LINEAR MOTION

Distance: Distance is the length of the route between two points.

There can be many different routes between two points thus there can be
many different distance between two points. Distance is a scalar quantity.
The unit of distance in SI unit is meter.

Displacement: is the distance between two points in a straight line.

It is also the shortest distance between two points.
Displacement between two points is always the same but the distance can
be any route and different. In the following route map, the distance between
the two points A and B can be any route taken by a moving object, but the
displacement is the only line AB though there is no route.

B
Speed: The rate of change of distance is called ‘Speed’. It is a scalar
quantity and the unit is m/sec. In case of a straight line the speed and the
velocity are the same.
Distance
Speed=
Time
In everyday life speed means average speed, as the speed is very difficult to
keep constant because we always live with different types of forces and
obstacles. Thus the average speed is defined as

Total Distance
Average speed=
Total time
Velocity: The rate of change of displacement with time is called the
‘Velocity’. It is a vector quantity. It means that it has both magnitude and
direction. Unit in SI system is meter/second (m/sec).
DIsplacement
Velocity= …………….(3)
Time
ds
Or =v ………………… (4)
dt

(Where s = distance)
Constant velocity means that in every unit time the moving object covered
the same unit of displacement. Velocity is only constant when the net force
is zero.
Practically the constant velocity is difficult to achieve. Velocity can only be
changed when a ‘Force’ is applied. Velocity will be changed, either in
magnitude (value) or in the direction. If the force is applied in the same
direction of the velocity then it will cause acceleration, and if the force is
applied in the opposite direction of the velocity then it will cause
deceleration. And if the force is perpendicular then direction of the velocity
will be changed.
Velocity=Speed + Direction ……………………………..(5)
If the acceleration is constant then the average velocity can be calculated
by:
v +u d
Average Velocity= = ………………….(6)
2 t

Velocity
= Acceleration

Force

= Deceleration
Velocity Force

= Direction Change
Velocity

Force
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity is called the acceleration. To
produce acceleration there must be net force acting on the moving object.
No NET forces no acceleration. Acceleration is a vector quantity, and its
unit is m/sec2
i) Initial velocity ¿ u
ii) Final Velocity ¿ v
iii) Velocity change ¿(v – u)
( v−u )
iv) Velocity Change in unit time ¿ t
( v−u )
Thus the acceleration a= ………………….(7)
t
dv
a= ………………………..(8)
dt
2
d s
a= 2
dt
Equations of Motion:
d
V= …………………(1)
t
v +u d
= ………………(2)
2 t

v=u+at …………………. (3)

Putting the value of v from equation (3) into the equation (2):
And by making d as subject:

( u+at ) +u d
=
2 t

2
at
d=ut+ ……………………(4)
2

Again from equation (2), by making t subject:

( v−u )
t=
a

And putting this value in equation (2):

v +u d
=
2 t

( v +u ) t
=d
2
( v−u ) ( v−u )
=d
2 a
2 2
v =u +2 ad ………………… (5)

Thus the equations of motion are:

 d
V=
t ………………… (1)
v +u d
= ……………… (2)
2 t

v=u+at …………………. (3)

2
at
d=ut+ ……………….. (4)
2
2 2
v =u +2 ad ………….. (5)
Motion Graph: Distance-time graph.

Distance cannot be negative as it is scalar, and time cannot be negative as

well, thus there is only one quadrant. In distance-time graph the gradient
indicates the speed of the object. And the area under the graph has no
physical significance.

Gradient = Speed

i) No gradient = No speed.
Di
sta
nc
e/
m
15 Car A

Time/sec

The car A is at rest. The car A is 15meter away from the starting point.

START Positive direction

Negative direction

Car A

15 m
 ii) Constant Gradient = Constant Speed.

Higher Constant Gradient = Higher constant Speed.

Distance/m

Car C

Car D

Car E
Time/sec

a) All the cars C and D and Car E have constant speed, as they have
constant gradient.
b) Car C has higher Speed than Car D as it has higher gradient.
c) The Car E is coming back to the starting point with a constant
speed.
d) The car C and D is moving away from the starting point with a
constant speed

START Positive direction

Negative direction

Car D

Car E Car C

e) All the cars have different constant speed.

 iii) Increasing Gradient = Increasing Speed, which is ACCELERATION

iv) Decreasing Gradient = Decreasing Speed, which is

DECELERATION.

