Environmental Advocacy

Environmental Advocacy
Felix Librero
Frances M. Canonizado
University of the Philippines

OPEN UNIVERSITY
By Felix Librero, Frances M. Canonizado
Copyright © 2000 Felix Librero, Frances M. Canonizado

and the University of the Philippines Open University
Apart from any fair use for the purpose of research or private study,
criticism or review, this publication may be reproduced, stored
or transmitted, in any form or by any means
ONLY WITH THE PERMISSION
of the author and the UP Open University.
Published in the Philippines by the UP Open University

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First printing, 2000

Second printing, 2007
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Printed in the Philippines

Table of Contents
Unit I A Framework for Environmental Advocacy
Module 1 The Context of Environmental Advocacy, 3

Objectives, 3
What is Environmental Advocacy?, 3
Why the Need for Environmental Advocacy?, 5
Why Environmental Advocacy Now, Not Later?, 9
Summary, 11
Module 2 Principles of Environmentalism: A Review, 13

Objectives, 13
Ecological Truths to Live By, 15
Variety is the Spice of Life, 15
No Man is an Island, 16
Moderation in All Things, 16
Balance of Nature, 18
The Global Consensus on the Environment, 22
Summary, 26
References, 26
Module 3 Developing Environmental Ethics, 27

Objectives, 27
Perspectives in the Formation of Environmental Ethics, 27
The Personal-Psychological Perspective, 28
The Social Perspective, 29
The Global Perspective, 30
The Environmental Management Perspective, 31
Environmental Values as Building Blocks of Environmental Ethics, 36
Environmental Ethics for Filipinos, 37
Statement of Belief, 37
Statement of Intention, 37
Statement of Responsibility and Accountability, 38
Statement of Commitment, 39
Environmental Ethics for All, 41
Summary, 44
Reference, 44
Unit II Approaches and Strategies in Environmental Advocacy
Module 4 The IEC Approach, 47

Objectives, 47
Background, 47
IEC as a Basic Framework, 49
The Beginnings of IEC, 49
The Functional Units of IEC, 50
Interactive Nature of the IEC Framework, 52
IEC and Environmental Concerns, 52
References, 58
Module 5 The Social Marketing Approach, 59

Objectives, 59
What is Social Marketing?, 59
Adoption of Ideas and Practices, 63
Promotion Strategies, 66
Promotion through Mass Communication, 66
Promotion through Selective Communication, 67
Promotion through Personal Communication, 68
The Social Marketing Plan of Action, 69
Evaluating a Social Marketing Project, 75
References, 78
Module 6 Conventional Development Communication Strategies, 79

Objectives, 79
The Four Strategies, 80
Media-based Strategy, 80
Instructional Design Strategy, 80
Participatory Strategy, 80
Marketing Strategy, 81
Application of the Four Strategies in Rice Production in the Philippines, 81
Mechanisms of Implementation, 87
Project-oriented Mechanism, 87
Built-in Community-based Mechanism, 87
Culture-oriented Campaign Program, 87
Exemplars of Newspaper-Based Advocacy Materials, 91
References, 104
Module 7 Indigenization Strategies, 105

Objectives, 105
The Indigenous Knowledge System, 105
Traditional Media, 111
Concientization, 115
Concienti-cancion, 115
Concienti-accion, 116
Concienti-vision, 118
References, 125
Module 8 Environmental Lobbying, 127
Objectives, 127
Environmental Lobbying Defined, 128
Who can Lobby?, 128
Why Lobby?, 128
Where do we Lobby?, 129
How do we Lobby?, 129
The International Context of Environmental Lobbying, 130
Global Policy Responses to Environmental Advocacy, 133
Unit III The Environmental Advocacy Plan of Action
Module 9 Designing An Environmental Advocacy Plan of Action, 137

Objectives, 137
What is the Problem?, 137
Who is your Key Audience?, 138
What are your Objectives?, 139
Nature of Objectives, 139
ABCD of Environmental Advocacy Objectives, 140
What is your Specific Advocacy Strategy?, 140
What is your Message?, 142
What are your Media Channels?, 145
How are you Going to Evaluate your Advocacy Campaign?, 147
How much Funds do you Need to Implement your Advocacy Campaign?, 147
Reference, 154
Module 10 Case Studies in Environmental Campaigns, 155

Objectives, 155
Case 1: Communicating Climate Change from the Perspective of Local People:
A Case Study from Arctic Canada, 156
Case 2: Public Acceptance of Radioactive Waste Management: The Malaysian
Experience, 176
References, 186
Unit IV Environmental Advocacy: Future Directions
Module 11 Environmental Advocacy: Future Directions, 187

What is in Store for us?, 189
To What Extent are we Responsible, 190
Advocacy is about making a Difference, 191
Annex A
List of Readings
Unit I Module 1 1
Unit I
A Framework for
T his course is not designed for the environmental scientist but for the
practitioner who specifically deals with promoting environmental
awareness among the general public and non-specialist groups. For this
reason, we are not going to be overly technical in our discussion. We shall
try our best to make this as straightforward and simple as possible, with-
out necessarily losing sight of the quality of information and knowledge
that you are going to gain from this Unit.
So that we can be effective in our efforts to promote environmentalism

among our public, we must first explain our frames of reference. This is
the reason for this Unit.
This first Unit is composed of three modules:
Module 1. The Context of Environmental Advocacy
Module 2. Principles of Environmentalism: A Review
Module 3. Developing Environmental Ethics
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Module 1
The Context of Environmental
Advocacy
E nvironmentalism, loosely defined as con-

cern for the environment and advocacy
of its welfare, is not new. However, it has
Objectives
become more and more of a global movement By the time you are done
over the last decade as a consequence of with this first module, you
mounting evidence of the depletion and deg- are expected to be able to:
radation of environmental resources world-
wide. Where before only a handful of indi- 1. Define environmental
viduals and organizations concerned them- advocacy; and
selves with monitoring the state of the envi- 2. Explain the global
ronment and working for its protection, com- significance of environ-
munities and governments have committed mental advocacy.
themselves to sustainable development, which
is characterized by a two-pronged commit-
ment to economic development and protection of the environment.
In this module, we will take a look at the rise of environmental advocacy

as a global movement.
What is Environmental Advocacy?

Advocacy is an action word that appeared in the development literature
in the last decade or so. Though there is as yet no consensus among ex-
perts on how to define it, Wallack (1993) points out that the “key point is
that advocacy seeks to increase the power of people and groups and to
4 Environmental Advocacy
make institutions more responsive to human needs.” Advocates are nor-

mally issue- or program-oriented so that the resolution of an issue is an
end in itself (Servaes, 1994). This means that the main goal of advocacy is
to promote public policies that support the resolution of an issue or devel-
opment program.
A general working definition of advocacy has been proposed by Servaes

(1992), as follows:
Advocacy for development is a combination of social actions de-

signed to gain political commitment, policy support, social accep-
tance and systems support for a particular goal or programme. It
involves collecting and structuring information into a persuasive
case; communicating the case to decision makers and other poten-
tial supporters, including the public, through various interpersonal
and media channels; and stimulating actions by social institutions,
stakeholder and policy makers in support for the goal or
programme.
In addition, “Advocacy is most effective when, besides mass media, indi-

viduals and groups and all sectors of society are engaged in this process.”
(Servaes, 1994)
Question: So what is environmental advocacy?

Answer: It is all this but focused on environmental issues.
But is it as simple as that? Many people these days seem to be jumping on

the bandwagon that is environmental advocacy. It is the “in” thing. Pro-
mote the environment; use it as a platform, package it and you have a
ready-made political campaign or commercial advertisement—perhaps
anything but an honest advocacy campaign targeted to sensitize people
on pressing issues about the world they live in. We must be careful in
labeling environmental campaigns as ‘advocacy’ campaigns when they
could simply be a justification for the existence of an entity, company,
conglomerate that is out to exploit diminishing natural resources. Envi-
ronmental advocacy is not just about capturing our imagination and emo-
tions; it is about spurring people to action—specifically, action to protect
the environment. The Earth Communications Office has a profound and
practical pitch:
Do something. Anything.
‘Anything’ can be manifested in proper waste disposal, being conscious

of our use of resources (water, electricity, gas); it can be working with
industrial firms to establish pollution control measures in the production
process, lobbying for legal amendments of policies that are detrimental to
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Unit I Module 1 5
the state of existing resources, or simply working with children in schools

and teaching them that the environment is living and breathing just like
us. This is environmental advocacy in popular language.
In the language of the policy makers such as those who drafted Agenda
21, which embodies the commitments of the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June
1992, environmental advocacy is “a global consensus and political
commitment…on development and environment cooperation”. This con-
sensus and commitment are manifested in “national strategies, plan, poli-
cies and processes” involving governments and “international, regional
and subregional organizations” as well as “the broadest public participa-
tion and the active involvement of non-governmental organizations and
other groups”.
Why the Need for Environmental Advocacy?

The environment is the concern of all in the sense that whatever happens
with it affects everybody. But not everybody knows this. For example,
loggers continue to deplete our forest resources, dynamite fishermen con-
tinue to destroy our coral reefs, transport vehicles continue to belch ex-
haust fumes that pollute our cities and towns, and people continue to
throw garbage into our sewage systems, causing floods during rainy days.
The list is endless.
Why do these people do these things? Why are they (we?) not concerned
about the state of the environment? Why are they (we?) so indifferent?
It is said that one is not likely to show concern about a condition until one
is directly affected by the consequences of that condition. This is certainly
true of the problem of garbage, which the people of Metro Manila are
only now beginning to appreciate. For many years, Metro Manilans blithely
threw out their garbage, believing that whoever was in charge would
take care of it. Well, now the garbage has exceeded the capacity of the
few garbage dumps and landfills in Metro Manila. The Payatas tragedy,
in which hundreds of people were buried alive when one portion of a
huge mountain of trash collapsed, brought home this fact with the force
of a physical blow. The Payatas dumpsite has been closed down and gar-
bage in many parts of Quezon City remain uncollected. Other landfills
(can you name them?) in the Metro Manila area are nearing their critical
level as well and have refused to take in Quezon City’s garbage (can’t
blame them, can we?). And yet, did the problem have to reach this critical
point before people appreciated the need (assuming of course that they
do appreciate it) for proper solid waste management? Weren’t there signs
(such as flooding in areas that didn’t used to get flooded at all and, most
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noticeable of all, the rapidly growing mountain of trash in Payatas) in the

past that the problem was real and needed to be addressed? Well, appar-
ently people didn’t heed those signs.
That’s another metaphor for what environmental advocacy is all about—

getting people to heed signs of distress from Mother Earth. It is not enough
that the signs are there. We cannot assume that people will read the signs
on their own. Environmental advocates must call people’s attention to
the signs. And then having done this, environmentalists must continually
remind people of the threats to the environment until they start to act on
these problems. Otherwise, everyone will forget once more that there is a
problem.
Activity 1-1
Other environmental disasters that the Philippines has experienced
are: the Ormoc City flood in 1991 that resulted from rapid defor-
estation and ended countless lives in a matter of hours; the
Marcopper mine tailings spill in 1996 which poisoned the Boac
river and killed the aquatic life thriving there; the Cherry Hills
Subdivision landslide in Antipolo, Rizal in 1999 that again, was
caused by deforestation and gross negligence of building codes
and environmental standards, and the landslides in Quezon in
2004 and St. Bernard, Southern Leyte in 2006 and the Guimaras
oil spill in 2006.
Were these incidents really all that sudden? Were there no warn-
ing signs months, even years, before they took place? And then,
what about the environmental status of these three sites NOW?
What’s the latest on Ormoc? The Boac River? and Cherry Hills?
Quezon? St. Bernard and Guimaras? What has been done by gov-
ernment offices, NGOs and private organizations, even individu-
als, in these areas to ensure that tragedies of this magnitude don’t
ever occur again?
Do the research, look for newspaper articles in print, on television,

on the internet, and/or at the library. Update yourself on these
things for two reasons: (1) you can discuss them if you choose to
attend the first study session; and (2) you might be asked about it
in your final exam. But more than that, you must know these things
so you are aware. That’s the first criterion in becoming an effective
advocate—you must be aware.
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Unit I Module 1 7
Activity 1-1 continuation
Write a summary of what you’ve learned. Identify key issues—has

there been change? Or have they learned nothing?
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Comment on Activity 1-1

There are many developments in the aftermath of these disasters.
For one, as a result of the Marcopper mine tailings spill, a national
policy for sustainable mining has been drawn up—the National
Minerals Policy: Promoting Sustainability Through Responsible
Mining. You can read the story regarding the proposal of this docu-
ment online at the Philippine Daily Inquirer’s website or ask about
it at the Mines and Geosciences Bureau of the Department of Envi-
ronment and Natural Resources.
In Ormoc City, residents report that despite the fatal flood of 1991 illegal
logging and kaingin continue in the uplands surrounding the city. Recent
developments about the Cherry Hills subdivision and the developers can
also be researched by looking through back issues of national newspa-
pers.
The point of all this is that people, media and government so easily disre-
gard significant environmental and ecological issues. There is no sustained
effort to pursue environmental concerns. The traditional problem of ningas
kogon always happens. Some high-ranking official announces a clean-up
drive, and everybody is shown in media as participating in the launching
ceremonies. The launch of a new environmental program is often accom-
panied by a lot of fanfare. But pretty soon, media interest dies down and
project implementers quickly lose their enthusiasm. It’s no longer interest-
ing publicity.
What we need is a sustained advocacy of environmental issues and con-

cerns to not only keep people informed but also to encourage them to
become active participants in resolving environmental problems and pro-
moting environmentalism. People must understand that their individual
efforts translate into something. If they know that two pieces of Styrofoam
from buying take out food in a week can grow into 8 pieces a month, 48
pieces a year, multiplied by 15,000 people in a town, comes to 720,000
pieces of Styrofoam annually that is non-biodegradable and will probably
last longer on this earth than their children or grandchildren’s children,
then maybe they’d STOP buying food or goods in Styrofoam.
This is why we need environmental advocacy.
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Unit I Module 1 9
Why Environmental Advocacy Now, Not

Later?
There are very definite signs that we have serious environmental prob-
lems and that life as we know it is under grave threat.
World population is now nearly 6 billion and still growing. This will double
only 50 years from now, with serious implications on our ability to pro-
duce food for everybody. Food experts say that feeding the additional
three billion people over the next three years will be very difficult because
most of our soil is becoming more and more degraded and its ability to be
productive has been substantially reduced. Part of the remedy would be
genetic engineering, but then there are those who are moving heaven and
earth to prevent this from happening because of moral, ethical and some
very real safety issues. (Though genetic engineering is an exciting technol-
ogy that must be pursued, when it comes to working with nature we
must always remember to tread on the side of caution: anything that can
possibly evolve, mutate and change beyond our ability to control it must
be treated with a certain level of reverence and healthy respect. That,
most certainly, is how the environment should be regarded.)
We have, at the same time, serious problems with our use of global energy
resources. The world has actually lost half of its forests to modern indus-
tries already. World water quality is approaching critical levels. There are
in fact predictions that the Third World War will be a result of competi-
tion among nations for potable water. All in all, our ecosystems are in
serious trouble.
If you think you still can’t feel it, notice how it has gotten warmer in the
summers and colder in the latter end of the year. Why are there more
incidences of skin cancer? Why does the slightest rain result in flooding
(and horrendous traffic)? Have you noticed that droughts are becoming
common? There is a portion of the South Luzon Expressway that is lined
with Agoo trees. They look like tall, straggly pines, but they aren’t. They
thrive on water from the soil. Since the land area in and near the towns of
Sta. Rosa, Laguna and Carmona, Cavite has been converted to residential
areas, the once lush stretch of Agoo is now dried and wilting. In your
provinces, ask the elders how many times a year they are able to harvest
rice now, compared to two decades ago? How common is red tide these
days? Though there is as yet no hard evidence that connects this marine
phenomenon to pollution, most experts agree that pollution is the catalyst
for the proliferation of red tide.
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If all these sounds too impressionistic to you, look at the current state of
the environment in the Philippines as well as in the rest of the Asia-Pacific
and the projections made by world experts. Read the attached copy of
portions of Chapter 2 (State of the Environment - Regional Perspectives)
of the Global State of the Environment Report 2000 and Chapter 4 (Looking
to the Future) of the Global State of the Environment Report 1997 prepared
under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme. (These
are online publications that can be downloaded and reproduced for edu-
cational purposes without special permission from the publisher provided
proper acknowledgement of the source is made.)
Activity 1-2
After reading the two chapters, point out which portions are par-
ticularly relevant to the Philippines and make some notes on the
implications of the report on national development efforts such as
those in agriculture, housing and health care.
Be ready to share your notes with the rest of the class during the
First Study Session. This might also be covered in the final exami-
nation.
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Unit I Module 1 11

The current statistics on the state of the environment and pro-
jected trends are certainly disturbing, particularly because revers-
ing those trends means reviewing (and perhaps revising) our prac-
tices and values as a people and as individuals. Clearly, for ex-
ample, concern for the environment has implications for the ap-
proach to economic development that we have chosen to adopt—
and vice-versa.
The World Resources Institute has this to say about the trends in the state
of the global environment:
On the surface, they paint a troubling picture of the future, with many
critical environmental indicators continuing to decline at their current
pace or at increasing speed. Although global food supply and economic
growth appear robust in the short term, such accumulating environmen-
tal harm ultimately puts at risk the ecosystems and environmental pro-
cesses such as climate that form the basis of human health and well-be-
ing. (WRI, 2000, www.wri.org/wri/trends/index.html; 11/10/00).
Summary
We have many environmental challenges ahead of us. But it is important
to remember that all these can be modified with human resolve. Increase
human resolve to nurture the environment is what environmental advo-
cacy is all about.
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Unit III Module 11 187
Unit IV
Environmental Advocacy: Future
Directions
T his is the closing Unit of the course. We will be discussing what lies
ahead for the state of our environment and what we should do in
light of this. Advocacy, as you well know by now, plays an extremely
important role in our environment will fare in the future. Environmental-
ism is not just a conviction; half of it is the application of that conviction.
To conclude and tie up all that you’ve learned, you now have to ask your-
self some very important questions:
l Am I aware of what strategies I can use to advocate my environmen-

tal convictions?
l Do I have a plan on how to transform these convictions into some-
thing tangible?
l Can I make a difference?
By the end of Unit III, you should have been able to answer, “yes” to the
first two questions. By the end of this Unit, you’ll be able to answer. “yes”
to the last question as well.
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Module 11
Environmental Advocacy:
Future Directions
What is in Store for Us?

By now you should have realized that the earth is a living, breathing
entity, not something separate from us. She is Gaia or Mother Earth and
her influence on our lives is as great as our influence on her. She is chang-
ing rapidly because of our actions. We exploit her resources, pollute and
plunder them. Without any regard for her well-being and capacity to
regenerate, we take for granted the seemingly endless bounty she pro-
duces.
But this is an attitude we cannot maintain. The very health of the planet is
hanging in the balance. This is not hearsay. It is backed up by research
and valid data.
In the Global Environment Outlook report for the year 2000, Chapter
Four discusses the Future Perspectives of our present environmental con-
cerns. In particular, the issues for the 21st century are the following:
l The rate at which commerce and industry in the Asia-Pacific region is

progressing and utilizing existing resources is not sustainable;
l Conflicting regional policies or policies implemented in isolation;
l Lack of market-based incentives;
l Limited power, influence, financial support and manpower of envi-
ronmental institutions/organizations; and
l Relegation of environmental concerns/issues to the back seat vis-à-vis
economic and political concerns. (UNEP 1999)
Included here (Annex A) is the chapter from the GEO 2000 report on the
outlook for the state of the global environment. This is what we can ex-
pect in our future, particularly if we plan on moving forward in the same
manner we are doing now.
Read Annex A. It takes you through discussions on the importance of the

future, issues for the 21st century, pointers for the 21st century and a brief
outline of the alternative policy studies for the Asia and the Pacific region.
To What Extent are We Responsible?

