AC Machines

Lecture 3: Torque and Power in Three-Phase

Induction Motors

Mr. Melat Khalil

Email: melat.abdullah@uod.ac
 Introduction

• The torque 𝑇 developed by the rotor is directly proportional to:

1. rotor current
2. rotor e.m.f.
3. power factor of the rotor circuit
∴ 𝑇 ∝ 𝐸2 𝐼2 cos 𝜙2
or 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐸2 𝐼2 cos 𝜙2
where
𝐼2 is the rotor current at standstill
𝐸2 is the rotor emf at standstill
cos 𝜙2 is the rotor p.f. at standstill
 Starting Torque (𝑻𝒔 )
• Starting torque, 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾𝐸2 𝐼2 cos 𝜙2
𝐸2 𝑅2 𝐾 × 𝐸2 2 × 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾𝐸2 × × =
𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2
𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2 𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2

• Generally, the stator supply voltage 𝑉 is constant so that flux per pole 𝜙 set up by the
stator is also fixed. This in turn means that emf 𝐸2 induced in the rotor will be
constant.
𝐾1 × 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠 = 2
𝑅2 + 𝑋2 2
• where 𝐾1 is another constant
• It is clear that the magnitude of starting torque would depend upon the relative values
of 𝑅2 and 𝑋2 i.e., rotor resistance/phase and standstill rotor reactance/phase.
 Starting Torque (𝑻𝒔 )

• It can be shown that 𝐾 = 2𝜋𝑁

3
𝑠

3 𝐸2 2 × 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠 = × 2
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 𝑅2 + 𝑋2 2
Note that here 𝑁𝑠 is in rps
 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque
• To find the condition for maximum starting torque, first differentiating its
equation w.r.t. 𝑅2 and equating the result to zero.
• It can be proved that starting torque will be maximum when
Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance/phase
i.e. 𝑅2 = 𝑋2
𝐾𝐸2 2
∴ 𝑇𝑠(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
2𝑋2
• Under the condition of maximum starting torque, 𝜙2 = 45°
and rotor power factor is 0.707 lagging.
• Figure shows the variation of starting torque with
rotor resistance
 Effect of Change of Supply Voltage on Starting Torque

• Since 𝐸2 ∝ Supply voltage 𝑉

𝐾2 × 𝑉 2 × 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠 =
𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2
• where 𝐾2 is another constant

• Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in the value of

supply voltage. For example, a drop of 10% in supply voltage will decrease
the starting torque by about 20%. This could mean the motor failing to start if
it cannot produce a torque greater than the load torque plus friction torque.
 Improving Starting Torque in 3-Phase Induction Motors

• The rotor circuit of an induction motor has low resistance and high inductance. At starting, the
rotor frequency is equal to the stator frequency (i.e., 50 Hz) so that rotor reactance is large
compared with rotor resistance. Therefore, rotor current lags the rotor emf by a large angle,
the power factor is low and consequently the starting torque is small.
• When resistance is added to the rotor circuit, the rotor power factor is improved which results
in improved starting torque. This, of course, increases the rotor impedance and, therefore,
decreases the value of rotor current but the effect of improved power factor predominates and
the starting torque is increased.
 Improving Starting Torque in 3-Phase Induction Motors

Squirrel-cage motors: Since the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited, it is not possible to
add any external resistance in the rotor circuit at starting. Consequently, the stalling torque of
such motors is low. Squirrel cage motors have starting torque of 1.5 to 2 times the full-load value
with starting current of 5 to 9 times the full-load current.

