1

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Third Quarter
Module No. 3 of 3
TAXONOMY: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
Writer: Roland R. Agra

HONOR CODE
AS A MEMBER OF THE NAMUAC ACADEMY EAGLES FAMILY, I WILL CONDUCT
MYSELF WITH INTEGRITY & SINCERITY AT ALL TIMES, DEMONSTRATE COMPASSION &
JUSTICE IN ALL MY ACTIONS, UPHOLD THE VALUE OF EXCELLENCE, AND ABIDE BY THE
EXPECTATIONS SET FORTH IN THE STUDENT HANDBOOK.
I MAKE THIS PLEDGE IN THE SPIRIT OF HONOR & TRUST.
PERFORMANCE TASK IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
PERFORMANCE Make a research paper/case study/poster on genetic diseases
STANDARDS
GOAL To raise awareness on genetic disorders
ROLE Visual artist/designer, nurse, health advocate/educator
AUDIENCE The general public
SITUATION Research shows that there is increase in the occurrence of genetic
disorders among newly born infants whose mothers did not undergo
regular monthly check-ups or newborn screening. You were tasked by
the Department of Health to conduct an information drive what are the
common genetic diseases and how can they be managed or prevented.
PRODUCT Multimedia presentation
STANDARDS Accuracy, organization of ideas, clarity, use of appropriate illustration

21ST CENTURY SKILLS CORE VALUE TASK

CRITICAL THINKING Excellence How to create a multimedia presentation based on
the standards
CREATIVITY Excellence To present a well-thought MMP
COLLABORATION Justice The students will work together as members of the
team to prepare the MMP.
CROSS CULTURAL
UNDERSTANDING
COMPUTER/ICT Excellence Using ICT in looking for information about genetic
disorders
CAREER/SELF RELIANCE
COMMUNICATION Compassion Communicating the MMP to the intended audience

SCORING RUBRIC FOR THE PERFORMANCE TASK

CRITERIA 4 3 2 1
Accuracy All concepts were All concepts were All concepts were All concepts were
accurate and accurate and accurate and accurate and
showed deep showed considerable showed showed limited
understanding of understanding of the considerable understanding of
the topic. Causes topic. Causes of understanding of the topic. Causes
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of genetic genetic disorders the topic. Causes of genetic

disorders were were extensively of genetic disorders were
extensively discussed and disorders were discussed and
discussed and management discussed and management
management measures were management measures were
measures were presented measures were presented.
presented accurately. presented.
accurately.
Organization of Concepts were Concepts were Concepts were Concepts were
Ideas relevant, accurate relevant and relevant and relevant but not
and effective in accurate but the somewhat accurate. The
conveying the information was not accurate. The information was
information. conveyed effectively. information was not conveyed
not conveyed effectively.
effectively.
Clarity Established a clear Established a clear Established a clear Failed to
purpose that is purpose that is quite purpose that is establish a clear
relevant to the goal relevant to the goal quite relevant to purpose relevant
and demonstrated and demonstrated a the goal but did to the goal but did
a clear clear understanding not demonstrate a not demonstrate
understanding of of the topic. clear a clear
the topic. understanding of understanding of
the topic. the topic.
Use of The illustrations The illustrations The illustrations The illustrations
appropriate used were used were used were used were
illustrations appropriate and appropriate and appropriate and somewhat
visually appealing somewhat visually not visually appropriate and
and to the topics appealing and to appealing and to not visually
discussed. the topics discussed. the topics appealing and to
discussed. the topics
discussed.

EXPECTATION
S
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness in DNA sequences
are used to classify living things (STEM_BIO11/12IIIh-j-14)
2. identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIh-j-15)
3. describe species diversity and cladistics, including types of evidence and procedures that can be
used to establish evolutionary relationships (STEM_BIO11/12IIIh-j-16)

PRE-TEST

Answer the following briefly. What makes you unique and what makes you similar your mother or
father? Make a table like the one indicated below.

Similarities Unique Characteristics

OVERVIEW
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Biologists classify organisms into different categories according to similarities and differences of
organisms. It is presumed that the high degree of similarities indicates a closer biological relationship.