The answer to this is we are entirely responsible. It is up to us to rectify what
we have done in the past and to stop what we are doing presently. If we
are concerned about the future and our survival, then we have got to do
something now. There is nothing dramatic about it; nor are our scientists
and experts exaggerating. The whole point is we are just too many and
our mere presence is exerting pressure on nature’s resources.
But it is also within our power to do good. We can make progressive

changes and have the capacity to learn from our mistakes. In recent years,
there have been advancements in man’s activities that are projected to
result in future benefits.
Chapter Five of the GEO 2000 report (included here as Annex B) dis-
cusses the outlook and recommendations for action that must be under-
taken to reverse the damaging trends we are following (UNEP 1999).
Read Annex B. One of the focus points is cooperative action or the mobi-
lization of people and organizationsin short, advocacy. This is discussed
at length and hence must be read carefully. Take note of the suggestions
outlined in the report and how they are explained. Some of them are:
l Improve public access to environmental information;

l Include environmental education as part of the standard educational
curriculum;
l Encourage media to give equal exposure to environmental issues as is
given to other high profile stories (e.g. politics, economics, crime, etc);
l Ensure that stakeholders are included in the decision-making process
and the share of benefits from the exploitation of natural resources;
and
l Provide for NGOs and community groups in environmental actions.
You might want to delve further into some of the points brought up in the
report by conducting more research. However, what is imperative is you
understand exactly why these points are key in the first place.
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The bottom line is this: we are responsible for our actions and our actions
will affect us, and if not us, then our children. How big a risk are we
choosing to take if we refuse to acknowledge that each individual has a
responsibility to treat the environment with as much regard as we treat
our own selves?
Advocacy is About Making a Difference

Finally, we come to the close of our course. In Unit I you studied the
framework for environmental advocacy by exposing yourselves to the state
of the environment worldwide, reviewed salient ecological principles and
either discovered, recognized or acknowledged your own environmental
ethics.
In Unit II, you were guided through the various approaches and strate-
gies by which environmental advocacy can be carried out. By the end of
this Unit you should have had some idea of what approach/strategy
would best suit an environmental issue you would like to advocate.
In Unit III, you were taught how to go about designing a plan of action
for an environmental advocacy campaign. Some other examples of local
case studies you might want to do research on in order to gain more in-
sight on the local scene are such campaigns as: ABS-CBN’s Bantay
Kalikasan—a hotline where environmental issues, concerns and crimes
can be reported for investigation and/or action; and the Piso Para Sa
Pasig fund raising and awareness campaign that seeks to save, clean and
restore the Pasig river.
Let us close with a brief statement about environmental advocacy and its
purpose:
Advocacy is all about making things happen. It’s about seeing things
through. It is the transformation of an idea into something tan-
gible—at times, even measurable. When you advocate a concern,
particularly an environmental concern, you are out to get results.
Approaches and strategies are means by which you get those re-
sults. The action plan is your blueprint to ensure that you don’t get
lost along the way.
Environmental advocacy is about making people listen and pay

attention to what you have to say. You know you’ve made a dif-
ference and that your results are measurable when you see the
change in people’s attitudes, actions and most importantly, in your
surroundings.
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Module 2
Principles of
Environmentalism: A Review
E nvironmental advocacy uses many com

munication tools and strategies. We’ll
touch on that later. For now we’ll concentrate
Objectives
on what you’ll be communicating to others. At the end of this module,

you should be able to:
To promote something effectively you must
first know what you’re talking about and sub- 1. Explain the relationship
sequently, you must believe in it. In this mod- among basic ecological
ule, you will recall the basic ecological prin- principles; and
ciples, and the principles upon which the glo- 2. Explain the principles
bal environmental movement is founded. that form the founda-
tion of the global envi-
ronmental movement.
Activity 2-1
I’d like you to write down in the space below, like you would in a
journal , how much the environment matters to you at this mo-
ment. There’s no need to be technical or philosophical. What I
want from you are your emotions. These insights are for your eyes
only, so let your thoughts flow!

Later in our discussion, it’ll come to you why this exercise is needed.
Are you sure you’ve written all you can? Ok, let’s begin…
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Unit I Module 2 15
Ecological Truths to Live By

By now, you’ve been through our program’s basic course in ecology
(ENRM 201/ENS 201). Though you must be well versed in the various
ecological principles (and there are many of them) it won’t hurt if we
touch on the relevant ones in environmental advocacy.
Our environment operates, much like we human beings do, on certain

truths or principles. Whether you are in Tuguegarao or Dadianggas, Naga
or Puerto Princesa, these principles apply. The principles were applicable
when your Lola was young and will still be when your son is a Lolo him-
self.
Variety is the spice of life

If you look around you on your way to work, you will see a variety of
things. You will see, for example, different kinds of people—some fat,
some thin; some short, some tall; some light, some dark. This is what we
know to be the diversity of human life. All of us are different from one
another. It is precisely our differences, our diversity, that enriches human
society and culture as a whole.
In ecology, the more specific term for this phenomenon is biological diver-
sity. McNeeley et. al. (1990) defines this as “all the species of plants, ani-
mals, and microorganisms and the ecological processes of which they are
parts”. This means we, human beings, don’t have a monopoly of the envi-
ronment!
There is an abundance of genetic information (genetic diversity) in each

plant, animal and microorganism locked away in its genes. And did you
know exactly how many different species of mollusks exist (species diver-
sity)? There are more than 8,000 (Pagulayan 1995)! These are just snails,
slugs, clams, squid and octopi! Of course, there are also various types of
ecosystems (ecosystem diversity), e.g. forest, wetland, marine and agricul-
tural. Our largest ecosystem is the earth.
The richness of the environment is tremendous. And the beauty of it is

that each individual, whether living or non-living, is a significant part of
the whole. We’re not set apart from our environment. We’re a part of a
great system playing our role, reacting to changes and making our own.
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No man is an island
No man is an island. Care to argue against this saying? You could say an
island is actually a diverse habitat. Then you have internalized Mother
Nature’s first truth (our discussion above)!
But that’s only one truth. With all this diversity, there must be some form
of interaction going on. Hence, our second truth: that each and every
thing in the ecosystem is interdependent.
Living organisms manifest this through a food chain or simply the pro-
cess of eating and being eaten. When the grass growing in Cavite is eaten
say, by a cow owned by a meat processing company and the cow be-
comes the ground beef you buy at your local meat shop which you’ll use
in the spaghetti sauce your niece has been begging you to make, then that
is a perfect example of a transfer of energy from the source in plants
through a series of organisms (Odum 1971). A more complex pattern of
this interdependence is the food web where you find many levels inter-
locking with one another.
This interdependence also holds true for the non-living components of

the ecosystem. Plants and animals proliferate because of their dependence
on water and minerals in the soil. Conversely, minerals are cycled through
the ecosystem by the activities of an earthworm, for example.
So now we know that life is not only varied, but that everything is related
one way or another! An organism may be a consumer at a point in its life,
and the next day becomes a food source for another.
Moderation in all things

You learned earlier on in your basic ecology that the resources of an eco-
system are limited. So it is their abundance, or lack of it, that determines
carrying capacity, or that point where life can still be sustained. Another
definition of carrying capacity is that it is the maximum density of the
population of each species that the ecosystem can maintain.
There are also two types of resources: renewable and non-renewable. Re-
newable resources are those that are continuously cycled and recycled in
the ecosystem. They are the trees in your backyard, the water in Laguna
Lake, and the fish in the sea. Non-renewable resources are those that,
once exhausted, can never be recovered. Some renewable resources take
so long to renew themselves that they might as well be non-renewable.
For example, due to the time it takes for fossil fuels to replenish them-
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 17
selves, which is longer than our lifespan, we consider them to be non-

renewable.
So what are our key phrases? Limited resources, maintenance of life, renew-
able or non-renewable. How can we rationalize the three? Consider the
following excerpt from a DENR Training Module on Environmental
Awareness (1992):
To ensure the maintenance of life in an ecosystem, it is necessary

to regulate the use and therefore, the rate of depletion of the re-
sources both renewable and non-renewable. To maintain renew-
able resources, the rate of consumption must be matched by the
rate of new growths that can be harvested.
At this point, perhaps you’d like to pause and reflect on a question I’ve
prepared for you. Or you may want to take a break. If you do, read the
question first, then mull it over while sipping your coffee, or eating a ba-
nana.
Come back soon because this is just a mini-break!
SAQ 2-1
Proposition: All resources are actually NON-RENEWABLE.
Do you agree (YES) with this statement, or disagree (NO)? Justify

your answer in the space below. (You’ll really need to write down
your thoughts because when you review them later, they’ll take
on a significance you’ll understand once you’ve gone through this
module.)
UP Open University
ASAQ 2-1
If you said NO and it was because you were thinking of the pure
definition of a non-renewable resource as compared to a renew-
able one, then I’ll have to ask you to think deeper about my propo-
sition. Think beyond the definition and tell me when all resources
would eventually become non-renewable. Don’t worry, you weren’t
really wrong. However, if you truly believe in your justification,
then you may want to bring it up during our first study session or
the activity forum in the moddle or IVLE and share it with your
classmates.
Now if you said YES, like I would, it’s because at one point or
another, if we don’t manage our resources properly, even renew-
able resources will become useless and in effect non-renewable.
Water is a renewable resource as long as it remains clean or as
long as we can drink it and bathe in it. When it becomes polluted
to the extent that we can no longer clean it, and fish can no longer
live in it, what happens then? When the trees we’re waiting to
mature can’t because we’ve cut down so many, even the young
ones too, what then? Eventually, all resources become non-renew-
able.
Balance of nature
I hope I made you think in that first SAQ you answered. Now we’ll ad-
vance to a higher mode of learning where you’ll begin to see the relation-
ships among concepts.
An ecosystem, due to its diversity, is stable. The many different compo-

nents work together to maintain the balance of nature. Once a compo-
nent, say an organism, is depleted or its population suddenly drops, those
organisms that depend on it as a source of food will starve! Hence, when
an ecosystem with low species diversity is unfavorably affected by an
unexpected change, those few species might die out. If there were high
species diversity, maybe one or two would die and the rest would survive
to attain a balance once again.
Now, once in a while, you find an organism that is, in itself, living a pre-
cariously balanced existence. For example, there is a very interesting crea-
ture called the sloth, living in the Amazon forest of Brazil. (If you haven’t
seen this animal yet, finding a photo of it might be something you’d like to
do in your spare time. Look it up in the encyclopedia, or turn on your tv to
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 19
watch a nature program.) The sloth is a slow moving herbivore. In the

vastness of the jungle, it has an appetite for only one kind of leaf. Because
of this it will travel (usually swim, because the tree is found near the edge
of water) far distances to find just that one kind of tree that bears those
leaves. Now imagine if a logging firm manages to avail of concession rights
to a section of the Amazon where those trees are abundant. The sloth’s
food source may well be wiped out. What happens to the sloth then? And
should the sloth become extinct, do we know the effect its absence will
have on the ecosystem it is a part of? This is something you might want to
do some research on.
It is important to realize that all things, biotic and abiotic, have their place
in an ecosystem. Each contributes to the maintenance of a delicate bal-
ance, whether we are aware of its distinct function or not.
It’s time now for another assessment. You see at this point, it’s my turn to
take a break and your turn to do a little bit more work. Don’t worry, I
won’t be looking—remember, I’m on break!
SAQ 2-2
1. Remember your 201 course on ecology and the ecosystem? Re-
call what you learned there and consider the following ques-
tions: Do you like to plant vegetables? Do you have a vegetable
garden of your own? Let’s go outside and take a look at what’s
planted. The garden is an example of a diverse ecosystem. Be-
low, and to the left, you are provided bullets so you can list
down the different organisms you see in the garden. To the right,
there are boxes you can use to help you draw a food web. If you
want to add more, do so by all means!
UP Open University
SAQ 2-2 continuation
2. Now why is your garden flourishing? Why is it that with the

caterpillars, the weeds and the frogs, you are still able to gather
two kilos of tomatoes and kangkong a day? Write your answer
below and try to think of all the possible reasons why. Go ahead,
then check on the next page and see how you did!
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 21
ASAQ 2-2
1. Did your answer look something like this? It should have, and
I know this was the easy part for you. It was meant to involve
you and get you started on the process of relating the different
principles.
l Tomato plants (t) t
l kang-kong (k) c
l weeds (w)
k f
l siling-labuyo (s)
l caterpillars © l gs
l ladybugs (l) w
b
l grasshoppers (g)
gh
l frogs (f)
s
l birds (b)
l garden snakes (gs)
2. A vegetable garden is an ecosystem first and foremost because

it is self-perpetuating and self-regulating. Nothing is artificially
sustaining the various components. And speaking of variety,
you have a diverse number of living organisms thriving within
the confines of the garden. They have many feeding options at
all levels. They balance each other’s needs. The caterpillar has
enough leaves to feed on and doesn’t have to compete with
ladybugs. They in turn are enough for the frogs and the frog
population is kept in check by the occasional garden snake.
And your plants are producing vegetables by the basket every
day! But the resources are limited. Should there be continuous
sun and no rain for days, the frogs can die. The caterpillar
population can soar and become an infestation. And so on.
Here you see how all the principles come together! Now, can
you think of a more complex application of these principles?
Can you see how they relate to our daily lives on a larger,
broader scale?
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So how’d you do? If your answer was off the mark, that’s all right. It can
take a while for all the interrelationships to sink in. Do you think that the
fishing practice known as ‘muro-ami’ in Bohol has other implications other
than child labor? What ecological principles can you relate to the prac-
tice? Think about that for a while.
The Global Consensus on the Environment

In addition to the basic principles of ecology discussed above, the global
movement to protect and/or safeguard the environment is underpinned
by a set of principles agreed upon during the UN Conference on Environ-
ment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Known collectively as
the Rio Declaration, these principles are:
Principle 1: Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable

development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in har-
mony with nature.
Principle 2: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United

Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to
exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and
developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities
within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environ-
ment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Principle 3: The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably

meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future gen-
erations.
Principle 4: In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental

protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process
and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Principle 5: All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task
of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living
and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.
Principle 6: The special situation and needs of developing countries, par-

ticularly the least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable,
shall be given special priority. International actions in the field of environ-
ment and development should also address the interests and needs of all
countries.
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Unit I Module 2 23
Principle 7: States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to con-

serve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosys-
tem. In view of the different contributions to global environmental degra-
dation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The devel-
oped countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the inter-
national pursuit to sustainable development in view of the pressures their
societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and
financial resources they command.
Principle 8: To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of

life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable pat-
terns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demo-
graphic policies.
Principle 9: States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-

building for sustainable development by improving scientific understand-
ing through exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by
enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of tech-
nologies, including new and innovative technologies.
Principle 10: Environmental issues are best handled with participation of

all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each
individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the
environment that is held by public authorities, including information on
hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the oppor-
tunity to participate in decision-making processes. States shall facilitate
and encourage public awareness and participation by making informa-
tion widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative pro-
ceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.
Principle 11: States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Envi-

ronmental standards, management objectives and priorities should re-
flect the environmental and development context to which they apply.
Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of un-
warranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular de-
veloping countries.
Principle 12: States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open

international economic system that would lead to economic growth and
sustainable development in all countries, to better address the problems
of environmental degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental
purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable dis-
crimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral
actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of
the importing country should be avoided. Environmental measures ad-
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dressing transboundary or global environmental problems should, as far

as possible, be based on an international consensus.
Principle 13: States shall develop national law regarding liability and com-
pensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage.
States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined man-
ner to develop further international law regarding liability and compen-
sation for adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities
within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction.
Principle 14: States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent

the relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances
that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful
to human health.
Principle 15: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary ap-

proach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full sci-
entific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degradation.
Principle 16: National authorities should endeavour to promote the inter-

nalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments,
taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle,
bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and with-
out distorting international trade and investment.
Principle 17: Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument,

shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a signifi-
cant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a
competent national authority.
Principle 18: States shall immediately notify other States of any natural
disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful
effects on the environment of those States. Every effort shall be made by
the international community to help States so afflicted.
Principle 19: States shall provide prior and timely notification and rel-
evant information to potentially affected States on activities that may have
a significant adverse transboundary environmental effect and shall con-
sult with those States at an early stage and in good faith.
Principle 20: Women have a vital role in environmental management and

development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sus-
tainable development.
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Unit I Module 2 25
Principle 21: The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world
should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sus-
tainable development and ensure a better future for all.
Principle 22: Indigenous people and their communities and other local
communities have a vital role in environmental management and devel-
opment because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should
recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and en-
able their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable devel-
opment.
Principle 23: The environment and natural resources of people under op-
pression, domination and occupation shall be protected.
Principle 24: Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development.