Di
sta Car G
nc
e/
m Car F

Time/sec

a) The gradient of this car F is increasing every moment constantly, thus

car F is accelerating.
b) The gradient of the car G is decreasing every moment constantly, thus
car G is decelerating.

i. Constant Gradient = Constant Speed/Velocity.

ii. Greater constant gradient = Greater constant Speed/Velocity.

iii. No gradient = no speed (stopped/rest)

iv. Increasing gradient = Increasing speed/velocity (acceleration).

v. Decreasing gradient = Decreasing speed/velocity (deceleration)

Displacement-Time graph.

Displacement is a vector quantity thus it can be negative and it has negative

axis but time is a scalar quantity and it cannot be negative. So there will be
two quadrant and negative means ‘Opposite direction’. The gradient of
displacement time graph is ‘Velocity,

GRADIENT = VELOCITY
Di +
i) No gradient = No Velocity.
spl
Car D
ac
em
en
t/

o Time/sec

Car A

START Positive direction

Negative direction

Car A Car D
 a) Both the car A and D are stopped (At rest), but their positions are in
the opposite of the starting point thus they have opposite direction.

ii) Constant Gradient = Constant Velocity

Di +
spl Car C
ac
em
Car M
en Car D
t/

o Time/sec

Car N

Car E

-
START Positive direction
Negative direction

Car D

Car E Car M
Car C
Car N
 Car C: Moving with a constant velocity, Positive direction, Highest velocity
(It has the highest gradient)

Car D: Moving with a constant velocity, but it is less than Speed of all the
cars (It has the lowest gradient).

Car E: Moving with a constant velocity, in the negative region, moving

towards Starting position. Graph approaches towards origin.

Car M: Moving with a constant velocity, In positive region, moving to the

starting point, graph approaches to the origin

Car N: Moving with a constant velocity, in the negative region, going away
from the starting position

All the above cars have different velocities. Their velocities are constant as
the graphs are straight lines with constant gradient. The graph also shows
the direction of their motion as well.

Q1. Explain the motion of the cars from the following graphs:
Dis Dis
pla P pla P
R
ce ce
me me
nt/ nt/
m m

O Q O Q
Time/sec Time/sec

Graph-1 Graph-2
 iii) Changing Gradient = Changing Velocity (Acceleration
or deceleration)
Di +
spl
ac Car S
em
en
t/

o Time/sec

Car T

-
Car S and T are both accelerating as their gradient is increasing with time.
They are moving in the opposite direction. Car S accelerates in the positive
direction (To the right) and the car T is accelerating in the opposite direction
(To the left)
 Di +
spl
ac Car P
em
en
t/

o Time/sec

Car Q

The car P and Q are both decelerating as their gradient gradually decreasing.
They are decelerating in the opposite direction.
Speed time graph: The gradient means ‘Acceleration’ and area under the
graph means ‘distance travelled’. Speed cannot be negative as it is scalar
and time cannot be negative as well.

Gradient = Acceleration

Area under the graph with time axis = Distance travelled

i) No gradient = no acceleration ( Constant speed or at rest)

Sp
ee
d/
ms
-1

15 Car A1

Time/sec
Car A 40

The car A1 is moving with a constant speed of 15ms -1. As the gradient of the
graph is zero. And the car A is not moving at all it has also ‘Zero’ gradient.

The shaded area shows that the distance travelled by the car A 1 during
40second

a) This graph is not showing which direction the car was moving.
 b) If several cars are moving in different directions, but in the graph,
they will be plotted in the same quadrant.
ii) Constant positive gradient = Constant acceleration.
Higher gradient = Higher acceleration.

Sp
ee Car N

d/
ms
-1

Car M

Time/sec
t

a) Both the cars M and N are moving with a constant acceleration, as

they have constant positive gradient.
b) The car N has higher acceleration than car M as N has more gradient
than M.
c) The shaded area shows the distance travelled by the car M after time
‘t’.
 iii) Negative gradient = Deceleration (the line moves towards
the time line)

Sp
ee
Car P
d/
ms
-1

Car Q

Time/sec
t

a) Both car P and Q are decelerating as their gradients are negative.

b) Car P has more deceleration than Q as it has higher negative gradient
than Q.
c) The shaded area is the distance travelled by the car Q during
deceleration up to time ‘t’.
iv) Increasing gradient = Increasing acceleration.
v) Decreasing gradient = Decreasing acceleration

Sp
ee Car S
d/
ms
-1
Car T

Time/sec

a) The car T is moving with increasing acceleration. Example: When the

rocket moves upward its acceleration increases as the net force
gradually increases.
Velocity time graph:

Gradient = Acceleration.