Basically, a family picture represents a family tree. Family trees show how people are related to
each other. Similarly, scientists use phylogenetic trees like cladograms to study the relationships among
organisms. Sometimes, family trees are used to show relationships between individuals. Those who are
closely related are located closer together than those who are only distantly related. For instance, in a
family tree, we can see that the siblings are close together, indicating a close genetic relationship. But
the siblings are far from their great aunt, indicating a more distant genetic relationship. Family trees can
also be used to see ancestral connections. That is, we can see that all the people in the last generation
have the same great-great-grandparents in common.

LESSON PROPER

LESSON 1: Structural and Developmental Characteristics and Relatedness of DNA Sequence in

Classifying Living Things

Biologists classify organisms into different categories according to similarities and differences
of organisms. It is presumed that the high degree of similarities indicates a closer biological
relationship.

Comparative
anatomy investigates
the homologies, or
inherited similarities
among organisms in
bone structure and in
other parts of the body.
The similarities are less
between mammals and
birds, and still less
between mammals and
fishes. The anatomical
features of different
organisms have a
similar appearance or
function because they
were inherited from a common ancestor. The more homologies, which pertain to similar characters due
to relatedness, the two organisms possess, the more they are closely related. Homologies can be
revealed by comparing the anatomies of different living things, looking at cellular similarities and
differences, studying embryological development, and studying vestigial structures within individual
organisms

The forelimbs of humans, whales, dogs, and bats are homologous. The skeletons of these
limbs are all constructed of bones arranged according to the same pattern because they derive from a
common ancestor with similarly arranged forelimbs. In Parallelism, or parallel evolution, it follows a
common pathway in two or more unrelated or distantly related organisms because of similar
environmental pressures. The organisms have similar morphological characteristics even though they
did not have a common ancestor. There are many examples of parallel evolution in plants, including
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distantly related plant families that have evolved from an autotrophic to a parasitic mode of existence.
An example of parallel evolution in plants is the appearance of xylem vessels in the vascular tissues of
very distantly related plants, such as Ephedra in the gymnospermous division Gnetophyta and flowering
plants in the angiospermous division Anthophyta (Magnoliophyta). A notable example of parallel
evolution in animal is the similarity of the marsupial mammals of Australia to the placental mammals
elsewhere.

Each leaf has a very different shape and function, yet all are homologous structures, derived
from a common ancestral form. The pitcher plant and Venus' flytrap use leaves to trap and digest
insects. The bright red leaves of the poinsettia look like flower petals. The cactus leaves are modified
into small spines which reduce water loss and can protect the cactus from herbivory.

Organisms that are closely related to one another share many anatomical similarities.
Sometimes the similarities are conspicuous, as between crocodiles and alligators, but in other cases
considerable study is needed for a full appreciation of relationships.

Developmental biology which studies the embryological development of living things provides
clues to the evolution of present-day organisms. During some stages of development, organisms exhibit
ancestral features in whole or incomplete form.

Biogeography which deals the geographic distribution of species in time and space as
influenced by many factors, including continental drift and long-distance dispersal while molecular
clocks help track evolutionary time.

On the
other hand,
convergence, or
convergent
evolution, is the
development of a
similar anatomical
feature in distinct
species lines after
divergence from a
common
ancestor. The shark (a fish) and the dolphin (a mammal) are much alike in external morphology, their
similarities are due to convergence and evolved independently as adaptations to aquatic life. While
analogies are anatomical features that have the same form or function in different species that have no
known common ancestor. The wings of a bird and of an insect are analogous organs.

Comparisons of DNA sequences are now becoming more commonly used as an aid in
distinguishing species. If two animals share a many DNA sequences, it is likely that they are at least
closely related. Evolutionary theory states that inherited characters like DNA sequence change over
time. Organisms that are closely related will have more similar DNA sequences than distantly related
organisms, and the longer two species have been separated from a common ancestor, the more their
DNA sequences will differ. For example, human DNA sequences are about 97% identical to chimp DNA
sequences, while human DNA sequences are about 85% identical to mouse DNA sequences. For
example, humans and chimps share more physical characteristics (e.g. bipedalism, opposable thumbs).

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Scientists can estimate these relationships by studying the organisms’ DNA sequences. As the
organisms evolve and diverge, their DNA sequences accumulate mutations. Scientists compare these
mutations using sequence alignments to reconstruct evolutionary history.

Biologists use phylogenetic trees

for many purposes, including testing
hypotheses about evolution;
learning about the characteristics of
extinct species and ancestral
lineages; and classifying organisms.