States shall therefore respect international law providing protection for
the environment in times of armed conflict and cooperate in its further
development, as necessary.
Principle 25: Peace, development and environmental protection are inter-

dependent and indivisible.
Principle 26: States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peace-
fully and by appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations.
Principle 27: States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a
spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this
Declaration and in the further development of international law in the
field of sustainable development.
Altogether these principles constitute the framework for the current ap-
proach to environmentalism in the global as well as the national (i.e., the
Philippine) context.
Now, one day I was driving and I noticed the car I was following had a
bumper sticker saying: Remember, the earth is disposable too!
It got me thinking about waste segregation, composting, recycling and

reuse. Can I entice you to think along with me? What other questions do
you find yourself asking? What relationships and dynamics are you now
visualizing? I’m asking a lot of questions because I want you to really
think hard. And then I want you to ask other people what they think.
Discuss your analysis with them and your views and your feelings as
well. Then bring your insights to your study sessions, or in the class fora,
and you’ll see it makes for great discussion!
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Summary
Now we’re off to a good start. You’re thinking of the environment and
the principles of ecology that govern the functions of all its components.
More importantly, you must now be thinking of your own role in the
scheme of things and how we, as human beings, affect and are affected
by the forces of nature. In the coming module, we’ll go on to what it is you
must do with these things you’ve been thinking about.
References
Environmental Management Bureau. (n.d.) Environmental Awareness, De-

velopmental Communication and People Participation. Training Module
No. 19. Quezon City: Department of Environment and natural Re-
sources.
McNeeley, J. et al. 1990. Conserving the world’s biodiversity. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland; WRI, CI, WWF-US and the World Bank, Washington,
DC. 193 pp.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. 3rd ed. W.B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia. 574 pp.
Pagulayan, R. 1995. Studies on the biodiversity of the molluscan fauna of
lake Taal, Batangas. Terminal Report, Office of the Research Coordi-
nator, UP, QC.
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Module 3
Developing Environmental
Ethics
I n the latter part of the previous module, you

read what may be called a manifesto in sup-
port of the environment and sustainable de-
Objectives
velopment. This manifesto consists of the prin- At the end of this module,
ciples, or ethical codes and standards, pertain- you should be able to:
ing to the environment that were agreed upon
by all member nations of the United Nations. 1. Differentiate the various
perspectives in environ-
In this module, we will focus on articulating mental ethics formation;
our own environmental ethics. This is neces- and
sary because to be an advocate for the envi- 2. Propose an environmen-
ronment (or for anything for that matter), it tal ethic of your own.
is not enough to know about it; one must also
feel for it. One must believe in what one is
advocating.
Perspectives in the Formation of

Environmetnal Ethics
Ethics, it is said, is the discipline that deals with what is good or bad, right
or wrong. It deals with moral duty and obligation. It deals with the
”rules or norms of conduct,” or code of morals, if you will.
We develop ethics, including environmental ethics, in one or a combina-

tion of four ways: personal-psychological perspective, social perspective,
global perspective, and the environmental management perspective.
The personal-psychological perspective

Simply, this perspective says that we develop our ethics based on how we
have been brought up.
When you were born into this world, ethics was not your twin brother/
sister. You came out, alone and tabula rasa, like a clean sheet of paper.
Then, in the process of growing up and developing as a person, you were
exposed to certain concepts and ways of doing things. As you grew older,
you learned to apply these concepts and ways of doing things. As you
continued doing this over time, they became givens. This is what happens
when we learn the do’s and the don’ts of the game, the rules to play by.
A television commercial that was aired a couple of years ago showed a

family on a drive, arguing where to put their trash (they were eating
inside the car). The dialogue went this way:
FATHER: O, baka naman dito pa sa loob ng kotse ninyo

ikakalat ‘yan. Kalilinis ko lang nito kanina.
DAUGHTER: E, saan po namin ito itatapon?
FATHER: Saan pa? ‘Di sa labas ng kotse!
When you throw your garbage out of the car, bus, or jeepney, you are
making the highway a dumpsite. Most of those who do this are adults, or
kids ordered by their parents to simply throw their garbage out on to the
streets. We know that children will copy their elders. In other words, we
adults or parents tend to pass on to our children our traits and habits. If
we tell our children to throw garbage into the street, they will grow up to
become adults who will tell their kids to do the same thing. It becomes a
terrible cycle.
On the other hand, if we are environmentally-aware, we explain to our

children that throwing our garbage into the street is not good because of
a number of reasons. For one, if you throw plastic into the street, it even-
tually ends up clogging the drainage holes, preventing floodwaters from
flowing. Garbage in the streets is unsanitary and unsightly, not to men-
tion foul smelling.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 29
The point is, early in life we were exposed to the ways of adults. And we
tend to imitate them. As another TV ad goes, “Ang gawa ng matanda ay
nagiging tama sa mata ng bata.”
The social perspective

According to this perspective, ethics develop in a social environment. Why
is this so? Well, ethics don’t really work when you’re alone. Neither would
you need them if you’re not dealing with anybody else but yourself. In
other words, you do not need a code of behavior to go by when nobody
else comes in contact with you. This happens when you exist alone in this
world, or at least you are the only inhabitant of an island that is com-
pletely inaccessible to other people, and where you cannot contact other
people elsewhere. But this is hardly possible in today’s world where sim-
ply by means only of a small handheld phone you can talk to somebody
on the other side of the globe in an instant.
It is a given that we come in contact with other people, whether or not we

like it, and we must co-exist with one another. The moment there is this
kind of relationship, then we must have rules that should govern such
relationships. This is our code of conduct, our ethics. Our ethical behavior
depends on how we relate with other people and with our environment.
As the environment changes over time, so must our relationship with it
changes too.
To illustrate: During the Second World War, the Philippines was com-
pletely devastated. After the war, the country had to be rehabilitated from
ruin. One of the ways to raise the needed reconstruction funds was through
logging. Logging raked in dollars that the country needed. At the time,
most of the mountains in the Philippines were still covered with virgin
forest, and loggers thought that they would never run out of trees to cut
down. In time, we ran out of forests. And then came the floods during
rainy season and water shortage in the dry season. Floodwaters destroyed
not only mountain slopes but also human dwellings, costing the lives of
thousands of people. As a result, the public has raised its voice against
logging. But the loggers will not listen. Logging continues.
Why is this so? According to the Environmental Management Bureau

(EMB), this is due to a lack of understanding of natural phenomena, re-
sulting in lack of commitment to conserve and enhance the environment,
and a lack of knowledge and skills in solving environmental problems.
The main reason—the lack of understanding of natural phenomena—
requires what the EMB refers to as “reorientation of basic education and
of continuing non-formal education toward ecology and environmental
concepts”.
UP Open University
Education must start early in childhood, however, when children are most
receptive to learning about the environment. And the first teachers to
teach children about the environment must be their parents and other
members of the family. A deeper understanding of the environment can
later be provided by the schools.
In the last decade there has been serious effort in integrating ecological
and environmental concepts in school curricula at all levels. The mass
media have also become more active in the crusade to preserve the envi-
ronment. Consequently, one can say that there is an atmosphere of con-
cern in society for the protection and preservation of the environment
and our natural resources.
In short, our ethical standards are dictated by the common good. We

behave according to what is acceptable to society, not according to the
whims and caprices of a few.
The global perspective

The global perspective develops from various agreements among coun-
tries. Foremost among these agreements was the “global agenda for
change” that was formulated by the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED) in 1983. This agenda adopted sustainable de-
velopment as its theme. The essence of sustainable development is that
the current generation should be able to meet its needs without compro-
mising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Basi-
cally, there are four concerns expressed in this theme:
1. Relationship between environmental stress and patterns of eco-

nomic development. For example, to increase rice yield farmers have
to use fertilizers and chemicals. In turn, these inputs contribute to the
rapid pollution of rivers and lakes.
2. Relationship among the various forms of environmental stress. Ev-

erybody knows that over logging results in deforestation, and defores-
tation, in turn, results in soil erosion, which results in the siltation of
rivers, and so forth. There is a chain of negative effects.
3. Relationship between environmental and economic problems to

some social and political factors. A good example of this is the con-
tinuing debate between government and the Catholic Church regard-
ing the country’s population program. While the debate rages, the
government is unable to implement its population program effectively.
The net effect is rapid increase in the country’s population.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 31
4. Ecosystems are not limited by geographical boundaries. Any nuclear

fall-out, say in Taiwan, will certainly affect the Philippines. Even the
effects of the damaged Chernobyl nuclear plant years back reached
the Philippines through imported milk from Belgium where milking
cows fed on grass affected by the radiation from the Chernobyl plant
in Russia.
Environmental management perspective

This perspective includes eight critical points, as follows:
1. Population and human resources. There is a need to control the growth

of the world’s population to a level where education can be provided to
all and scientific knowledge is shared in order to ensure that there is
more equitable access to resources. At the same time, the rights of
tribal and indigenous peoples shall be recognized.
2. Food security. We must sustain the potential to produce enough food

for all. Under this condition, those countries that produce food sur-
plus should not undermine the production policies of other countries
through unfair world market competition. Furthermore, farmers from
developing economies should be provided favorable “terms of trade”
while also being encouraged to promote ecologically sound agricul-
tural practices. The government should also put safety nets in agri-
culture that respond to the ill effects of global warming. Finally, atten-
tion should be focused as well on appropriate world distribution of
food considering the purchasing powers of different countries.
3. Species and ecosystems. The diversity of species on earth ensures

that ecosystems would function normally. There is, therefore, a need
to identify protected areas where biodiversity is protected at all times.
4. Energy. The growth and development of nations must be less depen-

dent on energy-intensive sources, and instead, must use energy-effi-
cient sources. Towards this end, more intensive research and develop-
ment efforts must be undertaken to identify alternative energy sources,
and the more rapid development of renewable sources must be pur-
sued vigorously. Such as the promotion of biodiesel.
5. Industry. The essence of this concern is to produce more with less

inputs that result in hazardous byproducts. Hence, efficient anti-pol-
lution technology must be installed by industrial plants to protect health
and the environment. The transnational corporations have special re-
sponsibility to assist in the development and transfer of appropriate
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technology to nations where they operate. Globally, there must be

tighter controls in the transnational transfer and dumping of hazard-
ous chemicals in international sites.
6. Urban change. The rapid rate of urbanization must be governed by

appropriate policies and strategies in the distribution of food, provi-
sion of appropriate transport system, provision of health and educa-
tion facilities, and the rendering of social justice. In designing urban
population centers, city builders must work closely with people and
institutions, including non-government organizations to arrive at ap-
propriate urban plans and designs that can be efficiently managed.
7. International cooperation. The basics of international cooperation are

that economic exchange must be more beneficial to all concerned, and
that the growth and development of some countries must not stifle
the growth and development of others. For example, if we have to
eradicate poverty, then the economic growth in developing countries
must not be hindered by unnecessary pricing policies, intolerable debt
burdens, and decreasing amount of development finance flowing from
donor countries.
SAQ 3-1
Below are various situations that depict (in one way or another)
the formation of certain environmental ethics. Can you identify
what particular perspective is presented by each situation? Given
that is the
a. Social Perspective;
b. Environmental Management Perspective;
c. Global Perspective; and
d. Personal-Psychological Perspective
shade the circle beside the letter which you think is the best an-
swer.
1. In an increasing number of homes today we’ll find separate

bins for the segregation of non-biodegradable discards—one
for paper, one for plastic, another for bottles, etc. If these homes
were those of young families, their toddlers will grow up ac-
customed to proper waste management practices.
a. O b. O c. O d. O
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 33
2. Though water is a renewable resource, we must take steps to

keep its quality good. Communities like the municipality of
Marikina exert effort to rehabilitate their river because they
know that clogging our waterways will wreak havoc on the
rest of the ecosystem and consequently on human health.
a. O b. O c. O d. O
3. Sheila and Rico are twins in grade three. At home they remind
their older brothers and sisters not to fall asleep with the TV on
or to always turn off the lights when they leave the room. If
asked where they’ve learned these things, they proudly say,
“Teacher Joyce tells us at school about how to save our en-
ergy!”
a. O b. O c. O d. O
4. Little eight-year-old Sarah is sleeping over tonight at her cousin

Mary’s. The two girls are brushing their teeth before bedtime.
Sarah turns to her cousin and says very carefully, “We shouldn’t
keep the water running. Let’s turn the faucet off. Mommy tells
us at home not to waste water.”
a. O b. O c. O d. O
5. The citizens of Los Baños, Laguna have long tried to imple-

ment a municipal waste management scheme. Countless in-
formation campaigns have been conducted, but still, many
people refuse to cooperate on the premise of how can they
properly segregate when not everyone is doing. When the gar-
bage dump is still a mixed-waste dumpsite.
a. O b. O c. O d. O
6. Nathan is a three-year-old boy who’s at the amusement park

with his Dad and older sister. He’s just finishing up his cotton
candy and they’re walking towards the merry-go-round.
Nathan eats the last of bit of candy and promptly throws the
stick down onto the ground. Much later, the Dad is watching
brother and sister go around and around on the wheel. He
smokes a cigarette, finishes it and flicks the butt onto the grass.
a. O b. O c. O d. O
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7. The Philippine government has undertaken steps to protect

our environment from the levels of nuclear pollution. It’s our
contribution to the worldwide effort to prevent the recurrence
of horrible accidents like that of the Chernobyl nuclear power
plant.
a. O b. O c. O d. O
ASAQ 3-1
1. The answer here is letter d—the personal-psychological per-
spective. According to this perspective, children learn by ex-
ample and their primary influence in life are the parents. Ac-
cording to this perspective, we are born into this world “eth-
ics-free” and therefore acquire our values and principles from
those who raise us.
2. The answer here is letter b—the environmental management

perspective. You have previously learned of the interrelation-
ship of the various biotic and abiotic factors of the ecosystem.
We all know of the food web and that biomagnification occurs
when toxic substances pass through the trophic levels. From
an environmental management perspective, you must recog-
nize that all factors of the ecosystem are interrelated and inter-
dependent. If you take into account these principles, you are
coming from the environmental management perspective.
3. The answer here is letter a—the social perspective. We assume,

coming from this perspective, that society “imposes” its own
set of values, ethics on individuals. Children leave the home in
the mornings and immediately step out into a world where
there are acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Whatever is
the norm is considered acceptable. Whatever a child sees on
the way to school and at school signals to that child that “this
is what everyone else does.” Of course, you don’t discount what
parents inculcate in their children, but the pressure and influ-
ence of “everybody else” is extremely strong. This example is
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Unit I Module 3 35
ASAQ 3-1 continuation
one where the influence of the people at school have such a

great impact on Sheila and Rico that they put it to practice at
home; advocating energy saving measures. Well and good be
cause this is a positive scenario. Now consider the reverse: many
waste management programs that work well in schools work
because the children are in a confined area; they don’t want to
disappoint their teachers and they want to do what their class-
mates are doing too. But if they go home and along the way
they see people throwing waste in the gutters and on the
ground, they’ll only be able to practice good waste manage-
ment at school. If children aren’t as receptive and secure in
their decisions as Sheila and Rico are, then the social influence
of people outside the school premises will undermine those of
the teachers and co-students.
4. The answer here is letter d again—the personal-psychological

perspective. You’ll recognize that Sarah’s attempt to “teach”
her cousin Mary is an ethic she’s learned from her Mommy.
5. The answer here is letter a—the social perspective. We see here

a scenario illustrating the detrimental effects of societal influ-
ence on environmental management efforts. Unfortunately, this
example is a real problem that proper waste management ad-
vocates face constantly.
6. The answer here is letter d—the personal-psychological per-

spective. Nathan is three, very young and most likely wants to
(and does) imitate his father. We teach by example—always.
There is no way you can raise your child, spend time with
them and not expect they’ll pick up on your attitudes, your
idiosyncracies, your values and your ethics. They will and they’ll
carry it with them—somehow, in some way—but they’ll carry
it for life. Think of what values, ethics your family inculcated
in you… Have you passed these on to your children? Nieces,
nephews, students, etc.?
7. The answer here is letter c—the global perspective. As no man

is an island, neither is a nation. We are all a part of some re-
gional group, e.g. the Philippines is a member of ASEAN, APEC,
is signatory to the GATT, etc. In this example the Philippine
government supports the concern over nuclear pollution. The
government has undertaken measures on a national level to
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ASAQ 3-1 continuation
do something about this, e.g. Republic Act 6969, mandating

PNRI as the monitoring and evaluation agency of toxic and
hazardous substances, etc. As countries all surviving on one
planet, using up the same resources, affecting each other on a
global scale, each country must take a stand on environmental
issues. Nations can’t afford to act as hermits – the air they
breathe in Australia is the same air that will circulate in South
Africa. We are one world, one global environment, one goal –
to continue living on an earth that can sustain us through many
generations to come.
Environmental Values as Building Blocks

of Environmental Ethics
This Module is interested in your predisposition toward environment-
friendly behavior and activities, which are the physical manifestations of
the values that you hold. Of course your values with regard to the envi-
ronment may change according to your conditions over time and as you
are exposed to new ideas, concepts, new skills and competencies.
These are the things that influence your own ethics about the environ-
ment:
1. Ecological values. We consider it highly desirable and important to

be able to preserve our complex ecosystems and life, and to conserve
and protect our environment and natural resources.
2. Concern for public interest. We consider it desirable to be able to

provide the best benefits at the maximum level for the greatest num-
ber of people.
3. Quality of life. We consider it desirable to be able to live a healthy

and safe life in a natural environment where a well-developed culture
exists because this is the quality of life that we want.
4. Concern for future generations. We consider it important that for

humans now existing, and including future generations, to continue
living on this earth, enjoying the quality of life that they want, they
must adopt environment-friendly attitude, behavior and activities.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 37
5. Concern for the very poor people. We consider it desirable, even nec-
essary, to provide the conditions that would ensure that the very poor
can enjoy the quality of life that others have.
Environmental Ethics for Filipinos

We would like to present here an environmental ethics “statement” for
Filipinos proposed by the Environmental Management Bureau, Depart-
ment of Environment and Natural Resources (Training Module No. 19,
EMB), as follows:
Statement of belief
As a Filipino residing in and living on the abundance of my homeland, I
believe that:
l All Filipinos should experience and appreciate the beauty, utility, and
great value of nature and its resources;
l Parents and adult companions of children should accept the responsi-

bility of teaching and fostering environmental values to young people.
They should provide models of environment-friendly behaviors;
l It is my responsibility to live my life in ways that conserve natural

resources and protect the environment from degradation.
l It is my bounden duty and responsibility to further my knowledge of

ecological systems and processes and intensify my valuation of the
human-environment interactions and relationships.
Statement of intention
Desiring to leave to my children, and children’s children, a beautiful safe
environment on which they can depend on to obtain a good living, I prom-
ise that:
l I shall always have a reverence for nature and all of God’s creation,
and if it were in my power to do so, I shall never allow the violation/
degradation of the environment;
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l I shall adopt a lifestyle that is not wasteful and reject one that is exces-
sive in that it contributes to the stress on the capacity of the environ-
ment;
l I shall work hard and be productive to improve the quality of my life

and those around me;
l I shall be mindful not to impose on others the residues (pollutants)

and other waste materials resulting from my activities; instead I shall
dispose of them in a manner least degrading to the environment;
l I shall use wisely the resources available to me and shall strive to make
them available, as well, to generations after me;
l I shall lend moral and, if able, financial support to scientific and tech-
nological efforts to protect and enhance the quality of the environ-
ment;
l My dealings with other individuals and social/business groups shall

be governed by social justice and fair sharing of material goods;
l I shall work for the eradication of poverty, illiteracy, and injustice

within my own sphere of influence.
Statement of responsibility and accountability

If involved in policy determination and decision-making through projects/
programs that will have tremendous effects on the environment, the people,
and the nation as a whole, it is my responsibility to see to it that:
l The economic and environmental implications of a project/program

are carefully and simultaneously considered and planned out so that
the benefits (whether monetary, social or cultural) to be realized from
the project/program should be weighed against the negative social/
cultural impact, environmental destruction, and resource depletion it
may cause.
l Such analytical tools as Natural Resource Accounting, Environmen-

tal Impact Assessment, Land Use Planning, etc. are efficiently used to
guide the decision-making process concerning the utilization of the
environment and the natural resources therein.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 39
l Proper prices are set for natural resources particularly those which
are non-renewable by considering them as scarce and therefore should
be highly valued. This has particular reference to timber and minerals
for which license to operate is grossly underpriced.
l Small landholding farmers and forest occupants are granted security

of tenure to encourage them to protect and develop the lands they
occupy and the resources in it.
l More protected areas are established for the conservation of wildlife

and unique ecosystems with the end-in-view of conserving genetic
resources.
l Attention is given to rural development through greater participation

of the rural poor in policy making processes and project implementa-
tion, land reform, equitable access to natural resources, provision of
infrastructure and support services for increasing productivity, estab-
lishment of “growth centers” that can provide alternative livelihood,
and strengthened social services such as education, health and nutri-
tion.
If I should be in the position of an enforcer/implementor of environmen-

tal laws, then it is my responsibility to see to it that:
l The person, group, or business concern that damages the environ-

ment is held responsible for its restoration and/or made to pay a pen-
alty for the damage done.
l The person, group or business concern that utilizes or realizes profits

from the use of a natural resource, replenishes the renewable resource
or pays a high price for the non-renewable resource.
l Pollutive industries are monitored for compliance to agreed upon abate-

ment measures.
l Extractive industries adhere to the agreed upon amount, degree, or

extent of extraction to prevent total depletion.
Statement of commitment
Whatever my position—be it that of an ordinary citizen of the Philip-
pines, a policy maker in government or private concern, or an enforcer/
implementor of environmentally-affecting activities and laws—I promise
upon my honor that I shall not allow anyone or any group to dissuade me
from my pro-environment beliefs nor derail the pursuance of my respon-
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sibilities and performance of my tasks as policy/decision-maker or

implementor of environmentally-affecting projects or as enforcer of envi-
ronmental laws as stated above, not even for personal gain nor for return
of personal favors. So help me God!
Activity 3-1
Now, I’d like you to write down how you feel about the environ-
ment at this moment. Here’s your journal once again. Now, you
might want to phrase your thoughts in the form of your own envi-
ronmental ethic, that is your own statements of belief, intention,
responsibility and accountability, and commitment.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 3 41