Wound rotor motors: The resistance of the rotor circuit of such motors can be increased
through the addition of external resistance. By inserting the proper value of external resistance
(so that 𝑅2 = 𝑋2 ), maximum starting torque can be obtained. As the motor accelerates, the
external resistance is gradually cut out until the rotor circuit is short-circuited on itself for
running conditions.
 Example
The rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase of a 3-phase induction motor are 0.02 Ω and
0.1 Ω respectively. What should be the value of the external resistors per phase to be inserted in the
rotor circuit to give maximum torque at starting.
Solution:
The starting torque will be maximum when:
Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance phase
Let 𝑅𝑋 Ω/phase be the external resistance added to the rotor circuit to obtain maximum starting
torque.
Rotor resistance/phase,𝑅2 = (0.02 + 𝑅𝑋 ) Ω
Rotor reactance/phase at standstill, 𝑋2 = 0.1 Ω
0.1 = (0.02 + 𝑅𝑋 ) ⇒ 𝑅𝑋 = 0.08 Ω
 Induction Motor Under Load

• When a mechanical load is applied to the shaft of the motor, it will begin to
slow down and the rotating flux will cut the rotor conductors at a higher rate.
The induced voltage and resulting current in rotor conductors will increase
progressively, producing greater and greater torque.
• The motor and mechanical load will soon reach a state of equilibrium when
the motor torque is exactly equal to the load torque. When this state is
reached, the speed will cease to drop any more and the motor will run at the
new speed at a constant rate.
 Induction Motor Under Load

• Note that change in load on the induction motor is met through the adjustment
of slip. When load on the motor increases, the slip increases slightly (i.e.,
motor speed decreases slightly). This results in greater relative speed between
the rotating flux and rotor conductors. Consequently, rotor current is
increased, producing a higher torque to meet the increased load. Reverse
happens should the load on the motor decrease.
 Torque Under Running Conditions
• Under running conditions at slip s,
𝑠×𝐸2 2 ×𝑅2 𝑠×𝐸2 2 ×𝑅2
• The running torque, 𝑇𝑟 = 3
×
2𝜋𝑁𝑠
=
𝑅2 2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2
3
×
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 𝑍2 ′

• It may be seen that running torque is:

1.directly proportional to slip i.e., if slip increases (i.e., motor speed
decreases), the torque will increase and vice-versa.
2.directly proportional to square of supply voltage (∵ 𝐸2 ∝ 𝑉)
• At starting, s = 1 so that starting torque is
3 𝐸2 2 × 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠 = × 2
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 𝑅2 + 𝑋2 2
 Maximum Torque under Running Conditions

• Thus for maximum torque (𝑇𝑚 ) under running conditions :

Rotor resistance/phase = Fractional slip × Standstill rotor reactance/phase
𝑅2 = 𝑠𝑋2 ;

• In this case, the maximum torque 𝑇𝑚 is proportional to 𝑋2 as;

• 𝑇𝑚 ∝ 1
2𝑋2

• Slip corresponding to maximum torque, 𝑠 =

𝑅2
𝑋2
 Maximum Torque under Running Conditions
• So,
3 𝐸2 2
𝑇𝑚 = × N.m
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 2𝑋2

• It is evident from the above equations that:

1. The value of rotor resistance does not alter the value of the maximum torque but only the
value of the slip at which it occurs.
2. The maximum torque varies inversely as the standstill reactance. Therefore, it should be
kept as small as possible.
3. The maximum torque varies directly with the square of the applied voltage.
4. To obtain maximum torque at starting (s = 1), the rotor resistance must be made equal to
rotor reactance at standstill.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
• The curve between the torque and slip for a particular value of rotor resistance 𝑅2 , is shown below,
the graph is called torque-slip characteristic, and shows a family of torque-slip characteristics for a
slip-range from s = 0 to 1 for various values of rotor resistance.
• The following points may be noted from the graph:
1. At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip
curve starts from the origin.
2. At normal speed, slip is small so
that 𝑠𝑋2 is negligible as compared
to 𝑅2 .
𝑇 ∝ 𝑠𝑅2
∴𝑇∝𝑠 as 𝑅2 is constant
Hence torque slip curve is a straight
line from zero slip to a slip that
corresponds to full-load.
 Torque-Slip Characteristics
3. As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the torque increases and becomes maximum at
𝑅
𝑠 = 2. This maximum torque in induction motor is called pull-out or break-down torque. Its
𝑋2
value is at least twice the full-load value when the motor is operated at rated voltage and
frequency.
4. When slip increase beyond that corresponding to maximum torque the term (𝑠𝑋2 )2 increases very
rapidly so that 𝑅2 may be neglected as compared to (𝑠𝑋2 )2
𝑠
𝑇∝
(𝑠𝑋2 )2
1
∴𝑇∝ as 𝑋2 is constant
𝑠
Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence torque-slip curve is a rectangular
hyperbola.
5. The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of the value of rotor resistance.
Therefore, the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit does not change the value of maximum
torque but it only changes the value of slip at which maximum torque occurs.
 Full-Load, Starting and Maximum Torques