The connection between

classification and phylogeny is that
hierarchical classification is
reflected in the progressively finer
branching of phylogenetic trees.
The branching patterns in some
cases match the hierarchical
classification of groups nested
within more inclusive groups. In other situations, however, certain similarities among organisms may
lead taxonomists to place a species within a group of organisms (for example genus or family) other
than the group to which it is closely related. If systematists conclude that such mistake has occurred,
the organism may be reclassified (that is placed in a different genus or family) to accurately reflect its
evolutionary history.

Phylogenetic trees are diagrams of evolutionary relationships among organisms. It is a diagram

that depicts the lines of evolutionary descent of different species, organisms, or genes from a common
ancestor. It is useful in organizing knowledge of biological diversity, for structuring classifications, and
for providing insight into events that occurred during evolution.

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LESSON 2: Distinctive Characteristics of a Specific Taxon Relative to other Taxa

Classification of organisms on the basis of certain characters like mode of nutrition, thallus
organization, cell structure, phylogenetic relationships and reproduction simplifies the study of a wide
variety of organisms.

Taxonomy is the part of science that focuses on naming and classifying

or grouping organisms. A Swedish naturalist named Carolus Linnaeus,
who lived from 1707-1778, is considered the Father of Taxonomy
because, in the 1700s, he developed a way to name and organize
species that we still use today. His two most important contributions to
taxonomy were a hierarchical classification system and the system
of binomial nomenclature (a 2-part naming method).

During his lifetime, Linnaeus collected around 40,000 specimens of

plants, animals, and shells. He believed it was important to have a
standard way of grouping and naming species. So, in 1735, he published
his first edition of Systema Naturae (The System of Nature), which was a
small pamphlet explaining his new system of the classification of nature.

He continued to publish more editions of Systema Naturae that included more named species.
In total, Linnaeus named 4,400 animal species and 7,700 plant species using his binomial nomenclature
system. The tenth edition of Systema Naturae was published in 1758 and is considered the most
important edition. Its full title in English is System of nature through the three kingdoms of nature,
according to classes, orders, genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places.

In the 1960s, American biologist

Robert Harding Whittaker proposed a
classification system based on five
kingdoms: Monera (prokaryotes),
Protista (chiefly protozoa and algae),
Fungi (molds, yeasts, and mushrooms),
Plantae (plants), and Animalia (animals).
Whittaker's system was widely accepted
until the 1970s, when further studies led
to the division of Monera into two
kingdoms—Bacteria and Archaea.

1. Kingdom Monera. Kingdom Monera is considered as the most primitive group of organisms and
monerans are most abundant of all. It generally comprises unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic
cell organization and lack of well-defined cell structures including the nucleus and other cell
organelles. Cyanobacteria, archaebacteria, mycoplasma, and bacteria are a few members of this
kingdom.

The general features of Monerans are:

a) Monerans are present in both aerobic and anaerobic environment.
b) Some have rigid cell walls, while some do not.
c) The membrane-bound nucleus is absent in monerans.
d) Habitat – Monerans are found everywhere in hot or thermal springs, in the deep ocean floor,
under ice, in deserts and also inside the body of plants and animals.

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e) They can be autotrophic, they can synthesize food on their own while some others have a
heterotrophic, saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic, commensalistic and mutualistic as modes of
nutrition.
f) Locomotion is with the help of flagella.
g) Circulation is through diffusion.
h) Respiration in these organisms vary, few are obligate aerobes, while some are obligate
anaerobes and facultative anaerobes.
i) Reproduction is mostly asexual, and few also reproduce by sexual reproduction. Sexual
reproduction is by conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Asexual reproduction is by
binary fission.

2. Kingdom Protista. Protists are all

unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
This kingdom forms a link between
other kingdoms of fungi, plants,
and animals. Many species of this
kingdom are the primary
producers in the aquatic
ecosystem, and some are
responsible for serious human
diseases like malaria.

General features of Kingdom

Protista are as follows:
a) They are simple, unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
b) Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and plants.
c) These organisms have a membrane-bound nucleus, endomembrane systems, mitochondria for
cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
d) Nuclei contain multiple DNA strands, and the number of nucleotides is significantly less.
e) Respiration – cellular respiration is the primarily aerobic process, but some living in the moist
soil underneath ponds or in digestive tracts of animals are facultative anaerobes.
f) Locomotion is often by flagella or cilia.
g) Nutrition- include both heterotrophic and autotrophic.
h) Reproduction – Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.
i) Some protists are pathogens of both plants and animals. Example: Plasmodium falciparum
causes malaria in humans.