Now, compare your answer to your answer to Activity 2-1 in
Module 2. Has your perspective changed? Are your values intact,
or have you been enlightened? Do you feel different now? If you’ve
said yes to any one of these questions then you should feel good…
it means you are now equipped with the foundations of environ-
mentalism. You know what you want to promote, and more im-
portantly, you believe in it!
Environmental Ethics for All

As people become more informed about the environment they will be-
come more knowledgeable about environmental issues. Such new knowl-
edge will expectedly change their attitude toward the environment, and
consequently such an attitude will influence them to change their behav-
ior towards the environment. The expected ultimate effect will then be
sustained environmentalism. This sustained environmentalism will be the
basis for a social movement to promote environmentalism.
At this point, it should be made absolutely clear that this effort must be in
conjunction with other efforts in other fronts. That is to say, we must
relate our efforts to promote environmentalism to the concerns of
Industry—by instituting industrial ecology; establishing beginning-of-the-

pipe, to replace end-of-the-pipe pollution control measures;
Agriculture—educating farmers of the hazards of the continued use of

pesticides and herbicides on the water table, soil and crops; educating
consumers about the produce they buy, where it comes from, how it was
grown, and packaged;
Urbanization—by pushing for the strict implementation of zoning poli-

cies and laws, ensuring that industry is separate from residential and com-
mercial; becoming conscious of the effects of crowding; supporting re-
search on urban development, urban environmental issues, urban for-
estry, etc.;
Housing—following building and construction guidelines that place great

value on environmental hazards and mitigating measures to prevent en-
vironmental disasters;
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Population growth—by understanding that we each have a moral re-

sponsibility to give our children the quality of life that we are privileged to
have; understanding that the increasing number of people on earth is
directly responsible for the dwindling supply of natural resources;
Health care—that our health rests on the health of the environment; that
in terms of well being, the environment owes us nothing and we owe it
everything;
And countless other social concerns that are interrelated and cannot be
treated singly without concern for the other fields.
Activity 3-2
At this point, you might want to do some more research. This will
help you set the stage in your mind, so to speak, as you go along
this course. There are two well-publicized efforts in the country
tackling urgent environmental concerns. Their goals are quite dif-
ferent and it would be interesting for you to find out particularly
what the differences are.
In back issues of newspapers, on the Internet, or through personal

communication with people who work closely with these two
groups, find out about the Clean and Green Foundation, Inc. of
the Former First Lady Amelita “Ming” Ramos, and ABS-CBN’s
Bantay Kalikasan program.
In the space below there are some guide questions that you should
answer. Write on additional paper if you’ve found a lot of data
and you’ve some issues you want to remember to raise later. Which
is why it’s important you do this for two reasons: to discuss it in
the activity forum (or with your tutor), should it be brought up,
and secondly, it might be asked of you in the exam. So read up!
What is the primary goal of the Clean and Green Foundation, Inc.?
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Unit I Module 3 43
What is the Foundation’s tangible contribution to environmental

advocacy?
What is the ‘Bantay Kalikasan’ program of ABS-CBN?
Have any of their efforts been successful? If yes, how did they do
it? If no, what went wrong?

The Clean and Green Foundation, Inc. primarily focuses on resto-
ration, while the ABS-CBN’s Bantay Kalikasan aims to protect and
preserve—to also draw attention to the plight of our country’s re-
sources.
Look for reports on their recent successes, but particularly fail-

ures. These are equally interesting because as an advocate you’ll
have to know where to target people’s consciousness and sensi-
bilities. That’s the key in advocacy.
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Thus, environmentalism is a way of thinking and a way of acting that

reflects a consciousness of the world we live in, our use of its resources
and our desire to make sure those resources are there for our continued
use. Perhaps a more direct way of putting it is this—environmentalism
and advocating it boils down to self-preservation.
Summary
We have just completed the first step to making you an effective advo-
cate. You’ve recognized in yourself what you want to advocate and as
such, may have experienced a significant change in perspective, or what
experts fondly refer to as a paradigm shift! The point is now you’re com-
mitted, or your initial commitment has been strengthened! Good job. We
can take the second step—setting you up with the different tools and
strategies you’ll use to communicate to others what you’re experiencing
now.
Reference
Environmental Management Bureau. (n.d.) Environmental Awareness, De-

velop-mental Communication and People Participation. Training Module
No. 19. Quezon City: Department of Environment and natural Re-
sources.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 45
Unit II
Approaches and Strategies in
I t is said that advocacy can be very effective if it involves all groups and
sectors of society. “Advocacy is most effective when, besides mass me-
dia, individuals and groups and all sectors of society are engaged in this
process.” (Servaes, 1994)
This is the reason why in this Unit we are focusing on various approaches
to and strategies in environmental advocacy designed to awaken political
commitment and provide empowerment to people: the IEC and social
marketing approaches, conventional development communication strat-
egies, indigenization strategies and environmental lobbying.
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Module 4
The IEC Approach
E quipped with the necessary foundations

of environmentalism—an understanding
of the human-environment relationship, prin-
Objectives
ciples of ecology and environmental ethics— At the end of this module,
we are now ready to take you another step. you will be able to:
Now that you know what it is you’d like to
promote and more importantly, believe in it, 1. Describe the IEC ap-
we’ll go on to learning exactly how to go about proach—its background
“advocating” it. In this module, we’ll tackle and basic framework;
one approach used in advocacy—the infor- and
mation education communication (IEC) ap- 2. Evaluate its applicability
proach. to environmental con-
cerns.
Background
There are four concerns that I need to present to you that will help you
visualize the basis for the triadic approach called information-education-
communication (IEC). These concerns highlight why we need to reach
people, why we need to deal with environmental issues in a massive way,
why we need to use mass media of communication, and why we need to
employ a holistic approach.
First, why the need to reach people? A general outreach philosophy is that if
we want to help people develop, then we must reach them at their cur-
rent level of interest and understanding. From the point of view of com-
munication, we have to provide the individual enough information re-
lated to the problem he/she is confronted with at the time so that such
information would help him/her make his/her own decisions about the
problem. It goes without saying that we should not tell him/her what to
do or what not to do.
An important principle in advocacy is that we must give an individual

the opportunity to decide whether or not he/she should side with a point
of view rather than tell him/her right off which side to agree or disagree
with. The only way to achieve this is for the individual to make his/her
own decision, which is possible only when the individual has access to
enough accurate information about the situation. The amount of acces-
sible, relevant information needed to appreciate a situation differs from
individual to individual. Hence, the need to provide additional informa-
tion that could level off this disparity. It is also important that we provide
the right information at the right time so that the individual may be able
to make appropriate decisions.
Second, why the need for a large-scale communication approach? In dealing

with environmental issues, we need a comprehensive, large-scale, mass-
oriented communication program to achieve respectable success. The small-
scale information program is highly effective for single-purpose activities
in support of self-contained issues. That is, if the problem you are trying
to solve is not compounded by some other concern, then you can prob-
ably design an effective small-scale communication plan. But for large-
scale concerns such as the protection of the environment, which involves
a lot of factors (remember the systems-based approach?), then a massive
communication action plan is in order. Small-scale efforts will not im-
prove environmental conditions. We need large-scale impact, and this is
achievable only through massive programs of informing and educating
people. To achieve this, we use the various media of communication. Large-
scale communication reaches far and wide. Ask yourself this: If one per-
son can make a difference, then what more if you have a hundred people?
Everybody does at least one of three things: watch TV, read the newspa-
per, and listen to the radio. If you want to make a statement, make it in
these three forms, and in one way or another, your message is bound to
be heard.
Third, why the need to make extensive use of mass media? Let us bear in mind
that the segment of the audience that we want to hit is that comprised of
the masses of people whose primary sources of information are radio,
television and newspapers. They may or may not have exposure to the
Internet, but they are uniformly exposed to the mass media triad. The
normal reason for utilizing these media is that those not hit by radio broad-
casts will probably be able to get the information from television or the
newspapers, and so forth. In other words, these media supplement one
another such that any exposure to either of these three is more or less
complete exposure to the media.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 49
The big media like radio, television, and the newspapers must be used to
achieve massive impact. At the same time, the little media like sound slide
sets, posters, etc., must be used effectively to reach small groups through
discussions of environmental issues.
Fourth, why the need for a holistic approach to solve environmental problems?
To be easily understood, issues about the environment have to be related
in detail with other areas of concern such as agricultural practices. For
example, one has to understand that if a garbage dumpsite is close to the
watershed, liquid from the dumpsite will ultimately seep into the water
table, thereby contaminating the water source. A very clear example of
this is the Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City, which happens to be rather
close geographically to the La Mesa Dam, the source of drinking water
for Metro Manila. If the Payatas dumpsite is not closed down, toxic liquid
from it will eventually seep, if it has not already done so, into the La Mesa
Dam reservoir.
If the solutions to the environmental problems are simple, why are we

faced with them until now? Take a look around you—at your household,
community, country? What are our environmental problems? What are
the root causes? Culture, politics, society, government, education, infra-
structure—the list is endless, isn’t it?
It is basic in environmental discussions that everything that has anything

to do with the environment is related to everything else in the environ-
ment. Therefore, everything affects and in turn affected by other things in
the environment. Hence, we must view environmental concerns holisti-
cally rather than segmentally. If we do not, then whatever solutions to
specific environmental issues we apply will result in second generation
problems that could be more difficult to solve.
IEC as a Basic Framework

The beginnings of IEC
Any discussion of IEC (information, education and communication) nec-
essarily has to first focus on its application in family planning programs
because it was for this area that IEC was conceptualized and developed
for.
IEC, for a long time, referred largely to the creation of awareness of, and
motivation to, adopt family planning methods and activities mainly
through the use of mass media.
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In the Asia-Pacific Region, communication components or units of na-

tional population programs have invariably been called either informa-
tion, education and communication units, or information, education and
motivation (IEM) units. The fundamental function of these units has al-
ways been to “prepare and disseminate materials, the message content of
which is based on current population data and research findings appro-
priate for the intended audiences within the context of the local social,
cultural and religious situation” (ESCAP, 1987). The communication units
must be able to provide continuing public information using different forms
of presentation through different media channels, and content appeals
that are in keeping with the situation as indicated by up-to-date popula-
tion data and research findings that are consistent with national popula-
tion policy.
The first national population program in the Asia-Pacific Region was

launched in India in 1964. That program did not have a large-scale public
information component. Information and motivational work were car-
ried out largely through interpersonal communication. Later on, a mass
communication unit was created and an increasing number of field staff
were engaged to conduct home visitations. These innovations involved
educators and the educational system.
In 1974, the first national population information center in the Asia-Pa-

cific Region was established at the Korea Institute of Family Planning. In
the next 11 years, similar centers were established in Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philip-
pines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam (Librero, 1993).
The functional units of IEC

Individually, information, education and communication have become
very important components of population programs worldwide. In the
Asia-Pacific Region, for example, ESCAP observed that governments have
organized their family planning programs with three basic information
units (ESCAP, 1987), as follows:
1. National population information centers that collect, organize, store,

retrieve, analyze, synthesize and disseminate scientific and technical
information both in its original format and its “processed” and “re-
packaged” formats to policy makers, program staff, teachers and uni-
versity students;
2. Population education units that repackage scientific and technical in-

formation for in-school and non-school programs; and
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Unit II Module 4 51
3. Communication units that repackage scientific and technical infor-

mation in appropriate formats for the general public and disseminate
it through mass media and direct campaigns.
There is a lot of gray area among the three information units. However,
for purposes of analysis, let us look at these three units separately accord-
ing to function as suggested by ESCAP (1987).
Information management. A very common observation in the popula-

tion literature is the inadequate use of available data and information for
evaluating policies and programs, reformulating policies and solving pro-
gram problems. Very frequently, data are underutilized. The goal, there-
fore, of the information unit is to increase efficiency of use of information
either in its original format (research/technical report) or in a repackaged
or reprocessed format (synthesis or popularized versions).
Population education. The population education unit is responsible for

disseminating information in-school (mostly through curriculum devel-
opment activities) and non-school (through educational agencies other
than the schools). Based on experiences in the developing world, Harriman
(1983) identified six factors influencing the success of family planning
education efforts, as follows:
1. having clearly defined objectives and evaluation strategies

2. adequate attention to women’s roles within and outside the home
3. mobilizing effective and sustained support of men
4. making efforts to direct specific development communication strate-
gies toward target groups
5. adequately training educational workers
6. linking national program with appropriate local institutions to gain
recognition and support from these bodies
Any effort at applying IEC in the context of environmentalism should

properly heed these six success factors, which can be easily woven into
the fabric of environmental concerns.
Communication media. The communication unit disseminates informa-

tion to the general public through mass media and campaigns designed
to change attitudes and practices. Of course, the effective use of media
depends largely on the media exposure of the target audience. For ex-
ample, in his study of the use of mass communication media in the family
planning program of Venezuela, McNelly (1976) observed that
As people reach the stage of gaining access to the full range of media
offerings, they become more selective. They achieve more autonomy in
terms of the kinds of content they prefer and to media they use to satisfy
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their needs. This poses a challenge to communication campaigns and

strategies to provide messages that will attract audiences in whatever
medium they may appear.
But while IEC seems to be a perfect approach to family planning pro-

grams, there are hurdles to overcome. In a synthesis of reports on the IEC
of population programs in various countries, ESCAP (1987) identified six
factors that hamper IEC activities. These are:
1. lack of understanding of the roles of the information units within the

population programs;
2. lack of trained manpower;
3. inefficient if not lack of coordination among agencies involved in the
implementation of population programs;
4. inadequate data and underutilization of data;
5. lack of funding support; and
6. lack of commitment by top leadership.
In response to these issues, ESCAP observed:
Effective management of a national population information system will

involve a clear understanding of the role of the information, education
and communication units that make up the system, coordination among
the units, commitment to their sustained support, training on new techni-
cal skills of existing staff, and increased efforts to organize systematically
the national knowledge base on population.
Interactive nature of the IEC framework

The whole idea of IEC must be viewed from a holistic angle. The func-
tions of the information, education and communication units must not be
desegregated. These three areas are highly interactive and should func-
tion as a singular action unit. Essentially, therefore, the IEC as a frame-
work really refers to a holistic support communication system.
IEC and Environmental Concerns

IEC worked as a framework for the communications support of popula-
tion programs worldwide. It can be made to work for environmental
concerns.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 53
Often, in our eagerness to contribute to the solution of environmental

problems, we tend to look at the environment as though it is just like any
other commodity. That is to say, we look at the environment indepen-
dently of other issues or problems. However, when we talk about the
environment, we cannot escape the need to include in our discussion or
explanation other concepts and issues such as agriculture, industry, and
others because these are inextricably linked with the environment. In
other words, we must look at the environment as a system. Whenever we
talk about the environment, we have to think and talk in terms of other
concerns directly linked to the environment because that is how we make
sense out of the concept of environment. Any other way would not make
much sense.
For starters, we might think in terms of the AREA triad. This refers to the
interrelationships among agrarian reform, environment and agriculture
(AREA). Any discussion of agriculture, agrarian reform or environment
must necessarily lead to the discussion of how one affects the other.
Another point is that to be able to understand and communicate environ-

mental issues more effectively, we need to understand systems analysis as
a tool of explaining how the various ecosystems interact with one an-
other. Simply put, whatever happens in the uplands directly affects the
lowlands and vice versa.
In the last decade, institutions and governments have continually been

concerned with sustainable agriculture or sustainable development. Cur-
ricular programs at least at the undergraduate level have been revised to
integrate sustainable development concerns and environmental concepts
and issues.
UP Open University
Activity 4-1
You’ve read up on the functional units of IEC—information man-
agement, the education unit and communication media. But you
read about them in the context of family planning programs. Now
consider the possible environmental issues for which you can use
IEC.
Think in terms of applying the three functional units to the prob-

lems of solid waste management, energy conservation, water pol-
lution, deforestation.
Can the information management unit of IEC fill in the informa-

tion gaps faced by each of these issues? Does education help in
each of these cases? Can mass media make a difference in dissemi-
nating information to solve these problems?
Solid waste management –
Energy Conservation –
Water Pollution –
Deforestation –
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 55
Comments on Activity 4-1

Consider each of the four environmental issues. In terms of infor-
mation management, all four have a wealth of data about them
that are underutilized. The data can be organized and used as
basis for policy formulation and information campaigns. Which
brings us to our second consideration: Can all four of these issues
use a comprehensive educational program? Where is it best that
we begin solving environmental problems? With our children. In
schools. The rest of the populace needs education as much as the
next child. There are new things to learn every day. So we use the
mass media. Children will learn in school but they need reinforce-
ment outside the boundaries of the schoolyard too. Society as a
whole must be educated as well. And mass media is the means by
which this education can be done.
As for energy conservation, aren’t we all aware of the rate of our

consumption of fossil fuels? Don’t we all feel the effect of rising oil
prices and frequent power outages? Water pollution: Yes, water is
a renewable resource, but what about its quality? Acid rain is a
reality and so are fishkills, and saltwater intrusion. Deforestation:
How many hectares of virgin forest are left in the world? In the
Philippines? At what rate are we cutting down our forests? Who
is held responsible for this? The logging companies, marginalized
forest communities, kaingineros, everyone else except ourselves (or
so we think).
All this information is widespread and readily available, and people

know the problem exists. But knowing is not enough. People must
become sensitized to problems like this. How can education not
help? The goal must be to educate people so they can become dili-
gent, responsible and accountable for their individual and societal
actions. The goal of the IEC approach in environmental advocacy
is to teach people what their obligations to the environment are
and in effect to themselves. It’s not enough that we can blame
someone, because we are all to blame. The first step to solving a
problem is knowing the cause. We are the cause—each and every
one. No one is without guilt. But then what do we do? The next
step is to become aware that we’ve done something wrong and
that we must rectify it. And we must be pushed into action. That’s
where advocacy comes in. That’s where IEC is effective. During
this time when access to information is so easy and there are mul-
tiple means of communication, we’ve no excuse not to be effective
advocates.
UP Open University
Activity 4-2
You may want to initially evaluate IEC as an appropriate approach
to the foremost environmental concern in your community.
1. Knowing the three functional units of IEC, can you apply it to

solve your community’s environmental concern?
2. Do you think you’ll be faced with the same hurdles that ham-
pered population IEC program activities?
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 57