• We have:
𝑠𝑅2
𝑇𝑓 ∝
𝑅2 2 + 𝑠𝑋2 2
𝑅2
𝑇𝑠 ∝
𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2
1
𝑇𝑚 ∝
2𝑋2
• Note that s corresponds to full-load slip. Then,
𝑅2 2 2
2
𝑇𝑚 𝑅2 + 𝑠𝑋2 2 ( ) +𝑠 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
𝑋2
= = =
𝑇𝑓 2𝑠𝑅2 𝑋2 𝑅2 2𝑎𝑠
2𝑠
𝑋2
𝑅 Rotor resistance/phase
Where, 𝑎 = 2 =
𝑋2 Standstill rotor reactance/phase
 Full-Load, Starting and Maximum Torques

• While,
𝑅2 2
2
𝑇𝑚 𝑅2 + 𝑋2 2 ( ) +1 𝑎2 + 1
𝑋2
= = =
𝑇𝑠 2𝑅2 𝑋2 𝑅2 2𝑎
2
𝑋2
𝑅 Rotor resistance/phase
Where, 𝑎 = 2 =
𝑋2 Standstill rotor reactance/phase
 Example
An 8-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.025 Ω/ phase and a rotor
standstill reactance of 0.1 Ω/ phase. At what speed is the torque maximum? What proportion of
maximum torque is the starting torque?
Solution.
120𝑓 120×50
𝑁𝑠 = = = 750 rpm
𝑃 8

𝑅2 = 𝑠𝑋2 … for maximum torque

𝑅2 0.025
∴𝑠= = = 0.25
𝑋2 0.1

Corresponding speed, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑠 (1 − 𝑠) ∴ 𝑁 = 750 1 − 0.25 = 562.5 prm

𝑇𝑚 𝑎2 +1 𝑅2 0.025
= ∵𝑎= = = 0.25
𝑇𝑠 2𝑎 𝑋2 0.1

𝑇𝑚 (0.25)2 +1
∴ = = 2.128
𝑇𝑠 2×0.25
 Torque-Speed Curve of 3-Phase Induction Motor

• The torque of 3-phase induction motor depends upon its speed but the relationship between them cannot
be expressed by a simple equation. Consequently, we prefer to show the relationship in the form of a
curve.
• Figure below shows the typical torque-speed curve of a conventional 3-phase induction motor. The
curve reveals the following facts:
1. The full-load torque is T. The starting torque (or locked-rotor torque) is 1.5 T and the
maximum torque (or breakdown torque) is 2.5 T.
2. At full load, the motor runs at a speed N. If
the mechanical load increases, the speed
will drop until the motor torque is again
equal to the load torque. As soon as the
two torques are equal, the motor will run at
a constant but lower speed. However, if the
torque exceeds 2.5 T (i.e. breakdown torque),
the motor will suddenly stop.
 Torque-Speed Curve of 3-Phase Induction Motor

• The torque-speed curve is essentially a straight line between the no-load and full-load operating
points. The slope of the line mainly depends upon the rotor resistance; the higher the resistance, the
sharper the slope.
 Power Stages in an Induction Motor

• The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted into mechanical power at the
shaft of the motor. The various losses during the energy conversion are:
• Fixed losses:
1. Stator iron loss
2. Friction and windage loss
• The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor currents under normal running
condition is small.
• Variable losses
1. Stator copper loss
2. Rotor copper loss
 Power Stages in an Induction Motor
• Figure below shows how electric power fed to the stator of an induction motor suffers losses and
finally converted into mechanical power.
• The following points may be noted from the above diagram:
1. Stator input, 𝑃𝑖 = Stator output + Stator losses
= Stator output + Stator Iron loss + Stator Cu loss
2. Rotor input, 𝑃𝑟 = Stator output

