Ineffective communication. Teams lack
guidance and focus if organizational
communication is not clear and does not
reflect the business and team plan.
. Lack of resources. Inhibits the team from
attaining their goals.
. Lack of trust. Cooperation, trust and
honesty are essential to the success of the
team therefore lack of these important
elements hinders team success.
. Corporate culture. Teamwork must be high
priority and be promoted in the eyes of
management.
. Inappropriate use of the team approach.
Time is a critical factor in decision
making and the team approach may not
always be the best, especially in urgent
situations.
 Employees, teamwork and social interdependence
Pina Tarricone and Joe Luca
Johnson et al. (2000) list five essential
attributes of successful business teams
including:
(1) Attitude. Successful teams and team
members have the right attitude and
perspective.
(2) Uniqueness. Team members are each
responsible for the success of the team
through expressing, respecting and
encouraging their own uniqueness and
that of others.
(3) Communication. Successful teams are
dependent on upon cooperation and
effective communication.
(4) Creativity. The team environment should
perpetuate and promote the creativity of
its members. Team members should
demonstrate leadership and creativity at
any time.
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(5) Play. Human beings know that positive
peer relationships are essential to success
at work. Cooperation, in addition to
having fun, among team members
typically results in higher achievement
and greater productivity; more caring and
committed relationships; and greater
psychological health and self-esteem.
In addition to the five essential attributes of
successful teams as outlined by Johnson et al.
(2000) social interdependence would be
considered to be another essential element if
not one of the most important. Scarnati
(2000, p. 9) explains that business team
success ``. . . requires all individuals to
embrace the concept of interdependence''.
The following section discusses the strong
relationship between social interdependence
theory and successful business teams.
Teamwork and social interdependence
Teamwork is defined by Harris and Harris
(1996, p. 23) as ``. . . a work group or unit with
a common purpose through which members
develop mutual relationships for the
achievement of goals/tasks''. Teamwork
implies that individuals work in a cooperative
environment in the interests of a common
goal by sharing knowledge/skills and being
flexible enough to serve multiple roles. The
literature consistently highlights that one of
the essential elements of a team is its focus
towards a common goal and a clear purpose
(Parker, 1990; Fisher et al., 1997; Johnson
56
Team Performance Management: An International Journal
Volume 8 . Number 3/4 . 2002 . 54±59
and Johnson, 1995, 1999). Many
organizations rely on successful teamwork to
achieve goals and to meet the needs of clients.
It is a synergistic process that relies on all
team members to contribute and participate
in order to promote and nurture a positive,
effective team environment. Team members
must be flexible enough to adapt to working
in a cooperative working environment where
goals are achieved through collaboration and
social interdependence rather than
individualised, competitive goals.
Social interdependence refers to how
individuals interact and react in cooperative
learning or working situations, including team
environments and is an integral part of
cooperative learning. The relationship
between successful teams, cooperative
learning theory and social interdependence is
strong (Johnson and Johnson, 1999). ``Social
interdependence exists when individuals
share common goals; each individual's
outcomes are affected by the actions of the
others'' (Johnson and Johnson, 1995, p. 206).
Teams must have a have a common purpose
and team members understand their
interdependence on each other. Effective
interdependence relies on the intrinsic
motivation of team members and the impetus
this places on the team to accomplish desired
common goals (Johnson and Johnson, 1999).
Scarnati (2001, p. 6) explains that teamwork
relies upon cooperative processes enabling
individuals to extend their boundaries and
achieve more through social interdependence
than as individuals. ``The team has synergy.
By sharing a common goal or vision, the team
can accomplish what individuals cannot do
alone.''
Harris and Harris (1996) explain that teams
are successful and effective when they
overcome difficulties; achieved through
interdependence. Team members must feel
responsible for their contribution towards the
success of the team and a sense of
responsibility for others within the team,
i.e. not only for their own individual needs
and goals. The major difference between
successful teamwork and unsuccessful
teamwork is largely based upon team
members sharing common goals and working
together to achieve them. A cooperative team
environment is reliant on each team
member's individual goal achievements and
ambitions correlating with the aims of the
team. Achievement of these aims and goals
 Employees, teamwork and social interdependence
Pina Tarricone and Joe Luca
can only be done if the other team members
also reach their goals. (Johnson and Johnson,
1995; Scarnati, 2001). Figure 2 shows the
relationship between successful teamwork
and social interdependence.
Social interdependence can be considered
to be positive, negative or non-existent
(Johnson and Johnson, 1999). Actions within
a team can ``. . . promote the success of others,
obstruct the success of others, or not affect
the success or failure of others''. Positive
interdependence results in promotive
interaction, negative interdependence results
in oppositions or conflicting interaction and
no interdependence results in an absence of
interaction (Deutsch, 1949; Johnson and
Johnson, 1995, p. 207). Johnson and Johnson
(1995, p. 212) explain that positive
interdependence or a cooperative team
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environment creates promotive interaction in
which individuals encourage and facilitate
each other's efforts to attain team goals, such
as creating positive relationships and
collaborative team environments. This is
shown in Figure 3, which depicts the
relationship between positive
interdependence and promotive interaction
Figure 2 Teamwork and social interdependence
Figure 3 Positive interdependence
57
Team Performance Management: An International Journal
Volume 8 . Number 3/4 . 2002 . 54±59
and their overall effect on positive
relationships, efforts to achieve and social
competence and psychological adjustment.
Negative interdependence or competition
generally results in oppositional interaction.
This occurs when individuals prevent others
from achieving because of their own
competitiveness. Rather than promoting a
team environment through positive
interaction, team members are focussed on
``. . . increasing their own success and on
preventing anyone else from being more
successful then they are'' (Johnson and
Johnson, 1995, p. 212). No interaction occurs
when individuals work independently without
interacting with others. Individuals focus on
increasing and improving their own success
and have no regard or interest in the efforts of
others (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).