IEC is one approach to use when trying to solve environmental
problems. It is a good way to reach people. It’s a smart approach.
It educates and attempts to get people to think. But it’s not perfect
and so may not be applicable to all issues and concerns.
Remember when we talked about looking at environmental prob-

lems holistically? You must recall this from your course on ecologi-
cal principles and/or ecosystem structure and dynamics. Every-
thing is interrelated—every aspect, whether biophysical, social,
economic or political. Environmental problems cannot be solved
in isolation. Every IEC campaign/program must consider other
factors in the system it is operating under.
If you will recall, one of the caveats of implementing IEC pro-

grams is lack of support from community leaders. Focus on this
because of the six factors that hamper IEC activities, this has got to
be the most frustrating to deal with. A case in point is the Los
Baños Integrated Waste Management Committee (LB-IWMC). The
LB-IWMC is a coalition of the Los Baños Municipal Government,
the Los Baños Science Community (members of which are public
and private research and academic instutions in Los Baños) and
the Brigada Bantay Basura (also a coalition of various NGOs and
civic groups in Los Baños). These three major groups currently
work together to implement proper waste management within the
municipality of Los Baños, Laguna. Initially, the efforts were frag-
mented, the LBSC working separately from the BBB. Both were
faced with the problem of trying to work with municipal officials.
Their IEC campaigns were similar, sometimes even overlapping.
Thus, neither were successful. And both were frustrated when
blocked at every turn by seemingly uninterested municipal offi-
cials, councilors and barangay captains. The solution was to work
together, but more importantly, in cooperation with the mayor
and his men. It’s still an uphill battle. There are moments when
their efforts are derailed, but this way, their IEC campaigns have
the support of leadership—and it does make a difference.
UP Open University
In the preceding activity you were asked to reflect on the foremost envi-
ronmental concern of your community and to consider in what ways IEC
does not fulfill the needs of this particular concern. Presumably, you may
have found gaps when considering the specific attributes of your
community’s problem. Perhaps what you need is a change on a social
scale, a change in social practices. Do you think the gaps can be solved by
some other approach?
This brings us to our next module.
References
ESCAP. 1987. IEC in population and policy formulation and program

implementation. Population Research Leads Report. Bangkok:
UNFPA.
Harriman, Lynda C. 1983. Family Planning Education in Developing
Nations. Proceedings of a Midwest Regional Symposium, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Chanpagne, April 15, 1983.
Librero, Felix. 1993. IEC as a Basic Framework. In Flor, Alexander G. and
Ely D. Gomez (eds.), Environmental Communication: Considerations
in Curriculum and Delivery Systems Development, Institute of Devel-
opment Communication, College, Laguna, Philippines, pp. 25-36.
McNally, John T. 1976. Mass Communication and Family Planning: The
Organization of Family Planning Programs in India, China, Costa Rica,
Venezuela, Lebanon. Occasional Monograph Series No. 8. Interdisci-
plinary Communications Program. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian
Institution.
Servaes, Jan. 1994. Advocacy strategies for development communica-
tion. The Journal of Development Communication, 1994, V(2):1-16.
___________. 1992. Advocacy strategies for health and development:
development communication in action. Background paper to Inter-
Agency Meeting, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
9-13 November 1992.
Wallack, L; Dorfman, L.; Jernigan, D.; and M. Themba. 1993. Power of
intervention. Media Advocacy and Public Health. Newburg Park: Sage.
UP Open University
Module 5
The Social Marketing
Approach
W e’ve now come to the second approach

to environmentalism that we’ll be tack-
ling in this course. In the previous module,
Objectives
you were introduced to the IEC approach. At the end of this module,
Now we’ll look at the social marketing ap- you’ll be able to:
proach.
1. Describe the social
marketing approach to
What is Social Marketing? environmental concerns;
and
The term social marketing was first intro- 2. Compare it with the IEC
duced in 1971 to refer to the use of market- approach.
ing principles and techniques to promote a
social cause, idea or behavior (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971). Other authors
point out that social marketing is actually advertising. It is said that ad-
vertising is selling products, while social marketing is selling ideas and
social causes. In any case, social marketing has come to mean a “social-
change management technology involving the design, implementation,
and control of programs aimed at increasing the acceptability of a social
idea or practice in one or more groups of target adopters” (Kotler and
Roberto, 1989).
If in advertising we sell commodities, in social marketing we sell social

products. Social products come in three forms, namely: an idea, a prac-
tice, a tangible object. What are these?
A social idea consists of the beliefs, attitudes and values of people. A belief
is something that people consider to be true. For example, what do squat-
ters living in the Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City believe were the causes
of the garbage disaster in July 2000? And what are the attitudes of these
same squatters towards the proposal that they be relocated to a site in
Rodriguez (Montalban), Rizal? And how about the values that they up-
hold, such as human dignity? These same squatters claim that they, too,
are people entitled to decent living quarters.
Social practice refers to what people do. A practice is an act, such as segre-
gating biodegradable and non-biodegradable kitchen waste, or the estab-
lishment of a new or altered pattern of behavior, such as discontinuing
the throwing of garbage in the street.
A tangible object, which may be considered a social product that is part of

what is to be promoted, refers to the physical products that accompany a
campaign. For instance, trash cans labeled “biodegradable” and “non-
biodegradable” are products to be used as tools to promote the concept of
appropriate solid waste management, which essentially leads to environ-
mentalism.
According to Kotler and Roberto (1989), the ultimate goal of social mar-
keting is to change behavior through the promotion of ideas and social
practices. For example, the goal of a solid waste management campaign
is a cleaner environment. On the whole, Kotler and Roberto (1989) have
this to say:
The claim was made earlier that social marketing represents an

advance over traditional social change strategies. Many of these
traditional strategies employed advertising exclusively, rather than
probing the needs of clients and consumers to design campaigns
that fit them. Social marketing is built around knowledge gained
from business practices: the setting of measurable objectives, re-
search on human needs, targeting products to specialized groups
of consumers, the technology of positioning products to fit human
needs and wants and effectively communicating their benefits, the
constant vigilance to changes in the environment, and the ability
to adapt to change. (p. 26)
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 61
SAQ 5-1
There are four environmental concerns in the matrix below. Can
you indicate in the blank cells what social idea, practice or object
fits with each concern?
Environmental Social Idea Social Practice Tangible Object

Concern
Solid waste Segregation Trashcans – bio-

management degradable
and non-bio-
degradable
Energy Conservation Efficient

utilization of energy energy use
sources
Water pollution Maintenance For industries,

of clean water water treatment
facilities
Deforestation Purchase of Wood products

wood products from licensed
from licensed tree farms
tree farms/
Non-support for
illegal wood
products
UP Open University
ASAQ 5-1
There are really no specifically correct answers here. There are
many possible social ideas, practices and corresponding objects to
each concern. Can you think of other social products/environ-
mental concerns that can be “marketed”?
Environmental Social Idea Social Practice Tangible Object

Concern
Solid waste Reduction of Segregation Trashcans labelled

management waste pro- “biodegradable”
duced and “non-bio-
degradable”
Energy utilization Conservation Efficient energy Energy saver light

of energy use bulbs, etc.
sources
Water pollution Maintenance Conscientious For industries –

of clean water use of water water treatment
facilities
Deforestation Conservation Purchase of Wood products

of remaining wood products from licensed
forests from licensed tree farms
tree farms/
Non-support
for illegal wood
products
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 63
Adoption of Ideas and Practices

Central to the concept of social marketing are people who are expected to
adopt the ideas or practices being promoted. They are called “target adopt-
ers.” Adopters accept certain ideas or practices for different reasons. For
example, one may have the engine of his car recalibrated primarily to
economize on fuel, but another may do so mainly to reduce the amount of
smoke coming out of the car’s exhaust pipe.
It should also be pointed out that it is not easy for an individual to adopt
ideas or practices because it could mean that one has to reject an existing
practice while accepting a new one. This could lead to dissonance or
inconsistency between beliefs, which is one reason why people do not like
to adopt new ways of doing things.
From the point of view of social marketing, there are four models of how
adopters arrive at their decision to adopt an idea, practice or product.
These are: “learn-feel-do” adoption, “do-feel-learn” adoption, “learn-do-
feel” adoption and “multipath” adoption (Kotler and Roberto, 1989).
“Learn-feel-do” adoption. Most campaigns follow this model. Essentially,

this model follows the traditional mode of the adopters first being aware of
the idea or practice then being led to take an interest in it, and then finally
being influenced to try and adopt it. The implication of this model is that any
information designed to create awareness, elicit interest, and finally push
adopters to try and adopt the innovation must be communicated effectively.
It is believed that this model is best applied when the potential adopters are
highly involved in the achievement of the objective, and when they perceive
that adoption is clearly better than its alternative.
“Do-feel-learn” adoption. This is the reverse sequence. First, the potential

adopter tries a practice on a tentative basis. Just testing, as it were. If the
idea or practice works to his satisfaction, he changes his attitude toward
it. His attitude having been changed, he will now push for a condition
where he would learn more about the idea or practice. When an indi-
vidual has adopted an idea or practice and liked what he experienced,
that individual will do all he can to seek additional information that will
reinforce the experience.
“Learn-Do-Feel” adoption. In this model, you select an idea or practice,

probably based solely on your familiarity with it as a result of your media
exposure. At this point, you have not formed any attitude toward it. This
happens when you are forced to make a choice between or among ideas
and practices you have not had any involvement with in the past. When
you are satisfied with your experience, then you can change your atti-
tude.
UP Open University
Kotler and Roberto (1989) reported on the application of this model in the
field of nutrition. According to them, the experience in dealing with the
problem of malnutrition and eating habits of people in the Third World
highlighted four approaches:
1. To enrich the existing staple foods, usually cereals.

2. To produce nutritious substitutes for such staples as milk and meat.
3. To introduce new products that require radical changes in people’s
eating habits.
4. To introduce nutritious products in the form of snack and fun foods,
such as soft drinks, candy, or biscuits, rather than as meal foods.
It was found that the fourth approach was the most successful because
the new foods could not be distinguished from existing foods. On the
other hand, the other approaches were said to have failed because they
were not compatible with the eating habits of people.
In this particular example, you will see that the product was first intro-
duced to the adopters who had to be informed that the food products
were not meal products but snack products, instead. As such, the adopt-
ers had an opportunity to taste said products and found them appropri-
ate to be snacks rather than meals.
“Multipath” adoption. This is actually a synthesis of the three other ap-

proaches. The adopter, according to Kotler and Roberto (1989), may re-
spond with a lower-order to higher-order belief. When an adopter is not
certain about the relationship between the desired attribute and the idea
or practice but finds the information acceptable only at low levels, then
this target adopter has lower-order belief. Usually, this results in weak
attitude levels that normally would not be discernible in attitude scales
commonly used in social marketing studies. If, on the other hand, the
adopter experiences the idea or practices directly through actual trial or
through vicarious experience, he will have a higher-order belief. Under
this condition, he is certain about the relationship between the idea or
practice and the information he is getting is more acceptable. The result
would be a stronger belief base and the urge to adopt would be much
stronger.
In the multipath approach, it seems clear that we’re not particularly con-
cerned about pre-identifying a specific order such as in the other ap-
proaches prior to implementing the promotional activity. This approach
seems appropriate under conditions where the potential adopters have
no particular preferences regarding the introduction of new ideas and
activities. Such condition is present when potential adopters have actu-
ally decided to adopt but simply need further pushing.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 65
Activity 5-1
Now what can I do to make sure you achieve a better understand-
ing of the four models of how target adopters arrive at their deci-
sions?
Consider deforestation. Using the learn-feel-do model:
l Present your adopters with the concept of reforestation—its

practice and success.
l Then present them with the picture of a logged-over, denuded
mountain.
l Follow it with the picture of the same mountain, but reforested—
lush and green.
l Now give them a number they can contact to get involved in
the nearest reforestation effort in their area.
Now, take it from here. Can you come up with your own cam-
paigns keeping in mind the different ways people will adopt an
idea? After you’ve finished with your rough “storylines,” evaluate
which of the four models you find more applicable for a reforesta-
tion campaign.
A campaign using the Do-feel-learn model:
A campaign using the learn-do-feel model:
A campaign using the multipath model:
A campaign using the learn-feel-do model:
UP Open University

So how did you do? After considering the different ways of help-
ing people adopt your reforestation campaign, which would be
the most reasonable model to keep in mind? Is it wise to assume
that people will want to learn about reforestation first before they
feel the necessity to undertake it? Or will reforestation efforts be
more successful if people understand first the reality of illegal log-
ging and forest destruction? What thoughts came to mind as you
worked on your activity? Bring these thoughts in the course forum
and share them with the class.
Promotion Strategies
When you have determined what idea or practice you want the target
adopters to adopt, then you can determine whether you can classify them
as “mass” or as “individuals.” To reach the “mass” adopters, you need to
employ mass communication; to reach the individual adopters, selective
or personal communication will be appropriate.
Promotion through mass communication

When employing mass communication, you have five decisions to make.
These are:
a. What are your communication objectives?

b. What is your message?
c. How will you treat your message?
d. What media are you going to use?
e. When are you going to actually disseminate your message?
Your communication objectives should reflect the objectives of the social

marketing campaign. A critical question here is: What behavior of the
adopter is going to be involved in the process? For example, if you expect
the adopter to “learn,” then perhaps the objective of your communica-
tion should be to create awareness, encourage recall, and push for a fa-
vorable image of the idea or practice to be adopted.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 67
Your communication message will have to be very clear. The purpose of

the communication message is to convey the perception that the idea or
practice that you want the adopters to adopt is superior to the existing
one.
Promotion through selective communication

According to Kotler and Roberto (1989), “selective communication can
do what mass communication cannot, namely, it can inform and per-
suade a predetermined set of target adopters in an interactive and flexible
way.” It may also be used to supplement mass communication activities.
What should be highlighted here is that selective communication offers
much more focused information to a particular segment of the mass audi-
ence. There are two principal techniques of selective communication: di-
rect mail and telemarketing.
Direct mail is a technique not only of providing information but also of

actually inducing the recipient of the information to act on the idea or
practice. This particular process is called “offering”, which may or may
not involve a tangible product. In direct mail marketing, there is a prod-
uct to market and there are inducements or incentives that are designed
to persuade the adopters to take action immediately. The basic principle
here is that the more attractive the incentive, the more likely will the
adopter take action. The incentives may be categorized into risk reducing,
free items and economy incentives.
The two popular risk-reducing incentives are “trial offer” and the “money-
back guarantee.” The adopters may also be offered “free” products that
they may keep whether or not they adopt the idea or practice. Economy
incentives include discount offers, sale offers and sample offers.
Kotler and Roberto (1989) list the following advantages of direct mail:
1. It can segment the target-adopter population into more uniform and

definable clusters than can the mass media and thus cuts down on
wasted media reach. Advertising space in a magazine or newspaper
or advertising time on radio or television locks social marketers into a
fixed reach that includes people that they do not need to reach. With
direct mail, social marketers can use mailing lists of people who are
the most likely prospects in the target-adopter market.
2. Communication can be personalized. Each target adopter can re-

ceive a letter with specific messages that are tailored to his or her atti-
tudes and needs.
UP Open University
3. Direct mail is more flexible than mass communication. Unlike a maga-

zine or newspaper, the volume of direct mail can be calibrated to reach
a specific audience that is as small or large as a social marketer re-
quires. It can assume a format of any size or shape and present its
message in a complex or simple way.
4. Direct mail can present an opportunity for adoption. It can provide

directions on how to adopt a product, unlike most mass media ads,
which seek primarily to generate awareness or interest. (p. 213)
Telemarketing is the “use of the telephone to perform the needed commu-

nication and promotional tasks” (Kotler and Roberto, 1989). There are
two ways in which telemarketing can be employed: “inbound
telemarketing” and “outbound telemarketing.” Inbound telemarketing
occurs when potential adopters use a toll free number to call in for any
information they may need. The advantage of this technique is that when
the adopter calls, he/she may also be able to interact with the social mar-
keter. On the other hand, outbound telemarketing occurs when you ac-
tively telephone the potential adopters to inform and persuade them about
the idea or practice that you want them to adopt.
Telemarketing is most suitable to follow up mass communication and di-

rect mail activities, encourage and reinforce the loyalty of the adopter to
the idea or practice, and obtain names of target adopters who may be
more effectively persuaded by personal communication.
Promotion through personal communication

Personal communication is probably the most powerful of the promotion
strategies. It is influential especially at certain stages of the adoption pro-
cess. Research on the adoption of innovations in the Philippines shows
that personal communication is the technique to galvanize the adoption
of an idea or practice. It has been found, too, that people tend to seek
additional information from personal sources in order to finally seal the
act of adoption, as it were, once they have become aware of and are inter-
ested in an idea or practice based on information from the mass media or
from selective communication media (Librero, 1993).
Personal communication is very influential because of its basic character-

istics, as follows (Kotler and Roberto, 1989):
1. Personal communication entails numerous, diverse, and continuous

interactions between the communicator and the recipient, or the tar-
get adopter. Thus, two participants in the communication process give
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 69
and receive immediate and continuing feedback about each other’s

needs and reactions.
2. Because of the interactive nature of personal communication, the per-

sonal communicator has the opportunity to initiate, build, and main-
tain a full range of relationships with the target adopter. The deeper
the relationship, the better the chance that the communicator can
achieve the objective of the campaign.
3. As interactions increase and intensify, the target adopter’s sense of

obligation “to return the favor” grows and brings him or her closer to
adopting the social product. (p. 222)
The personal communicator normally assumes a variety of roles at vari-

ous stages of the campaign period. For example, he/she can be a motiva-
tor, extension agent, facilitator, field worker, recruiter, social worker, mis-
sionary or community organizer.
The selection of personal communication strategy will depend on two

factors (Roberto, 1975). These are: whether you are targeting one or many
target adopters, and whether the links are mediated and indirect or
through word of mouth. Three approaches are deemed necessary. The
“outreach strategy” refers to the situation when the “communicator is
dealing directly with one person at a time.” The “education strategy”, on
the other hand, is employed when the communicator deals with a group
of people. Finally, the “word-of-mouth strategy” may be used when you
intend for a group of adopters to function as “secondary communica-
tors” to pass on the messages to their friends, and so on. But there is a
problem with this approach. Do you know what it is? Right! It is prone to
message distortion.
The Social Marketing Plan of Action

A social marketing plan is actually a document indicating the standards
for implementation and evaluation. Kotler and Roberto (1989) list the parts
of the social marketing plan, as follows: executive summary, assessment
of the current social marketing situation, identification of opportunities
and threats, objectives for the social product (idea or practices), proposed
social marketing strategies, action programs, budgets and controls.
The executive summary. This summarizes the goals and recommenda-

tions of the plan. It is useful as it allows those concerned to have a quick
understanding of the main thrusts of the social marketing plan.
UP Open University
Assessment of situation. This section would normally include the profile

of the target adopters, review of the social product (idea or practice), as-
sessment of alternative sources to satisfy the adopters’ needs, and a scan
of the environment.
Assessment of opportunities and threats. The opportunities and threats

will define the critical social marketing issues, and will enable the planner
to devise contingency plans particularly for threats to the capabilities of
the campaign. The basic questions that you will need to answer are: How
do you take advantage of major opportunities in terms of resources like
staff, money, materials, activities and time? How do you counter each
threat? Do you have the required resources? Can the needed resource be
obtained within a reasonable time and at reasonable cost?
Objectives. Make sure that your objectives can be achieved within a spe-
cific time frame and that they are observable, measurable, achievable and
clearly stated. For example, it is nice to read an “objective” that sounds
like this: to achieve the human potential. Now, that’s fantastic. Question
is, how do you know that you have achieved the human potential? Will
you achieve it in two years? Can you see what the human potential looks
like? How do you measure human potential? Is this really achievable?
Achieving the human potential is a concept that includes economic, so-

cial, political, cultural, religious and educational elements. Certainly, it is
not possible to deal with all these in just one sitting. Let us consider that if
we dealt with more specific objectives, all these objectives combined will
eventually lead to a condition where one is moving toward achieving
his/her human potential. To be able to formulate a better objective, you
will need to break the concept into its component parts prior to defining
further what can be done.
Suppose you focus on reforesting 10 hectares of land? Your objective

statement would be:
To plant 5,000 mahogany trees in 10 hectares of land in Laguna

within six months.
Now, that’s clear, is it not?
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 71
Strategies. The strategy is a mix of tools and methods you will employ to
achieve your objectives. The standard social marketing mix with strate-
gies consists of three components (Kotler and Roberto, 1989):
1. Target-adopter segment. Clearly identify who your adopters are. Dif-

ferent adopter groups have different needs and require different lev-
els of effort. The simple rule of thumb is: one group, one marketing
strategy.
2. Social marketing mix. This refers to the social marketing mix for each
group. Explain your strategy according to how it will respond to the
opportunities and threats you have already identified.
3. Social marketing budget. Determine your budget. It must be made

clear at this point that any communication activity, such as social mar-
keting, requires financial resources. In fact, social marketing is very
expensive.
Action programs. I refer to Kotler and Roberto (1989) who have identi-
fied the following questions as basis for preparing action programs for
social marketing: What will be done for this strategy? When will it be
done? Who will do it? How much will it cost?
These questions actually lead to the components of a social marketing

plan, which normally would include definition of the problem, statement
of objectives, identification of adopters, clarifying strategies, determining
messages, identification of media channels, and evaluation of effects/im-
pact.
Budget. The budget is the action plan expressed in financial terms. In

order for action plans to achieve results, you have to estimate the cost of
specific target activities. It is quite easy to prepare a detailed budget if you
first identify the specific tasks that need to be performed for which a bud-
get is needed. The specific tasks are usually contained in what many call
the work plan. A work plan is a list of activities indicating the relative
time frame when these are to be performed. See next page a hypothetical,
general work plan for a new community garbage disposal program (spe-
cific details need to be fleshed out).
UP Open University
General Work Plan, Community Garbage Disposal Program (Year 2001)