Area under the graph with time axis = Displacement.

The velocity- time graph also shows the direction.

Ve +
loc Car N
ity
/
ms
-1

o Time/sec

Car M

-
■ Both the cars M and N are moving with constant velocity. The graphs
have no gradient.

■ Car N has higher constant Velocity than Car M.

■ The area under the graph shows the displacement travelled

 Ve +
loc Car J
ity
/
ms
-1

o Time/sec

Car K

-
■ Both the car J and K are moving with constant Acceleration. They are
moving in the opposite direction.

■ Car J has higher acceleration than car K as J has higher gradient than
k.

■ The area is the displacement of the two cars.

 Ve +
loc
ity
/
ms Car L
-1

o Time/sec

Car M

■ Both the cars L and M are decelerating, they are moving in the
opposite direction.

■ The deceleration of the car L is higher than car M.

■ Area = displacement moved while decelerating.

 Ve +
loc
ity
/
ms Car X
-1

o Time/sec

Car Y

■ Car X is moving with a constant deceleration, as it has negative

gradient.
■ Car Y is moving with a constant acceleration as it has positive
gradient.
■ The area under the graph shows the displacement travelled by the two
cars.
■ The two cars are moving in the opposite direction.
Calculating Motion:
Speed, acceleration or deceleration can be calculated by different ways:
1) Light Gates.
2) Motion Sensors.
3) Ticker-timer and tape.

1) Light Gates:
A narrow beam of light or radiation, from a source falls on a sensor
connected to a data logger to a computer, if this beam is intercepted then
the time of the interception is recorded in computer. And the rate of change
of distance or velocity can be measured.

There is a card (interrupter) attached with the glider and the length of the
card is measured, these data are fed in the computer and the computer can
accurately calculate the motion of the glider.
Advantages of using light-gate:
1) The readings are human-error free.
2) Large number of data can be obtained.
3) The data can be analyzed directly with computer.
4) Time saving.

Disadvantages:
1) Needs accurate setup.
2) Depends on power supply.
3) Depends on software.
4) Expensive.
5) Needs training to use.
Thinking Distance: The distance travelled by a car before the brakes are
applied, while the Driver is still reacting.
● The car moves with a constant velocity now.
● The thinking distance depends on the performance of the driver, the
reaction time.
The reaction time of a Driver depends on:
 Tiredness of the Driver.
 Poor weather conditions effecting visibility of the driver.
 The effect of alcohol or drugs.
AS the car moves with a constant velocity the thinking distance can be
calculated by the following equation:

Thinking Distance = Speed of the car at that moment × Reaction time

d1 = V × t ………………… (a)

The braking distance: The distance moved by the car after the brakes
have been applied.
● This time the car is decelerating, as the car is brought to rest, the final
velocity is ‘ZERO’.
● The initial velocity is the velocity at which the car was moving.

The Braking distance depends on: (The brakes may take longer to stop
the car)
 A wet or icy road.
 A heavy load in the car.
 Worn Brakes or Tyres.
 The initial velocity of the car
 As the car is decelerating the braking distance must be calculated with
average velocity equation:

Braking distance = Average velocity × time

d 2= ( u+ v
2 )t ………….. (b)

Stopping Distance: The total distance needed to stop a car completely. It

is the addition of the ‘Thinking distance’ and the ‘Braking distance’.
Thus:
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking Distance
D = d1 + d 2
The following chart shows the stopping distances for a car at different speed.
This is an average figure for a dry road; the actual stopping distance may be
greater.

Thinking Distance Braking Distance

30m/s

25m/s

20m/s

15m/s
 Ve
lo
cit
y/
m
s-1

O
2 4 6 8 Time/s

This graph shows the velocity time graph of stopping distance. The car
moved with a constant velocity that is indicated in the blue part, and when
the brakes are applied the car decelerated and that is indicated in the yellow
part. The total area is the stopping distance.
i) Blue area = Thinking distance.
ii) Yellow area = Braking distance.
Q1: The motion of a moving object is shown in the following graph:

Ve
lo
cit
y/ v
m
s-1

O
2 4 6 8
Time/sec

i) Explain the motion of the object for the first 2seconds.