It is because stator
output is entirely
transferred to the rotor
through air-gap by
electromagnetic
induction.
 Power Stages in an Induction Motor
3. Mechanical power available, 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑟 − Rotor Cu loss ,This mechanical power available is
the gross rotor output and will produce a gross torque 𝑇𝑔 .

4. Mechanical power at shaft, 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚 − Friction and windage loss

Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft torque 𝑇𝑠ℎ .
Clearly, 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Friction and windage loss
 Induction Motor Torque
• The mechanical power P available from any electric motor can be expressed as:
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃= watt
60
• Where
• 𝑁 is the speed of the motor in r.p.m.
• 𝑇 is the torque developed in N-m
60 𝑃 𝑃
∴𝑇= = 9.55 N-m
2𝜋 𝑁 𝑁
• If the gross output of the rotor of an induction motor is 𝑃𝑚 and its speed is N rpm, then gross
torque 𝑇𝑔 developed is given by:
𝑃𝑚
𝑇𝑔 = 9.55 N-m
𝑁

• Similarly, the shaft torque, 𝑇 𝑠ℎ = 9.55

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑁
N-m
• Note. Since windage and friction loss is small, 𝑇𝑔 = 𝑇𝑠ℎ ,. This assumption hardly leads to any
significant error.
Rotor Output
Rotor Output
 Rotor Output

• If the stator losses as well as friction and windage losses arc neglected, then,

Gross rotor output = Useful output

Rotor input = Stator input
 Induction Motor Torque Equation
• The gross torque Tg developed by an induction motor is given by;

• under running conditions

 Induction Motor Torque Equation

• Note that in the above expressions of 𝑇𝑔 , the values 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝑅2 and 𝑋2 represent the phase values.
 Example
An 8-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor running with a slip of 4% is taking 20 kW. stator losses
amount to 0.5 kW. If the mechanical torque lost in friction is 16.25 N-m, find (1) b.h.p; (2) efficiency.
Solution:
Stator output = Rotor input = Stator input – Stator losses = 20 – 0.5 = 19.5 kW
Rotor Cu loss = s x Rotor input = 0.04 x 19.5 = 0.78 kW = 780 W
Gross rotor output, 𝑃𝑚 =19.5 – 0.78 = 18.72 kW
120𝑓 120×50
Synchronous speed, 𝑁𝑠 = = = 750 rpm
𝑃 8

Rotor speed, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑠 (1 − 𝑠) = 750 (1 — 0.04) = 720 rpm.

𝑃𝑚 18.72
Gross rotor torque, 𝑇𝑔 = 9.55 = 9.55 = 248 N-m
𝑁 720

shaft torque, 𝑇𝑠ℎ = 248 − 16.25 = 231.75 N-m

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑠ℎ 2𝜋×720×231.75 2𝜋×720×231.75
brake horsepower, 𝑏. ℎ. 𝑝. = = W= h.p. = 23.44 h.p.
60 60 60×746
23.44×746
Efficiency, 𝜂 = × 100 = 87.4%
20×103
 Home work

A 440 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 4-pole, Y-connected induction motor has a full-load

speed of 1425 rpm. The rotor has an impedance of ( 0.4 + j4) Ω/phase and
rotor/stator turn ratio is 0.8. Calculate: (1) full load torque, (2) rotor current and
(3) full load rotor Cu losses.
 Homework

A 400 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 4-pole, star-connected induction-motor takes a line current of 10 A

with 0.86 p. f. lagging. Its total stator losses are 5 % of the input. Rotor copper losses are 4 % of
the input to the rotor, and mechanical losses are 3 % of the input of the rotor. Calculate (i) slip
and rotor speed, (ii) torque developed in the rotor, and (iii) shaft-torque.