Barangay Batong Malake, Los Banos, Laguna
Time Frame
Tasks Required
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Planning Phase
Determine scope of garbage problem X
Review previous garbage disposal programs X
Formulate Objectives X
Design Program X
Implementation Phase
Launch program X
Mobilize community residents X X
Produce & air plugs on garbage disposal
In local radio and cable TV XXX XXX XXX
Collect garbage regularly XXX XXX XXX
Implement a community compost project XXX XXX XXX
Monitor progress of program XXX XXX XXX
Evaluation Phase
Conduct ocular inspections XXX XXX XXX
Interview community residents X
Identify implementation problems X
Prepare report & recommendations XX
Submit report to Mayor’s office X
This is a very crude example, but it indicates the nature of the work plan.
You can prepare a more detailed work plan for a small project in your
barangay.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 73
Activity 5-2
Prepare a work plan for a solid waste management program for
your own agency. As much as possible, list the details of all the
activities that you expect to be done. Make sure that you catego-
rize the major phases of your program so you can specify further
the detailed activities under each phase. Indicate the time frame
for each activity.
Activity 5-3
There are many public service advertisements on television advo-
cating various environmental concerns. Some are general ads that
aim to strike an emotional chord, such as the one produced by the
Earth Communications Office (www.OneEarth.org). This ad is
called the Power of One. You should have seen this at your learn-
ing center during the First Study Session, as indicated in course
guide. You must watch this ad to complete your second tutor-
marked assignment. The tape is available at your learning center
for you to view it before the deadline of the assignment. Just make
arrangements with your learning center coordinator. You can also
watch the ad on CNN, the Discovery Channel or the Fox News
Channel on cable TV.
Pay close attention to the ad. Read the instructions in your course
guide on how to make your assignment. Work backwards. What
was the marketing plan the producers must have made to come
up with the “Power of One” ad?
Remember to answer all the questions in your assignment. This

TMA has two parts: writing the plan and evaluating it. Don’t be
intimidated. Let your creativity flow but always back it up with
facts and substance!
UP Open University
Normally, a budget is presented in terms of personal services, capital/

equipment outlay, maintenance and other operating expenses and con-
tingency. However, the budget for a social marketing project would be
presented in terms of money allocated for a specific sequence of activities
over a period of time. Each budget item has an expected output over a
period of time. In other words, the budget is presented in detail.
Let’s translate the work plan above into a budget plan. It will look like this:
Proposed budget for a community garbage disposal program

(Year 2001)
Particulars Quarterly Budget

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Planning Phase
Personal Services:
Honorarium:
1 Consultant @ P5,000/mo Salary 15,000
1 Coordinator @ P10,000/mo 30,000
2 Staff @ P6,000/mo 36,000
MOOE:
Supplies 5,000
Travel 5,000
Miscellaneous 1,000
Personal Services:
Honorarium:
1 Consultant @ P5,000/mo Salary 5,000 15,000 15,000
1 Coordinator @ P10,000/mo 10,000 30,000 30,000
2 Staff @ P6,000/mo 12,000 36,000 36,000
MOOE:
Supplies 1,000 5,000 5,000
Travel 1,000 7,000 8,000
Miscellaneous 200 1,000 1,000
Evaluation Phase
Personal Services:
Honorarium:
1 Consultant @ P5,000/mo Salary 15,000 15,000 15,000
1 Coordinator@P10,000/mo 10,000 10,000 30,000
2 Staff @ P6,000/mo 1,000 3,000 36,000
MOOE:
Supplies 1,000 5,000 5,000
Travel 500 5,000 2,000
Miscellaneous 100 500 1,000
Publication of Terminal Report 20,000
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Unit II Module 5 75
As you may have seen, each phase has separate budget details. In all
phases you have similar budget entries, so the question could be, “Why
repeat the listing for each phase?” Well, with this kind of budget repre-
sentation you can see the detailed costing for each phase. In other words,
you know how much will be spent for what phase of the program. This is
the advantage of preparing a detailed budget program based on the work
plan. The standard budget format simply shows the budget items and
the amount needed for such items perhaps on a quarterly or annual basis.
The amount is an aggregate amount and you will not know specific
costings, and frequently this does not give you enough information.
Controls. The final section of the action plan is a description of how the
social marketing project will be monitored. Typically, the set of specific
activities are listed in a Gantt chart, in which the time frame within which
to undertake these activities is indicated. The intention of this is to pro-
vide a systematic means of determining whether or not the project is be-
ing undertaken according to plan. If project implementation is not ac-
cording to plan, then it is possible that the objectives would not be achieved,
or if they are achieved it would perhaps take a longer period to achieve
them. If the objectives are not achieved, then the project is a failure. If
there is a delay in the achievement of objectives, then this would have
serious implications in terms of expenses and other unnecessary prob-
lems.
You may have a separate section on Program Implementation. However,

the component on monitoring and the work plan provides the details of
implementation. In fact, since all the activities are listed in the work plan,
which also provides a Gantt Chart of the activities, there are sufficient
guidelines for the implementers to follow. In any case, should you wish to
include an implementation phase in your plan of action it is likely that
you’ll put the activities to be undertaken in a Gantt Chart or work plan
just the same.
Evaluating a Social Marketing Project

Why do we need to evaluate our social marketing project? Like any other
project, our social marketing project must be able to achieve its objectives.
To determine this, we need to evaluate its performance in terms of impact
or effects. Has the campaign brought about the intended desirable changes?
Has the project brought about the changes that are desirable? Implied by
these questions is the possibility that a social marketing project may not
achieve what it set out to achieve. And it is possible that any desirable
change that has happened may have been due to factors other than the
social marketing intervention. Hence, we need to evaluate our social mar-
keting project.
UP Open University
There are two types of evaluation that are appropriate to social market-
ing projects. These are: impact and ethical evaluations.
Impact evaluation. Here we try to determine if there is any cause-effect

relationship between our social marketing project and the changes that
may have occurred. In other words, we would want to determine the
observable outcomes. Two ways of doing this are: to identify the intended
effects and to determine the processes involved (process evaluation).
Ethical evaluation. In ethical evaluation, we seek to determine the project’s

ethical character. The basic question we need to ask is: Did the project
cause an appropriate or desirable change in the right or desirable way
under a specific ethical condition? Three points are clear here: it involves
the ethical consequences of the project; it involves the “rightness” or de-
sirability of the project objectives; and it involves the ethical issue of se-
lecting the proper means of achieving the objectives. The last point high-
lights the means-end relationship, as may be indicated by the phrase “the
means justify the end” or the “end justifies the means.”
SAQ 5-2
We are now at the end of this module and Unit II. One of our in-
tended goals was for you to be able evaluate when IEC and Social
Marketing are appropriate as approaches to environmentalism.
Given what you’ve read so far about each approach, in what ways
do they differ? When are they applicable? To help you formulate
and organize your thoughts, use the matrix below.
Approach Main Feature(s) Intended Outcome
IEC
Social Marketing
UP Open University
Unit II Module 5 77
ASAQ 5-2
Approach Main Feature(s) Intended Outcome
IEC Three functional units – To create awareness and

information management, motivation to adopt an
education and communi- idea/program/ behavior
cation media. by giving people enough
information to make
informed decisions.
Social Marketing Promotional strategies To change social conditions

through mass communi- and behavior; to “sell” a
cation, selective commu- social commodity or product.
nication or personal
communication.
What is the inherent difference between these two approaches to envi-

ronmentalism? Can you see it in their intended outcomes? You’re right.
Through IEC you give people information and let them make informed
choices about the issue you’ve presented, whereas in social marketing,
you are in effect advertising. You are “selling” an idea, a value, a change
in attitude. Some may even call it brainwashing. There’s a thought…But
then, given that we are looking at these two approaches as approaches to
environmentalism and given the urgency of the environmental problems
that confront us, can you justify the use of social marketing over IEC?
Can you justify “brainwashing” over “informed decision-making”? What
environmental concerns can be approached using IEC? When would you
use social marketing?Have I raised more questions for you? Good. It means
you’re thinking. Now, you know what you want to advocate, you have a
conviction about it, and you’re thinking about how to approach advocating
it. Now, what strategies for promoting environmentalism should you use?
Let’s find out.
UP Open University
References
Lazarsfeld, Paul F. and Robert K. Merton. 1949. Mass communication,

popular taste, and organized social action. In Wilbur Schramm, ed.,
Mass Communications, Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Librero, Felix. 1993. Development communication in the Philippines: a
synthesis. U.P. Los Banos Journal, III(1&2):22-51.
Kotler, Philip and Eduardo L. Roberto. 1989. Social Marketing, Strategies
for Changing Public Behavior. New York: The Free Press.
Kotler, Philip and Gerald Zaltman. 1971. Social marketing: an approach
to planned social change. Journal of Marketing, July 1971, 35:3-12.
Roberto, Eduardo L. 1975. Strategic Decision Making in a Social Program.
Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
UP Open University
Module 6
Conventional Development
Communication Strategies
F rom the point of view of development

communication, the basic goals of com-
munication ought to be to inform, to educate
Objectives
and to persuade. To achieve these goals, spe- At the end of this module,
cific strategies have been developed and you’ll be able to:
tested.
1. Identify the conven-
The Academy for Educational Development tional development
(1985) codified four strategies, namely: me- communication strate-
dia-based strategy, instructional design strat- gies;
egy, participatory strategy and marketing 2. Use these strategies in
strategy. These categories are not mutually promoting environmen-
exclusive and independent of one another. tal causes; and
In fact, they are highly interrelated and are 3. Evaluate the appropri-
frequently used in combination with each ateness of these strate-
other. But with this categorization, one gies in advocating
would be able to see the probable priorities environmental causes.
in terms of using communication to meet
various needs.
The Four Strategies

Media-based strategy
In the media-based strategy there is a particular medium or a combina-
tion of media that serves as the main carrier of the messages of the cam-
paign. In a multi-media approach, all the appropriate media are consid-
ered important. Each one has a specific function to perform.
The strategy is based on the design of communication activities around a

preferred medium as a pivotal point. For example, a communications pro-
gram to promote environmentalism may revolve around the use of radio.
Another may be centered on a community newspaper. Quite understand-
ably, this strategy is the easiest to plan and therefore has become rather
common. However, it is the least effective. Do you know why?
Instructional design strategy

The main purpose of this strategy is to educate the audience. Certain rules
and procedures, based on learning principles, are employed in the design,
production and utilization of communication materials to facilitate the
achievement of objectives.
This strategy focuses on individual learning as a basic objective. It draws

heavily on learning theories and the systems approach to the develop-
ment of educational materials. Many of the activities involved include
formative and summative evaluation, pre-testing and sequenced program
design. The instructional design strategy is systems-oriented because it
relies heavily on identifying goals, formulating criteria for success, assem-
bling participants and resources, identifying specific approaches and
making plans with a time frame. The activities that serve as broad guide-
lines are sequential: planning, implementation and evaluation.
Participatory strategy
This strategy emphasizes full participation by the audience in most, if not
all, of the components of the communication campaign. Participation in-
cludes the actual implementation of specific activities such as tree plant-
ing, reporting of illegal logging activities, participating in a symposium on
solid waste management, and things like these. In this respect, massive
participation of community members must be achieved. Small-scale par-
ticipation (i.e., participation by a few individuals at a time) will not make
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 81
a dent in the efforts to, say, stop illegal logging. Participation here must be
large-scale and perhaps even nationwide.
The central principle in this strategy is to achieve community cooperation

and personal growth. Essential here is the ability of an individual to “par-
ticipate as an equal in a shared process.” The participatory strategy aims
to foster greater participation in, and working together as, a community.
Marketing strategy
Today, this would go under the new name of social marketing. This strat-
egy is the least subtle approach. In other words, this is the hard sell ap-
proach. The basic principles of product advertising are applied in selling
an idea or technology.
This strategy responds to the question: “Is there really such a thing as a
mass audience? Aren’t there really small homogeneous audience segments
we need to understand better?” (AED, 1985). Furthermore, under the
marketing strategy, the audience is considered a consumer whose needs
and wants are the focus of the communication design.
To be practical, a mix or combination of these strategies would be neces-

sary. After all, there really is no single strategy that will be effective all the
time. How these strategies work out may be demonstrated by their appli-
cation in past rice production programs of the Philippine Government.
Application of the Four Strategies in Rice

Production in the Philippines
The strategies for carrying out the country’s rice production programs
may be analyzed from the point of view of communication. At the outset,
it should be noted that rice production programs are not limited to one
strategy at a time. In the major rice production programs of the Philip-
pine government some 30 years back (i.e., Masagana 99 and KABSAKA),
combinations of communication strategies were employed. Nevertheless,
it is possible to identify a strategy that may have been emphasized in each
program (Librero, 1987).
Masagana 99 exemplar. Masagana 99 (“bountiful harvest 99,” designed to

achieve a 99-cavan-per-hectare yield), the rice production program of the
Philippine Government from 1971 to 1986, embarked on a communica-
tion campaign to promote the program itself. Among others, the program
featured a “no-collateral” credit scheme backed by the rural and develop-
UP Open University
ment banking sector. This supervised credit scheme mortgaged the future
yield of the farm rather than the farm itself or other capital assets, making
Masagana 99 a wholesome “product” to sell to rice farmers.
The Masagana 99 program may be classified as a media-based strategy

since the most vital information components were carried out through
mass media. The choice of media to be used was influenced by the haste
with which Masagana 99 had to be carried out on a national scale. There
was a critical need to use the fastest way to get the rice production pro-
gram known and accepted by the farmers. At that time, the best way to
do it was through a combination of media that resulted in what could be
the most massive information campaign in the country’s history.
Masagana 99 was a radio-based communication campaign. The use of

other media such as newspapers, magazines, comics and brochures was
supportive in nature. In fact, these media were used mainly to sustain
interest in the Masagana 99 program. Viewed as a whole, the program
was an advocacy campaign that employed a combination of mass media
and interpersonal communication, with the latter serving only as a sec-
ondary and supportive component.
Elements of other communication strategies were present in the Masagana

99 program. For example, its educational activities included the prepara-
tion and distribution of communication materials that were designed to
educate the farmers. This was deemed necessary, as pointed out earlier,
because Masagana 99 was implemented in such haste that many farmers
did not fully understand the concept of the program when it was launched.
Therefore, materials had to be designed to educate the farmers on the
program’s mechanics and this aspect marked the application of the in-
structional design strategy.
Another promotional aspect was the massive use of advertising, espe-

cially during the initial years. This was understandable as the architect of
the campaign was the J. Walter Thompson Company, one of the largest
advertising agencies in the world at that time. The use of radio jingles,
stickers, banners, T-shirts and jackets—a common practice in the market-
ing strategy—was prevalent.
The participatory strategy was likewise discernible, as planners, agricul-

tural dealers, farmers, extension personnel and consumers acted out their
roles. Each interested group participated but because as a natural conse-
quence of the program rather than as a carefully designed strategy.
The Masagana 99 rice production program was a media-based communi-

cation campaign that employed, to its advantage, other communication
strategies. It was most effective in the initial years—as is characteristic of
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 83
massive, media-based communication campaigns. They are effective in

arousing interest. But in sustaining such an interest, other strategies have
been found to be more effective.
As it happened, the media-based strategy was employed for a number of

years and as it became less effective, there was no clear shift to what
could have been a more appropriate strategy—e.g., instructional design
in combination with participatory strategy—to maintain and further de-
velop the momentum gained through the use of the media-based strat-
egy. The communication component of the program should have been
planned to employ different strategies at various phases of implementa-
tion. For example, after the initial success of the media-based strategy in
getting farmers interested, such a strategy could have been de-empha-
sized and another strategy introduced.
The communication campaign aside, the Masagana 99 could have been

sustained as an effective production system if not for the deterioration
and eventual corruption of the credit system by the banking sector. Ghost
loans became prevalent and the managers of rural banks gradually bought
off and/or set up their own stores of agricultural inputs and kept a strangle-
hold on the distribution of fertilizers and chemicals to the borrowers who
were kept captive to the availment of their services. This led to overpric-
ing, shortages and favoritism and finally total dissatisfaction of the farm-
ers. As the trust of farmers was lost, loans were monetized and channeled
to the purchase of non-farm essentials (TV, stereos, refrigerators, etc.) re-
sulting in massive loan defaults, and finally the collapse of the rural bank-
ing system. It was widely believed, although it was not factually estab-
lished, that the downfall of Masagana 99 was a reflection of the deterio-
ration of moral values during the later part of the martial law regime of
the Marcos dictatorship. Whatever the underlying reason, the Masagana
99 was conceptually a magnificent program that floundered because the
necessary checks and balances were not put in place.
KABSAKA exemplar. KABSAKA is an acronym of “Kabusugan sa

Kaumahan,” an Ilongo phrase for “bounty in the farm,” referring to the
rainfed lowland rice production program launched in Iloilo in 1976.
KABSAKA started out as a small project, while Masagana 99 was a na-
tional program from the time it was launched. Moreover, the KABSAKA
approach was basically voluntary and participatory, while Masagana 99
was “mandatory” in fact if not in theory.
Unlike Masagana 99, KABSAKA only had to show the farmers the kind
of technology available without resorting to hard-sell campaigning. The
farmers were left to decide for themselves. When they made a move to
adopt the technology, they were given more information.
UP Open University
The KABSAKA approach followed a pattern, as follows:
First, demonstration plots were put up to test whether the tech-

nology was appropriate in the area.
Second, when a locality was declared part of the project, farmers
there were invited to meetings and field trips were arranged to
acquaint them with the technology.
Third, when the farmers decided to adopt the technology, they
were provided more information through farmers’ classes and
additional meetings.
Fourth, extension workers were trained and then required to stay
at the project site. This insured appropriate immersion.
Fifth, communication campaigns were conducted in support of
field activities.
The use of mass media, particularly radio, was designed to supplement

what extension workers were doing in support of the farmers’ activities.
Radio was used initially only as a means to remind farmers of what should
be done at certain times. Ultimately, it was used as a major carrier of
educational material in support of field training activities. Thus, commu-
nication was the element that galvanized the participatory process.
The KABSAKA had all the elements of the participatory strategy. As in

Masagana 99, however, it was not the only strategy employed. Other
communication strategies were used, but the participatory strategy was
the one emphasized.
Enough reading for now. Let’s take on an activity to get you thinking
about what you’ve read so far.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 85
Activity 6-1
If you were to do the Masagana 99 all over again, how would you
make it a sustainable rice production program?
Would you consider any or all of the following strategies? Place a

check mark (√) on the strategies you think would be appropriate.
1. Phased implementation approach starting with a massive me-

dia blitz as the Masagana 99 initially started.
2. Encourage the formation of agricultural cooperatives to serve
as the foundation of an effective participatory approach.
3. Pursue active research and experimentation to test the appli-
cability of rice production technologies in specific areas.
4. Monitor the environmental effects of increased use of agricul-
tural chemicals and devise appropriate mitigating measures.
5. Shift to the participatory approach as soon as the media blitz
has gained effectiveness.
6. Conduct a continuing education program for agricultural tech-
nicians and extension workers in support of Masagana 99.
7. Improve the capitalization of the rural banking system and
install checks and balances to protect the farmer beneficia-
ries.
8. Install a crop insurance system to protect the farmers’ harvest
from natural calamities and make this insurance an integral
cost component of the Masagana 99 program.
9. Encourage and reward the use of organic fertilizers in combi-
nation with inorganic fertilizers.
10. Make Masagana 99 not only a Department of Agriculture pro-
gram but also a program adopted and actively supported by
the DOST, DAR, DENR, DPWH and other concerned depart-
ments of the national government.
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While the above discussion of Masagana 99 focused on the com-
munication aspect, it must be perceived as a complete system with
its attendant technical, financial, educational and promotional
aspects. Like any good product, it must first be popularized before
it is internalized. Popularizing it is a communication problem. In-
ternalizing it (and sustaining it) is much more than a communica-
tion problem although proper extension and therefore communi-
cation strategies will help.
All of the 10 strategies are conceptually worth pursuing. If you are

to reformulate the Masagana 99, you should follow at least five
conscious steps, namely:
1. Make sure the Masagana 99 is technically feasible.