ii) The total distance travelled by the object is 150m. Calculate the
value of the maximum velocity ‘v’.
iii) Calculate the acceleration of the object,
iv) How long the object was in the constant velocity?
v) Calculate the deceleration of the object.
vi) Calculate the distance travelled during deceleration.
vii) Calculate the distance travelled during acceleration.
viii) Calculate the distance travelled by the object during constant
velocity.
ix) The mass of the object is 1350kg; calculate the braking force of
the object.
x) On another occasion, the braking force is doubled; calculate the
stopping time when the object was moving with the same
velocity.
Q2: An object of mass 250g is thrown vertically upward with a velocity
45m/s.
Calculate:
i) The maximum height gained by the object.
ii) The time to reach that height.
iii) The total time to fall to the hand again.
iv) Draw a speed/time and velocity/time graph of the object of the
whole Journey (From the throwing to the catch, you must include
the value).
 Bouncing Ball: A rubber ball is dropped from a height it will bounce several
times on a solid hard surface. The motion of the ball can be plotted on a
graph paper.

Distance time graph:

Di
st
a
nc
e/

Time/s

The distance-time graph would be like this. The centre of gravity is moving
and as the centre never touches the ground the graph is not touching the
time axis.

Velocity –time graph:

Velocity is a vector; the direction is indicated by positive or negative sign. It

is considered that upward is positive and downward is negative.
 i) The object is dropped and it is falling downward so it is moving to
the negative direction with a constant acceleration, the graph starts
in the negative part with a constant gradient.

Velocity/ms-1

C
G

P F
O Q
B D Time/s

ii) In the part OA the ball is falling. At A the ball touches the ground.
In the part AB there is an impact force on the ball and it is
decelerating, thus the graph goes to the time line.
iii) In the part BC the ball expands and there is an upward force
(Normal reaction) acts on the ball, and the ball accelerates upward
(as long as the ball is in contact with the ground) thus the graph
goes away from the time axis.
iv) From CD the ball is moving upward and it is now facing deceleration
due to gravitational force. Thus the graph moves to the time axis.
The gradient of line OA and CD are same as the gradient indicates
 the gravitational acceleration and deceleration and they are same in
magnitude.
v) At the point D the ball is in the top point after one bouncing
vi) The area under the graph is the height fallen by the ball. The area
A1 is the first dropping height and the area A2 is the bouncing
height (the height gained by ball as it goes up).

vii) The first dropping height is more than the height gain after the
impact as some energy is converted into heat and sound.

viii) The time, like PF is the impact time, the first impact time is very
less than the second impact time. As in the first impact the ball
dropped from a greater height, and in the second impact the height
is less than before so the impact time is more than before.

A
 Acceleration –time graph:

Ac
ce
ler
ati
on
/
m

Time/s

(-) 9.81

i) Only the acceleration is plotted. No deceleration is plotted.

ii) The negative and positive indicates the direction of the acceleration.
iii) The acceleration due to gravity is constant as 9.81, and as
acceleration takes places in the downward so it is in the negative
region.
iv) The upper positive acceleration is the due to the reaction force. And
initially it is more as the ball is dropped from a greater height so
impact is more and the magnitude of the acceleration is more, and
as the ball is bouncing, the height reduces and the impact force
reduces and the acceleration also.
v) In the first impact the force was greater so the acceleration was

more and the impact time was less F ( 1t ) . In the second impact the
force was less (as it fell from less height) and the acceleration was
less as well, and the impact time was more than before.
vi) AS the dropping height decreases the time for the ball to drop
decreases, thus the duration of the g decreases, but the magnitude
remains the same.
 Calculation of the Gravitational acceleration ‘g’ (3B)

To calculate the value of gravitational acceleration ‘g’ in lab:

i) An object is dropped from a known height and the falling time is
calculated.
ii) If the dropping height is short then it is difficult to calculate the
dropping time with a stop watch, as human reaction time cannot be
ignored in this case, and if the dropping height is very long then the
air friction acting on the falling object will be significant that the
value of ‘g’ will be different than actual value.
iii) To get a more accurate result for ‘g’ electronic milli-timer timed
with electromagnet and controlling switch is used.

Switch Electromagnet

Iron sphere

h Ruler

Stand
Electronic timer

Contact plate

iv) When the switch is opened the electromagnet loses magnetism and
the iron sphere starts to fall simultaneously the electronic timer
 starts, and when the iron sphere hits the contact gate, it opens and
the circuit stops and the timer shows (show the time required to
drop the height ‘h’) the dropping time.
v) This experiment is free from the errors occurred due to human
reaction time and more accurate. To avoid further errors due to air
friction height should be as small as possible.
As
1 2
h=ut + gt
2 Here u = 0. Thus
1
h= gt 2
2 or
2h
g=
t2