3. Kingdom Fungi. Fungi are a group of organisms that are found everywhere from air, water, land to
the soil. They are also found in plants and animals. Some fungi are microscopic and appear like
plants, they are in fact closely related to animals. Fungi have great economic importance and show
a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Kingdom fungi include mushrooms, smuts, yeasts,
puffballs, rusts, smuts, truffles, morels, and molds.

General features of fungi are as follows:

a) Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular and non-motile organisms.
b) The growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.
c) Fungi grow best in an acidic environment.
d) The Kingdom Fungi consist of both unicellular (e.g., yeast, molds) and multicellular (e.g.,
mushrooms) organisms.
e) Like plant cells, fungi have cell walls made up of complex sugar molecules called chitin. But
unlike plants, they do not undergo photosynthesis.

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f) The cell wall is composed of chitin. The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or
composed of microscopic threads called hyphae.
g) They have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Few species are saprophytes i.e., they feed on
dead and decaying organic matters.
h) Some fungi are parasitic while some are symbionts. They can live in a symbiotic relationship
with algae, like blue-green algae. These are called lichens.
i) Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Asexual reproduction takes place
by means of spores and sexual reproduction takes place by means of gametic copulation,
somatic copulation, and Spermatization.

4. Kingdom Plantae. Plants are autotrophs,

they produce their own food. They are
primary producers in many ecosystems,
giving them a vital role in the survival of
many other organisms. The production of
oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis
support life processes of other organisms.
a) Plants are multicellular organisms with
eukaryotic cells.
b) Plant cells are distinguished by their cell
walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts
that perform photosynthesis, and a large
central vacuole that holds water and keeps the plant turgid.
c) Many plants have vascular tissue, such as xylem and phloem that carries water and nutrients
throughout the plant.
d) Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually and have what is known as alternation of
generations.

5. Kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom is the

largest kingdom amongst the five kingdoms
consisting of all animals. Animals are
multicellular eukaryotes and heterotrophic.
Besides these similarities, they are also
related to their cell arrangement, body
symmetry, and level of organization,
coelom, and presence/absence of
notochord.

General features of fungi are as follows:

a) Higher levels of organization which allow
animals to perform many complex functions.
b) Animals can detect environmental stimuli, such as
light, sound, and touch. Stimuli are detected by
sensory nerve cells. The information is transmitted
and processed by the nervous system. The nervous system, in turn, may direct the body to
respond.
c) All animals can move. Muscles and nerves work together to allow movement. Being able to
move lets animals actively search for food and mates. It also helps them escape from predators.

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d) Animals have internal digestion of food. Animals consume other organisms and may use special
tissues and organs to digest them.

Taxonomic System

The taxonomic system was devised by Carolus

Linnaeus (1707-1778). It is a hierarchical system since
organisms are grouped into ever more inclusive
categories from species up to kingdom. In 1981, a
category higher than a kingdom, called domain, was
proposed by Carl Woese. The table below illustrates
how four species are classified using the present
classification system. (Note that it is standard practice
to italicize the genus and species names).

DOMAIN EUKARYA FEATURES

KINGDOM Animalia Organisms that are able to move on their own
PHYLUM Chordata Animals with a backbone
CLASS Mammalia Chordates with fur or hair and milk glands
ORDER Primates Mammals with grasping fingers
FAMILY Hominidae Primates with relatively flat faces and three-dimensional
GENUS Homo Hominids with upright position and large brain
Specific Epithet sapiens Members if the genus Homo with a high forehead
and notably thin skull bones
SPECIES Homo sapiens
COMMON NAME human

DOMAIN EUKARYA
KINGDOM ANIMALIA PLANTAE
PHYLUM CHORDATA ARTHROPODA MAGNOLIOPHYTA
CLASS MAMMALIA INSECTA LILOPSIDA
ORDER PRIMATES CARNIVORA DIPTERA LILIALES
FAMILY HOMINIDAE CANIDAE DROSOPHILIDAE LILIACEAE
GENUS HOMO CANIS DROSOPHILIA ALLIUM
Specific Epithet SAPIENS FAMILIARIS MELANOGASTER CEPA
SPECIES Homo sapines Canis familiaris Drosophilia Allium capa
melanogaster
COMMON NAME HUMAN DOG FRUIT FLY ONION

Species Diversity and Cladistics

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Have you ever wondered how you

knew that both Aspin (Asong Pinoy) and
Labrador are dogs even though they are
different in breeds? What makes a seashore
and a bangus to be both classified as fishes
even if they live in two different types of
habitat? Having very diverse forms of life on
earth, classifying is undoubtedly a meticulous
task. Naming, identifying, describing and
classifying biological specimens are the many
things a young biologist must do. Remember
that because of evolutionary processes that
occur on earth, there will always be a great
chance that new species will arise and are
waiting to be discovered.