2. Install the institutional mechanisms to adopt and support
Masagana 99.
3. Popularize Masagana 99 among the target beneficiaries and
implementors.
4. Install maintenance mechanisms to keep Masagana 99 sustainable:
l Farmers participation
l Effective credit and financing
l Demonstration farms for new technologies
l Protection of farmers from natural calamities
l Research
l Formation of cooperatives
l Continuing extension
l Post harvest technologies
l Product marketing
l Environmental mitigation
l Inter-sectoral coordination
5. Conduct participatory program evaluation and impact assessment.
Given these steps, you should be able to integrate the above 10

strategies and add some more of your own.
You should then be able to recommend the appropriate communi-

cation strategies for each step of the Masagana 99 program. The
key is to formulate a communication strategy that will effectively
deliver the technical information about a program, sustain the tar-
get adopters’ interest in it, and support the monitoring and evalu-
ation component to ensure the program’s continuing success.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 87
Mechanisms of Implementation
The four development communication strategies may also be designed
according to a specific mechanism by which the environmental campaign,
for example, shall be carried out. There are three such mechanisms.
Project-oriented mechanism
Essentially, this refers to the practice of providing a subsidized campaign
support for as long as the project exists. This kind of campaign is charac-
terized by the artificiality of its interventions, the need for high-level in-
puts, weak withdrawal preparations, and the lack of a strong motivation
to become self-sustaining. The campaign support would terminate when
the project terminates.
An example would be the Laguna Environmental Social Mobilization

Project (LESMP) that was undertaken by the College of Development
Communication of UP Los Baños in collaboration with the LIFE Founda-
tion and the DENR. When the project started, it also launched a commu-
nication campaign designed not only to promote the project but also to
mobilize people around the lake area to help conserve Laguna Lake. While
the project was ongoing, there was a continuing use of radio, billboards,
flyers and seminars to explain to community residents why they must
participate in the rehabilitation and conservation of Laguna Lake. Pam-
phlets and leaflets providing information on the Laguna Lake ecological
situation, as well as primers on how to use available technologies that
were felt appropriate for the conservation of Laguna Lake, were pub-
lished and distributed in the communities. In other words, there was no
let up in the information campaign. But when the project terminated two
years later, all these communication and information work were also
terminated.
Built-in Community-based mechanism

The advantage of designing a campaign that becomes essentially part of
the set of activities of the community is that such interventions will not be
considered foreign or forced from the outside. Put another way, existing
patterns of activities of the members of the community should be made
part of the campaign.
For example, some communication activities that are considered part of

the activities of the community are spreading information through the
parish priest, the ambulant vendor, or even the “huweteng collector.”
UP Open University
These activities really do not require expensive external resources. Fur-

thermore, when the community members become the actors themselves
without them knowing it, then the education process becomes a natural
part of the daily lives of the members of the community.
Culture-oriented campaign program

The emphasis here would be on designing campaign activities that are
compatible with the culture of the community. For example, in tribal com-
munities there are certain beliefs directly related to the care of the envi-
ronment. These must be emphasized in the communication campaign as
much as new ideas are included/introduced. The introduction of new
ideas must not completely do away with tradition, beliefs and value sys-
tems that have always been there. The latter can be used to make our
messages acceptable to our target adopters. Our interventions must be so
designed as to fit snugly into the cultural pattern of the community. In
communication, this would be called “talking the language of the people.”
Let us operationalize the relationship between the development commu-

nication strategies and the general mechanisms within which these strat-
egies may be employed. For practical purposes, let us look at various com-
binations as indicated in the following matrix given the topic “solid waste
management.” (Figure 6.1)
Figure 6.1 Matrix of solid waste management mechanisms

based on development communication strategies.
Mechanism Media-Based Instructional Participatory Marketing

Strategy Design Strategy Strategy Strategy
Project- Broadcast radio Conduct a school- Conduct a project- Conduct project-

Oriented plugs on solid on-the-air on solid sponsored field best household in
Mechanism waste disposal waste manage- day to show solid solid waste manage-
for the duration ment in the waste disposal ment.
of the project. community. systems.
Community- Use community Conduct farmers’ Stage rural theater Conduct an inter-
Based wall newspapers training sessions participated in by community competi-
Mechanism or audio towers on solid waste community youth tion on solid waste
to share informa- management. on the topic of management.
tion on solid solid waste
waste manage- management.
ment.
Culture- Spread informa- Include tribal solid Undertake a one-day Tackle solid waste
Oriented tion on solid waste mechanisms bayanihan to dispose management in a
Mechanism waste manage- as part of training of solid wastes in balagtasan competi-
ment through course or formal the community. tion in the community.
ambulant vendors. course in school.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 89
Activity 6-2
It’s your turn. Fill in the three blanks in the following matrix of
development communication strategies for biological diversity con-
servation in forest areas.
Mechanism Media-Based Instructional Participatory Marketing

Strategy Design Strategy Strategy Strategy
Project- Conduct a school-

Oriented seminars on bio-
Mechanism diversity con-
servation measures
Community- Involve community

Based in in situ conserva-
Mechanism tion efforts.
Culture-
Oriented
Mechanism

Biological diversity, as you know, occurs at three levels—genetic,
species and ecosystem. Genetic biodiversity refers to a rich variety
of gene pools through phenotypes, genotypes, provenances, and
other genetic variations within a species. Species diversity ema-
nates from having a wide variety of species within a defined geo-
graphic area. For example, there are more than 10,000 species of
trees in Southeast Asia, of which more than 2,000 are commercial
trees or trees with known or potential commercial value. Ecosys-
tem diversity refers to the variety of habitats species have adopted
to. Here we talk of plant associations, wildlife habitats, marine
and terrestrial ecosystems, and other similar habitats that feature
communities of biological organisms. A typical picture of
biodiversity is a pristine natural tropical forest. Another would be
a coral reef.
UP Open University
Comments on Activity 6-2 continuation
Many human communities are located near natural tropical for-

ests. Many indigenous tribes inhabit these forests together with
trees and wildlife. Both types of communities depend wholly or
partially on the forest for their existence. Fringe communities are
more likely to destroy the forest than the forest-dwelling indig-
enous tribes. Loss of biodiversity occurs mainly from illegal log-
ging, illegal gathering of wildlife and plant products, kaingin-mak-
ing (slash and burn agriculture), flooding due to abnormally heavy
rains, prolonged periods of drought, and commercial logging and
mining operations of legitimate companies.
In your matrix, some of your answers may have been:
For the project-oriented mechanism, a media-based strategy could

be to produce and air TV ads carrying biodiversity conservation
messages; a participatory strategy could be to engage community
groups in growing rare and endangered plants; and a marketing
strategy could be to finance the operation of task forces to appre-
hend illegal vendors of endangered wildlife species.
For the community-based mechanism, one instructional design

strategy to use could be to conduct barangay workshops for enter-
prise formation using biological products while another good
marketing strategy could be to establish communal reforestation
areas.
For the culture-oriented mechanism, a media-based strategy that

might work would be to spread information on biodiversity con-
servation through the pulpit and another marketing strategy could
be the establishment of memorial planting sites.
You may also want to design a matrix of development communi-

cation strategies for communities along the fringe of a natural for-
est and assume that the indigenous tribes living inside the forest
present no significant threat to biodiversity conservation due to
their small number.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 91
Exemplars of Newspaper-Based Advocacy

Materials
The following are two newspaper articles that are clearly advocating en-
vironmental concerns. The article titled “Notes From The Edge” was writ-
ten by Carlos Lorenzana, who describes himself as a “committed envi-
ronmental activist.” It was published in the December 26, 1998 issue of
the Philippine Daily Inquirer (p. 8).
Notes from the Edge

by Carlos Lorenzana
In Steven Spielberg’s “Jurasic Park,” Jeff Goldblum asks, “If a but-

terfly waves its wings in just the right way in Los Angeles, can it
cause a snowstorm in Chicago?”
Thirty years ago, the answer would have been an unequivocal no.
Today, modern man knows that the answer is a definite yes. He
now understands that if he tampers with an ecological system in
one place, the whole system is affected. He now accepts that our
habitat is one interlocking system and that it is impossible to do
something somewhere that has no effect anywhere else.
The earth today is in a sorry state. Its life-support system is on the

brink of a breakdown because of the destruction of our forests,
global warming, improper disposal of hazardous waste and over-
population. The environmental problems we face are enormous.
The most alarming aspect of these environmental problems, how-

ever, is that they are both insidious and cumulative. The sooner
we realize this and start doing something, the better.
It’s time to demonstrate our social responsibility without feeling

shy or odd about our effort no matter how small or in what area.
No attempt to protect the environment will be successful, how-

ever, unless we are willing to change our lifestyle. Simple pru-
dence tells us that our careless and wasteful ways must go. We
must save water, reduce waste, recycle more, procreate less, turn
off the lights, use mass transit and do a thousand things differ-
ently in our everyday lives.
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The following is a list of what you can do for a start. No doubt, what you
can do may seem insignificant, but collectively, we can make a difference.
Saving on Water
l Don’t let the tap run when you are brushing your teeth. You may be
using as much as 54 liters of water.
l A five-minute shower using conventional shower heads can consume

35 gallons of water. Use a tabo to cut down drastically on the amount
of water used.
l Make sure your faucets do not leak. The smallest drip from a leaky
faucet can waste over 50 gallons a day.
l Use a displacement device in your toilet tank to reduce the amount of

water being flushed by at least 50 percent every ti9me you use the
toilet. A big bottle filled with water placed in the tank can be one such
device. Note that 40 percent of the water your household consumes is
flushed down the toilet.
l Use a low-flow faucet aerator in the kitchen to reduce the normal

faucet flow of about three to five gallons of water per minute by 50
percent.
Saving on Electricity
l If you have a washing machine, wash only when you have a full load.
This saves water and energy.
l Use water from the rinse cycle of the washing machine to water the
garden or wash the car.
l Use compact fluorescent light bulbs as they last longer and use about
one-fourth of the energy of an incandescent bulb. Note that the more
electricity you use, the more industrial emissions you generate con-
tributing heavily to the greenhouse effect and acid rain.
l Check your refrigerator’s temperature. If it is 5 degrees Celsius colder

than necessary, it uses 25 percent more energy.
l Dry your clothes in sunlight whenever possible instead of in the dryer

of a washing machine.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 93
l Use a microwave oven instead of a conventional one and save as much

as one-half in energy cost.
l Clean air-conditioning filters and refrigerator coils once a month to

save on electricity.
Friendly Products
l Read product labels and make informed decisions. These include in-
secticides, herbicides, cleansers, polishers, deodorants, detergents, bat-
teries with labels like “ozone friendly”, “CFC free” or “bio-degrad-
able”.
l Use “green” toilet rolls, tissue, writing and photocopying paper.
l Buy products that come in a minimum of packaging.
l Buy refill packs of household items like coffee and detergents.
l Use phosphate-free detergents. Phosphates emptied into rivers and

lakes cause an “algae bloom” which depletes the oxygen needed by
marine life to survive.
l Buy food packaged in bio-degradable or recyclable materials. Avoid

plastic packaging. Fruits and vegetables do not need plastic trays to
protect them.
l Stop using wooden (disposable) chopsticks as these waste our forest

reserves.
l Buy refrigerators with zero ozone-damaging potential as these refrig-

erators are 100-percent CFC-free.
l Bring a bayong or a cloth bag when you shop. Plastic shopping bags
are not degradable and fill up landfills. Moreover, all plastics are made
from petroleum, a non-renewable resource. In addition, the ink used
on plastic bags contains cadmium, a toxic heavy metal. When printed
plastic bags are burned, heavy metals are spewed into the air.
l Stop using Styrofoam products. The gases used to make “foam” prod-
ucts are CFCs which deplete the earth’s ozone layer.
l Investigate products you buy as they may contain toxic chemicals.

Mothballs may contain paradichlorobenzene which is harmful to your
liver and kidneys; air fresheners may contain xylene, ethanol, naph-
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thalene; permanent-ink pens and markers may contain harmful sol-

vents like toluene, xylene or ethanol.
l For your painting jobs, use latex paint instead of oil-based paint which
contains toxic heavy metals like cadmium, titanium and lead.
l Don’t buy ivory, tortoise shell, coral, reptile skins or other products
using materials from endangered animals or plants.
l Use natural alternatives to chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides

and herbicides. These chemical products often cause birth defects,
cancer and gene mutation.
Saving the Trees
l Recycle newspapers, cardboard boxes, the Yellow Pages, office paper,

junk mail and brochures you receive from banks and companies sell-
ing products. This practice alone can save several million trees.
l Keep used computer print-out paper. Turn them into memo pads or
telephone message pads.
l Don’t’ waste paper. Use both sides of each sheet.
l Save receipts from supermarkets and food outlets. The back of these
receipts can be used for listing things to buy or remember.
l For your writing needs, use recycled paper.
l Re-use mail and Manila envelopes by putting gummed labels over the
old addresses.
l Use ceramic coffee cups instead of disposable paper or Styrofoam cups

in offices and restaurants.
l Stop sending New year, Valentine, Easter, Mother’s Day, Father’s Day,
birthday and get-well cards and save millions of trees. Use environ-
ment-friendly ways to greet people.
l Use washable cloth diapers. It takes 20 trees to keep one baby in dis-
posable diapers for two years. Also chlorine is used in the manufac-
ture of disposable diapers. Chlorine which is used to whiten and pu-
rify paper generally enters rivers and reservoirs through pulp-and-
paper mill wastewater and through ground water that has seeped in
from landfills.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 95
l Use reusable rags instead of bleached paper towels. The process of

bleaching paper is responsible for creating dioxin, a deadly toxin.
Saving on Fuel
l If you own a car, keep your tires properly inflated. Under-inflation

wastes 5 percent of a car’s fuel by increasing “rolling resistance”.
l Sell worn-out rubber tires for recycling into tires, wire and pipe insu-
lators, brake linings, carpet padding, hoses and other products.
l Keep you car tuned up. A well-tuned up car uses 9 percent less gaso-
line than a poorly tuned car.
l Keep your car fuel filters clean to save gasoline.
l Don’t pour used motor oil into the ground as it can seep in the ground
water and contaminate drinking water supplies. Give or sell used oil
to recyclers.
l Use cars with catalytic converters as these do not emit noxious pollut-
ants.
l Use lead-free petrol.
l Carpool to work to cut down on gasoline and pollution.
l Drive less and use public transportation. This will cost as little as one-
thirtieth the energy needed to commute by car.
Recycling
l Recycle aluminum cans. It saves 90 percent of the energy required to

make the original can.
l Recycle glass. It saves 32 percent of the energy required to make the

original glass.
l Always use reusable containers instead of disposable ones.
l Turn household organic refuse into compost which can be used as a

conditioner to nourish the soil.
l If you are a home gardener or a farmer, use genetically engineered

crops that require less chemical intervention because they are more
resistant to the ravages of the environment, pests and weeds.
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l Plant trees. They produce food and oxygen and consume carbon di-
oxide.
Environmental Activism
l In an office complex or condominium, persuade the management to

set up a centralized waste collection system for all tenants.
l Join a Waste Awareness Program to make people aware that we are

running out of places to dispose of the refuse and that the danger to
human health is rising fast.
l Join and support organizations involved in forest conservation and

reforestation. About 27 million acres of forest are destroyed every year.
This destruction is driving 100 species of plants and animals to extinc-
tion every day. The generic material being lost forever may contain
secrets for fighting diseases or improving crops.
l Lobby in Congress for reduced military spending in order to boost aid

for environmental programs.
l Join a Factory Smokestack Watch Group. Factory smokestacks emit

tons of sulfur and other noxious chemicals that return to earth in the
form of acid rain, destroying forests, lakes, rivers and seas.
l Join and support an Overpopulation Awareness Program. The world’s

population of 5 billion is increasing by 80 million every year. Unless
population growth is slowed down, it will be impossible to make seri-
ous progress on any environmental issue.
l Pass this article on to other people or just pass on what you have
learned.
For too long, we have paid very little attention to the environmental costs
of our actions. This is a luxury we can now ill afford. It is literally costing
the Earth. We must begin to include that missing “Green Factor” in our
calculations and get environmentally committed.
If we don’t, envision the world prophesied by the typewriting cockroach

in Donald Marquis’ “Archy and Mehitabel”: “man is making deserts of
the earth/ it won’t be long now/ before man will have used it up/ so that
nothing but ants/ and centipedes and scorpions/ can find a living on it.”
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 97
“Waste Management Succeeds in Marilao,” was written by Frank Cimatu

and published in the Philippine Daily Inquirer on August 5, 2000 (p. E6):
BAGUIO CITY – The Payatas garbage tragedy is a cause of government’s

myopia or even selective blindness in finding a solution for an efficient
solid waste management, recycling experts said. And recycling Metro
Manila’s garbage will literally cure the country’s myopia, they said.
“Metro Manila can have the potential of producing 4.5 million kilos of
pechay over a one year period. This is enough to have an impact in Vita-
min A deficiency with only one day of biodegradable wastes. With an
estimated 2.5 billion kilo production for the rest of the year, Metro Manila’s
biodegradable wastes can be used to achieve food security,” said Joseph
Batac, Municipal Planning Officer of Marilao, Bulacan.
Model
Marilao’s recycling program has become a model for most small towns in
the country.
Starting with only five homes two years ago, Marilao’s recycling program
now involves two-thirds or 10,000 of the town’s 15,000 households.
People from all over the country have been visiting the town, sniffing its
compost and tasting the grafted tomatoes that thrive on it.
During the recent Mindanao convention of the League of Municipalities

of the Philippines, Batac and German scientist Robert Holmer, who helped
launch the recycling program is Cagayan de Oro City, said it is about
time Metro manila should listen to them.
Holmer said in 2025, four-fifths of all people would be living in urban

areas. This, he said, would not only mean more garbage but less food.
Misplaced Resource
The key to this is integrating composting with agriculture production in a

process Holmer and his colleagues at the Xavier University in Cagayan de
Oro City call “periurban vegetable farming.”
This involves not only residents of Cagayan de Oro, particularly the mar-
ket vendors, but also farmers living near the city. “If the term ‘waste’ is
described as a ‘misplaced resource,’ it suddenly acquires a commercial
dimension,” Holmer said.
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The problem is how to urge the people to go into recycling.
Batac said they resorted to the age-old technique of sowing envy and
twisting arms to jump-start the recycling program.
But before that, Batac advised mayors who wanted to go into recycling to
first sit on their open dumps and study their garbage.
“It took (Marilao) Mayor (Leoncio) Duran one month studying our gar-
bage,” Batac said.
“We found out that half of our wastes are biodegradable, 20 percent recy-
clable and 30 percent basura. We know we can’t do anything with the
basura but we sure can make something out of the 70 percent,” Batac
said.
Holmer also found out that 51 percent of wastes in the Cagayan de Oro
landfill are food and kitchen wastes while 13 percent are inert or what
Batac called basura.
Of the recyclable, Holmer found out that plastic items comprise 21 per-
cent of the wastes followed by paper, wood, metal and glass.
Metro Manila’s wastes, it turns out, also resemble that of Cagayan de