Positive interdependence is an important
element of a successful team environment
that brings out the best in each person and
enables the team to achieve their goals at a far
superior level than as individuals. Johnson
and Johnson (Johnson and Johnson, 1995,
1999) list essential attributes of positive
interdependence needed for successful
teamwork as follows:
. giving and receiving help and assistance
for both task related and personal issues;
. exchanging resources and information;
. giving and receiving feedback on tasks
and teamwork behaviours;
. challenging each other's reasoning;
. encouraging others to achieve;
. influencing each other's reasoning and
behaviour;
. using interpersonal and social skills to
enhance teamwork; and
. consciously reflecting on the effectiveness
of the team to continue improvement and
acknowledge achievements.
This is supported by Scarnati (2001), who
contends that successful teamwork is
dependent on: guardianship, where the team
provides security and guardianship to its
members; status, where the team has a sense
of pride in their accomplishments; learning,
where the team encourages new ideas and
learning of new skills; self-esteem, where the
team provides individuals a sense of
self-esteem and self-worth; fellowship where
the team provides opportunities to develop
strong interpersonal relationships with
colleagues; and power where the team
 Employees, teamwork and social interdependence
Pina Tarricone and Joe Luca
provides an empowering, stimulating
environment by providing many opportunities
for individuals to contribute and excel in their
team role. Cavalier et al. (1995) have also
identified the relationship between positive
interdependent and a high level of
achievement and success within teams. They
contend that behaviours needed for successful
teams include: a dynamic positive exchange of
information and resources among team
members; active communication and
supportive behaviour; flexibility and personal
attributes to cope with changing demands;
leadership and clear team roles; and
interdependency among members. These
attributes contribute to team cohesion, which
enables teams to work together to achieve
common goals and have a high level of
motivation, which will help teams endure and
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persevere through problems and setbacks.
Effective social and interpersonal skills help
team members create cooperative
environments where there is a genuine feeling
of caring for each other which ``. . . promotes
higher self-esteem, self-efficacy, personal
control, and confidence in one's
competencies. The healthier people are
psychologically, the better able they are to
work with others to achieve mutual goals''
(Johnson and Johnson, 1995, p. 220). Placing
individuals in a team and expecting that they
will be able to effectively cooperate is not
guaranteed. Team members must possess the
social skills necessary for high levels of
productive collaboration and be motivated to
apply these skills to attain project goals.
Caring about team members, self-esteem,
developing effective positive relationships,
decision making, trust, communication and
conflict management skills are just as
important to team and project success as
knowledge and technical skills.
Group cohesiveness, interdependence,
collaboration, communication, interpersonal
skills and empowering team members help to
create a synergistic team environment.
Successful teams create an environment that
empowers team members to contribute, be
creative and communicate their ideas and be
actively involved in problem solving and
conflict resolution. Active involvement in the
team helps to create a positive, dynamic team
environment (Esquivel and Kleiner, 1996;
Johnson et al., 2000). Team members need to
be aware that negative behaviour can impact
on work productivity and affect the overall
58
Team Performance Management: An International Journal
Volume 8 . Number 3/4 . 2002 . 54±59
success of the team and project. Conflict
resolution and the ability of team members to
deal with issues, feelings and emotions can
impact greatly on the success of the team.
Team members caring for one another,
encouraging each other, showing empathy
and regulating their emotions contribute to
and have an impact on the success of the
team. Harris and Harris (1996, p. 29) explain
that successful teams have a high level of
maintenance and must incorporate essential
``invisible'' skills such as caring for one
another, showing warm feelings, friendliness
and offering team members support when
needed.
From the above summary, it can be seen
that for teams to be successful, team skills
are needed which are not only ``visible'' in
nature (Figure 1). Skills are required which
comprise of both technical skills and
interpersonal skills ``. . . communication at
both the cognitive and feeling levels is what
determines the success or failure of the
team'' (Harris and Harris, 1996, p. 29). The
importance of cooperative, positive
interaction team environments and a
discussion of the essential elements of
successful teams and determining a link to
business success is the focus of this paper.
The list below clearly shows the relationship
between successful business teams and social
interdependence specifically positive
interdependence as outlined by Smith (1996)
and (Johnson et al., 2000):
. Face-to-face promotive interaction ±
team members support and interact with
each other to achieve the aims of the task
and promote the success of the team and
the project.
. Positive interdependence ± the team
cannot succeed without other members of
the group also succeeding.
. Each team member is responsible for the
success of the team.
. Team members learn and work together
so that they each perform better as
individuals.
. Team members are held accountable for
their fair share of the work.
. Teamwork skills such as communication,
team and trust building, and conflict
management skills are essential.
. Team decision making and problem
solving to find solutions to team problems
and to perpetuate the progress of the
project.
 Employees, teamwork and social interdependence
Pina Tarricone and Joe Luca
Summary and conclusions
Using the attributes of successful business
teams provided by Johnson et al. (2000),
Smith (1996) and Scarnati (2001) it is evident
that there is a strong relationship between
social interdependence theory and the success
and functionality of a team. Social
interdependence underpins the collaboration
and communication skills needed for
promoting a positive and effective team
environment. Successful teams display the
characteristics of positive interdependence
and promotive interaction (Johnson and
Johnson, 1995, 1999).
At a time when both a combination
between the ``invisible'' and ``visible'' skills are
being strongly promoted by employers and
government funding authorities as being
increasingly important, it would be
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appropriate to say that businesses expect
more from employees than just an ordinary
day's work but the ability to contribute to a
team environment and perpetuate the
progression and profitability of the business.
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