Since new data are constantly coming and help many biologists understand certain
evolutionary relationships, classifications are constant updated and changed. The goal of modern
systematics is to construct a monophyletic taxon, which would reflect true evolutionary relationships by
including all descendants of a single common ancestor. Various lines of evidence can be used to
determine the degree of common ancestry between two taxa, including comparison of morphology,
nucleic acid sequence, protein sequence, and embryo development (Krempels and Lee, 2003) As new
technologies arise, your ability to study evolutionary relationships evolves as well.

There are several methods that have been used to work out the evolutionary relationships of
organisms. The most successful of these is the so-called "cladistic" or "phylogenetic" method. This
method is based on an older concept, that of "homologous characters".

Character: A feature or thing we can examine or label. It is important that the feature be
heritable.
Homologous Character: Character which is shared by taxa by descent.
Analogous Character: Shared resemblance between characters by other means than descent,
such as adaptation. This is often called a homoplastic character.

Homologous
characters are the
fundamental basis of
cladistics. In cladistics we
look for characters that we
can hypothesis are shared
because they were inherited
from a common ancestor.
The premise is that a species
develops a new character
and passes that character
down to its daughter species.
Each of the daughter species
then can add new
characters, but each adds a
different one, since they are
now separate species and on

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their own evolutionary trajectory. This continues to happen through time as more and more species split
off.

In cladistics we assume that we wish to focus on genealogical relationships and that our
classifications of taxa should depend on our analysis of these genealogical relationships. Of prime
importance is the historical sequence in which the taxa descended from a common ancestor. Hence,
our cladistic hypotheses are based on our estimate of the historical sequence of the acquisition of novel
characters.

The method in cladistics is to build and test relationships based on the distribution of the states
of characters and to build groups by the recognition of synapomorphies.

Cladograms are diagrams which depict the relationships between different groups of taxa
called “clades”. By depicting these relationships, cladograms reconstruct the evolutionary history
(phylogeny) of the taxa. Cladograms can also be called “phylogenies” or “trees”. Cladograms are
constructed by grouping organisms together based on their shared derived characteristics.

STEPS:

1. First, you need to make a "characteristics chart" the helps you analyze which
characteristics each species has. Fill in a "x" for yes it has the trait and "o" for "no" for each of the
organisms below. Then you count how many times you wrote yes for each characteristic. Those
characteristics with a large number of "yeses" are more ancestral characteristics because they
are shared by many. Those traits with fewer yeses, are shared derived characters, or derived
characters and have evolved later.
TAXA
Characters Shark Bullfrog Kangaroo Human
Vertebrae X X X X
Two pairs of limbs 0 X X X
Mammary glands 0 0 X X
Placenta 0 0 0 X
Total YES 1 2 4 4

2. Draw a Venn diagram. Start with the character that is shared by all the taxa on the
outside. Inside each box, write the taxa that have only that set of characters.

3. Convert the Venn diagram into a cladogram. The traits are written on the main line,
and species go on the branches. On the cladogram below, try to put all the characters and the
species in the correct
evolutionary
history.

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WRAP- UP

All life is interrelated. Phylogenetic systematics is the branch of science that attempts to
reconstruct the evolutionary relationships of species. One of the best ways to show the
interrelationships of species is to use a tree-like branching diagram known as a cladogram. Groups of
interrelated species that share a common ancestor are called clades. Reconstructing evolutionary trees
is an important step in learning the evolutionary history of species. Cladograms give us a framework for
understanding how groups of organisms evolved, how rapidly they evolved, and how their evolutionary
history relates to the earth's changing climate and geography.

VALUING
Classifications are useful because they contain information about relationships. For example,
when a chemical suitable for a pharmaceutical product is found in one species, biochemists can quickly
learn from classifications of the close relatives (e.g., other species in the same genus or the ‘sister-
species’) that might contain similar or even better chemicals. All species in the same genus should
share many behavioral, biochemical, ecological and biological properties because they are closely
related evolutionarily. The effect of pollution on a species at one location should be similar to the effect
on a close relative living in a different area. Those in the same family (next primary category up)
similarly share many but fewer features. Classifications thereby have predictive value. Since the late
1960s, most taxonomists have used ‘cladistic’ methods of forming classifications (i.e., Henning’s
method), basing them on shared advanced (new) features. This approach results in cladograms or
trees that reflect ancestry as well as relatedness of individual taxa.

POST-ASSESSMENT

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Enrichment Activity 1. Tell whether the following structural and developmental characteristics are
homologous, parallelism, convergence, or analogous.
1. forelimb of a bear, the wing of a bird, and human arm
2. South American and African monkeys
3. North American wolves and Tasmanian wolves (thylacines)
4. wings of a bird and a butterfly
5. forelimb of a horse, the wing of a bird
6. Penguins and fish both have fins.
7. complex eyes of vertebrates, cephalopods (squid and octopus)
8. shells of brachiopods and bivalve mollusks
9. a true anteater (genus Myrmecophaga) and a marsupial anteater, or numbat (Myrmecobius)
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10. tapirs and pigs

Enrichment Activity 2. Comparing structure and DNA sequence. Examine a small fragment of one
gene in three species of fruit flies (Drosophila yakuba, Drosophila simulans, and Drosophila
sechellia) – all known to be distinct fly species and answer the questions below.

Questions:
1. Do you think these organisms belong to the same species? Why or why not?
2. Comparing the taxonomic data of the species, what can you observe?

Scientific Classification Scientific Classification Scientific Classification

Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda Phylum: Arthropoda Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta Class: Insecta Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera Order: Diptera Order: Diptera
Genus: Drosphila Genus: Drosphila Subgenus: Genus: Drosphila Subgenus:
Subgenus: Sophophora Sophophora Species group: Sophophora Species group:
Species group: Melanogaster Melanogaster Melanogaster
Species complex: simulans Species: D. sechellia Species: D. yakuba
complex Species: D. simulans

Binomial Name Binomial Name Binomial Name

Drosophila simulans Drosophila sechellia Drosophila yakuba
Sturtevant, 1919 Tsacas and Baechli, 1981 Burla, 1954

Enrichment Activity 3. Comparing animals. Study the figure and answer the questions given below.

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Animal phylogeny. Phylogenetic diagram showing the position of the phylum Echinodermata
(shown in red; e.g. starfish) in the deuterostomian branch of the animal kingdom. The Bilateria
comprise two super-phyla-the deuterostomes and the protostomes. The deuterostomes comprise
the chordates (vertebrates, urochordates and cephalochordates) and the ambulacrarians
(hemichordates and echinoderms). The protostomes comprise the lophotrochozoans (e.g. molluscs
and annelids) and the ecdysozoans (e.g. arthropods and nematodes). The Cnidaria (e.g. sea
anemones) are basal to the Bilateria. Images of representative animals from each phylum were
obtained from http://phylopic.org or were created by the authors or by M. Zandawala (Stockholm
University).

Questions:
1. List at least five characteristics of animals.
2. How are invertebrates different from vertebrates?
3. What is more complex, cnidarian or nematode?
4. What adaptations of animals make life possible on land? Water?
Enrichment Activity 4. Sharable link. Examine the sample cladogram, each letter on the diagram points
to a derived character, or something different (or newer) than what was seen in previous groups. Match
the letter to its character.

1. Wings
2. 6 Legs
3. Segmented Body
4. Double set of wings
5. Cerci (abdomenal appendages)
6. Crushing mouthparts
7. Legs
8. Curly Antennae
POST-TEST

A. Evaluate cladistic system. Fill out the following character matrix. Mark an “X” if an organism has
the trait.
Cells Legs Antenna Wings 2 sets of wings
Worm
Spider

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Carpenter Ant
House fly
Dragonfly

Create a cladogram based on your matrix.

B. Fill in the table below by describing the characteristics of kingdoms Monera, Protista, and
Fungi in different categories.

Categories MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI

Types of cell
Presence of organelles
Cellular organization
Presence of cell wall
Presence of nucleus
Mode of nutrition
Locomotory organelles
Mode of
Reproduction
Location
Example of species

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