Oro.
Cagayan de Oro’s population is 1999 is 510,000. Its garbage increased

from 0.61 cubic meter per person in 1992 to 1.21 cubic meters per person
in 1998 due to the proliferation of fastfood chains.
Batac noted that Metro Manila’s officials and non-government organiza-

tions (NGOs) have been setting up recycling programs but they invariably
fail.
No Reason to Fail
“For us, there must be no reason to fail. Our land is limited and our
garbage is growing. Everybody must be involved,” Batac said.
They started with five houses. They were given a choice of not segregat-
ing and their garbage would be collected twice a month or segregate and
their waste would be collected three times a week.
“Then we went to their neighbors and told them, ‘hindi ba kayo naiinggit
(aren’t you envious)’,” Batac recalled.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 99
The five households grew to 20 and eventually to 10,000. The Marilao

government also produced a show on local cable in the latter part of 1998
espousing solid waste management, including segregating wastes and
compost-making. It also has a regular radio program urging the residents
to recycle their wastes.
A jingle was composed, too, called “Machong Basurero,” which is blared

by the garbage trucks. When residents hear it, they bring out their segre-
gated waste.
“We were practically bombarding the households with our recycling pro-
gram,” Batac said.
“Not that people loved to be nagged but it turns out they actually do not
know what compost is,” he said.
Home Composting
Xavier University has been espousing home composting, unlike Marilao

that does the composting for residents.
In their initial survey, Xavier found out that 36 percent of respondents

did not have enough knowledge on composting. This included more than
half of the vegetable farmers surveyed and a third of the consumers or
urban residents.
This is alarming, Holmer said, because most farmers applied commercial

fertilizers in their last three croppings. Only 4 percent applied compost.
“Composting Cagayan de Oro’s wastes will not only stop the use of com-
mercial fertilizers but also lessen the chemical residues in the vegetables,”
Holmer said.
A third of the city residents also said they don’t have enough suitable
space for composting. Only 5 percent of the farmers said so.
Eighteen percent of the respondents said they don’t have enough time for
composting and 15 percent said composting is out of trend. Of those who
said composting is passé, a fourth of them were farmers.
A Way of Life
Batac said composting is not a trend but a way of life.
Spending only P17,000 for a shredder, Marilao went on with its composting
program.
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A ton of manure is mixed with a ton of kitchen wastes collected everyday.

The heap is elevated on a bed of cocolumber rejects from local sawmills.
This enables the compost to be aerated and the leachate (garbage juice) to
flow out from the heap.
On a given day, Marilao’s recycling center has 30 or 31 heaps of compost,

one for each day in a month. It takes a month to produce good compost.
The compost is then spread over the ground and planted with vegetables.
The choice for vegetables over other plants differs for Marilao and Cagayan
de Oro.
Holmer said a Cagayan household spent P83 in 1998 for vegetables a

week. Eighty-five percent of farmers said they eat vegetables everyday
while only 64 percent of those in high-class subdivisions said so.
What Cagayanos eat and what they buy also differ, Holmer said.
The top vegetables bought are tomato, eggplant, bell pepper, cabbage,
papaya, cauliflower and soybean. The top vegetables eaten are malunggay
leaves, eggplant, squash, string beans, tomatoes, alugbati, ampalaya, cab-
bage and camote tops.
If periurban agriculture goes full scale in Cagayan de Oro, money spent

on vegetables and other food items will decrease, Holmer said.
Periurban Agriculture
Xavier’s periurban agriculture strategy also involves using integrated pest

and disease management, organic and synthetic soil mulching (for weed
control), drip irrigation (for lesser water use), post-harvest technologies
and market transparency.
Marilao has been producing vegetables not only as food for the residents,
but also to make money.
“We all know that tomatoes are expensive during the rainy season be-
cause the plants do not thrive during that time. They sometimes sell for
P120 a kilo on a rainy day. That’s the price of grapes,” Batac said.
Since eggplants thrive well during the rainy season, Marilao decided to
plant these in those times. But instead of bearing eggplants, the plants
were grafted to bear tomatoes.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 6 101
Marilao also plants pechay and Chinese kangkong.
“Our studies reveal that approximately one kilo of compost substrate will
grow 1.5 kilos of pechay over a one-year period. Given that our substrate
production is 1,500 kilos per day or 547,500 kilos per year, our annual
theoretical pechay production is 821,250 kilos a year,” Batac said.
“Using the same factors, Metro Manila can have the potential of produc-
ing 4.5 million kilos of substrate (a substance acted upon by an enzyme) a
day. This will yield approximately 6.75 million kilos of pechay a year,” he
said.
Activity 6-3
In the foregoing articles, notice the recurrence of words like Re-
use, Recycle, Reserve, Save, Protect. These are the active verbs of
conservation and environmentalism.
Summarize the environmental advocacy points in each article and

evaluate the effectiveness of each article as an advocacy material.
Or how convincing is each article? You can focus your discussion
on two topics: conservation of earth’s resources and preserving
the earth’s life-support systems.
In both articles, the words Re-use, Recycle, Reserve, Save, Protect are used
quite often. These are the active verbs of conservation and environmen-
talism. The power of the newspaper in disseminating successful experi-
ences emanates from its wide circulation. However, and conservation
messages carried in newspaper articles are usually article that are usually
short-lived. In contrast, a highly cerebral work published in book form
sometimes causes a paradigm shift so profoundly that its environmental
message spills over not only into more widely circulated media but also in
the framing of new philosophies and the shifting of global conservation
priorities.
During the 70s, the Club of Rome published a book entitled Limits to Growth
which gave the world a shocking revelation of how fragile our life sup-
port systems are at the rate we are developing. It also gave environmen-
talists a solid foundation for advocating the need for environmental safe-
guards to avert a global environmental disaster. The glaring conclusion of
the Limits to Growth is that the world’s resources are finite and are being
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rapidly run down, degraded and demolished to support economic devel-

opment. The frightening implication of this conclusion is that life on this
planet is in great peril. The conservation slogans so popular today may
have emanated from the conservation messages of that monumental work.
The gains from the environmental paradigm that emerged from Limits to
Growth are embodied in many environmental agreements, the most no-
table of which is the Rio Convention which consolidated the environmen-
tal action agenda of participating countries in the newly formed Global
Environmental Facility which providing funding support for environmental
initiatives.
The first newspaper article emphasizes the fact that the environmental
effects of human development activities are cumulative and tend to dis-
rupt the life-support systems on the planet. The 3Rs of environmentalism
(Reuse, Recycle, and Reserve) are directed toward conserving the world’s
material resources. This is the first item of the environmental campaign.
Thus, saving forest resources requires reusing and recycling paper (to
minimize the cutting of trees, which is the main source of paper) and
reserving or keeping intact large tracts of natural forests for future use.
Conserving water per se must be qualified to mean potable water (be-
cause the quantity of water on the planet is constant). Saving up on elec-
tricity conserves our fossil fuel resources, hydroelectric resources, and other
energy sources (geothermal, dendrothermal, etc).
The other major environmental campaign in this article deals with safe-
guarding life support systems (the soil, the air, the lakes, the oceans, the
forests) and the earth’s protective shields (the ozone layer, the atmosphere).
During the later part of the 80s, the Catholic Church published a pastoral
document that enjoined Catholics to “Walk Lightly on this Earth”. It is an
environmental appeal to support initiatives to save this Earth from early
destruction due to wasteful and careless ways of life.
The second newspaper article is keen about recycling and composting

and alludes profusely to the success stories in Cagayan de Oro and Marilao.
There is money in recycling. The itinerant bote-garapa vendors have been
around for three decades now. This simply means that many people have
been making money from recycling all these years. With the continuous
rise in population, it is expected that the business prospects for gainful
recycling are also rising. Plastic bags, styrofoams, aluminum cans, other
metals, paper and other inorganic wastes are known to have market uses.
It is the organic wastes that are giving a headache to urban administra-
tors.
Composting is presented in the article as a commercially viable alterna-

tive to organic waste disposal. Through composting, we can minimize the
use of chemical fertilizers. That by itself will have far-reaching positive
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environmental implications. Chemical fertilizers are fast-acting and are

administered in soluble form. Thus, the nutrients they carry are immedi-
ately available to the plant. On the other hand, organic fertilizers are slow-
acting and they need to be further decomposed with the aid of soil-resi-
dent bacteria to release the nutrients they contain. While the organic mat-
ter is decomposing, the plant might starve. That is why it is often advis-
able to combine chemical fertilizers to provide the required nutrients im-
mediately. Organic fertilizers, on the other hand, provide a more com-
plete array of nutrients (there are 16 nutrients needed by plants) than
chemical fertilizers can supply (usually only N,P, and K). But chemical
fertilizers are easy to apply, readily available, and less bulky (in terms of
volume) than organic fertilizers which are more voluminous, hard to find,
and more difficult to assure a consistent quality in terms of nutrient con-
tent. However, organic fertilizers are environment friendly and soil en-
hancing while chemical fertilizers promote soil compaction and acidity
and harmful to the ozone layer (due to the emission of nitrous oxide).
[From “Short Primer on Fertilizers”. Farmex Bioessentials Brochure for Biocore
Organic Fertilizer.]
China’s efforts at producing organic fertilizers (composting) are now well

known. Human wastes are collected even used and “recycled” as organic
fertilizers. However, composting is not easy and does not lend itself to
clean industrial processing. Decomposition is unattractive, even repul-
sive, and it requires a lot of land space in places distant from residential
areas. Even with the aid of decomposition bacteria, it takes 1-3 months to
produce a partially decomposed material suitable as fertilizer or soil con-
ditioner. Organic waste is produced faster than we can decompose them.
This is the crux of the problem, and for as long as this is so, it will be
difficult to convince people, especially in urban communities, to actively
engage in composting as a hobby or as a business activity. In contrast, the
lead time for converting inorganic wastes into useful products is very much
shorter and there are clean industrial processes that can make this pos-
sible. The land requirement for composting at an industrial scale is also a
major constraint.
So, while the article talks about the immense business potential in
composting, it does not reveal the actual realities and difficulties of carry-
ing out the business. The end result is that only a few can take advantage
of the opportunity and profit from it. Nevertheless, the conservation mes-
sage is carried effectively and brought home to those who have the deter-
mination to pursue the enterprise as others have done.
Now your ideas may have been different from mine. That’s all right. How
different were they? You may have new insights. If so, share these with
your classmates during your study sessions, or write your tutors about
them.
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References
Academy of Educational Development. 1985. Beyond the Flipchart: Three

Decades of Development Communication. Washington, D.C.: AED.
Librero, Felix. 1987. Policy implications of communication research in
rice production. Philippines Journal of Communication, June 1987,
I(3):56-67.
__________. 1990. Environmental outreach for the Environmental Re-
sources Management Program (ERMP): some basic issues and strate-
gies. Lecture notes for the Environmental Resources Management
Extension training Design, Workshop. Sulo Hotel, Quezon City, 26-
28 November 1990.
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Module 7
Indigenization Strategies
I n pure communication strategies, such as

the development communication strategies
discussed in Module 5, things seem to be
Objectives
simple and straightforward. Things appear At the end of this module,
to be easy to design and implement. Not so you’ll be able to:
with indigenization strategies. These are more
complicated than standard communication 1. Describe the three basic
strategies. indigenization strategies
as employed in commu-
In this module we shall discuss indigenous nication campaigns;
knowledge systems and how they may help 2. Use these strategies in
in environmental advocacy, folk media and designing mechanisms
how they have been used in the campaign to for the promotion of
preserve the environment, and the elements environmental causes;
of Paolo Friere’s conscientization, which are: and
consienti-cancion, concienti-accion, and 3. Evaluate the appropri-
concienti-vision. ateness of these strate-
gies in advocating
environmental causes.
The Indigenous Knowledge
System
Indigenous knowledge, according to the National Workshop on Indig-
enous Knowledge and Sustainable Development held at the International
Institute of Rural Reconstruction on June 24-26, 1992, refers to “local
knowledge unique to a given culture or society. It is the basis for local-
level decision-making in agriculture, aquaculture, health care, natural
resources management and a host of other activities in rural communi-

ties.” (Calanog, 1997)
This definition includes “local information, practices and techniques that

local people of all cultural backgrounds have developed and used”
(Calanog, 1997). This is contrary to the notion that indigenous knowl-
edge specifically refers to the cultural knowledge of tribal groups only.
Knowledge in lowland communities is indigenous knowledge, too.
Why are indigenous knowledge systems important? Serrano (1997) cites

four reasons:
Indigenous knowledge systems are part and parcel of our cul-

tural heritage. Try to take away woodcarving and terrace-build-
ing from the Ifugaos or try to stop the Badjaos from sailing and
fishing and you would also have caused them to cease being who
they are. People uprooted from their original environment, and
from their knowledge systems and practices are people who have
lost their identity. (p. 23)
Indigenous knowledge systems are a vital starting point for rural

reconstruction. Some lines of the credo of rural Reconstruction
explicitly say: Learn from the people, start with what they know,
build on what they have. (p. 23)
Indigenous knowledge systems are one strong reason for using

the participatory development approach. If local people take part
and contribute to a particular development intervention, they will
look at it as theirs and exert all effort to sustain and make it suc-
ceed. Such contribution could be their indigenous knowledge sys-
tem. (p. 24)
Indigenous knowledge systems contribute to sustainability of pro-

duction systems…. The current practice on sustainable agricul-
ture has drawn heavily from indigenous knowledge and prac-
tices. Though considered traditional, these knowledge systems and
practices actually have scientific explanation. Thus they are oth-
erwise referred to as “people science.” (p. 24)
In a synthesis of research in environmental communication in the Philip-

pines, Librero (1999) stressed that indigenous knowledge systems contain
beliefs that strongly influence the behavior of local communities with re-
gard to the environment. Thus, environmental conservation messages may
be more acceptable to local communities if these messages are integrated
into their belief systems and rituals rather than presented as independent
ideas that may be perceived as being “forced from the outside.”
UP Open University
To drive home the significance of indigenous knowledge systems, we are

including in this module two case studies presented in the Seminar-Work-
shop on the Application of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Sustain-
able Upland Development held at the Institute of Forest Conservation,
UP Los Banos, College of Forestry on 17-19 October 1995. These case stud-
ies are:
Castro, Charles P. “Enchanted Trees, Sacred Groves, and Forest Fairies:

A Sampling of Folk Beliefs and Practices Associated With Forests.”
Quitzon, Sharon C. “Indigenous Social Forestry for Sustainable Upland

Development: Nuggets From Ifugao.”
Activity 7-1
Read Castro’s case study (Annex A). In it he discussed five cat-
egories of forest-related belief systems. Choose one of these and
explain why it would be advantageous to piggy-back your own
environmental promotion messages on such belief.
According to Castro, the forest-related belief systems that he has codified

may be funny, naïve, even stupid. But are all indigenous and some make
a lot of sense and are, indeed, useful.
First, belief in the Divine presence. Indigenous people believe in super-

natural forces that have control over their surroundings and lives. This
may refer to the spirit that is guarding the forest, the tree, the mountain,
the river, and so forth. This is the reason why tribal people would admon-
ish hikers or mountaineers to proceed but not to disturb the mountain lest
a god be displeased and cause an untoward incident to happen. As you
may recall, Castro pointed out that even seemingly insignificant acts like
cutting a branch could be considered encroaching on the domain of the
spirit that requires some form of punishment. If there is cause to cut the
branch (e.g., using it as a cane), one must let the spirit know that it is
being taken to be used to help an individual and that the action is not
meant to displease the spirit.
Belief in sacred sites. These sites include rivers, groves, hills or mounds. It
is considered taboo to exploit, modify or remove anything from a sacred
site. If this taboo is ignored, it is believed that the spirits will unleash su-
pernatural punishment such as calamities.
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Belief in critical hours. In rural communities in the Philippines, there are

critical hours of the day—usually high noon and twilight—which are con-
sidered sacred hours. At these times there are certain things that are con-
sidered taboo. The belief is that at these hours spirits are active and prone
to do harm to humans.
Belief in haunted places. The age-old belief in ghosts, spirits and super-
natural beings remains among rural dwellers. These spirits could dwell in
trees, which could explain why some trees are not cut or felled. Thus, the
trees are preserved and continue to contribute to the ecological balance in
the area. For some reason the trees that are certain to be avoided are the
very old ones, especially if they are found in places like cemeteries and the
like.
What are the implications of these beliefs? Maybe not much, actually.
However, these folk beliefs enable practitioners to remain respectful of
and at peace with their environment.
As for urbanities and “modern” folk like ourselves, here are specific things
that Castro suggests we can do:
1. Maintain small-scale forest land.

2. Establish nature sites like parks.
3. Conserve wildlife, indigenous trees to maintain biodiversity.
4. Promote ecotourism to appreciate nature.
5. Improve community-based natural resource management.
6. Teach the youth about nature, wildlife and people-land relations.
Activity 7-2
Read Quitzon’s article (Annex A) and summarize it.
A major farming pattern of the Ifugao is the muyung-payo-habal farming

pattern.
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Muyung refers to inherited private property, usually forest land or woodlot.

Payo is the ricefield, while habal refers to the kaingin lot. The muyung-
payo-habal farming pattern is explained by Quitzon, citing her previous
work, as follows:
Camote is planted mainly in the family kaingin. Cleaning of

ricefields starts in January and rice planting is completed by March.
The ricefields are then temporarily abandoned while the natives
prepare their kaingins, which are usually located some distance
away from the ricefields. Cutting down of vegetation starts in April.
The gasses and trees are left to dry for at least a month, then the
natives go back to burn them. Burning commences by May. Mongo
is planted as soon as burning is completed, and camote is planted
in August after the mongo is harvested. The camote crop is har-
vested five months later. This habal is then left idle until April when
the grasses are cut, dried, and burned preparatory to planting ac-
tivities. The process is repeated year in and year out unless the
place is totally abandoned in favor of another occupant which is
the practice peculiar to the Ayangan group.
One would see that the activities described do have a purpose. For ex-
ample, burning the vegetative cover makes the soil fertile and even re-
tards the growth of weeds. This pattern of farming, it is said, is compat-
ible with ecological principles. Can you explain how?
Quitzon says, “The Ifugao farmer maintains his muyung because he knows
that it serves as shed for the water that irrigates his fields while it provides
his lumber and firewood needs. Within its confines, pond fields are con-
structed on the knowledge that not only is water available but also that
soild fertility is equally initially taken care of and later enhanced with his
pinkul system.” This method involves putting grasses and rice stalk on
the pond beds to rot, making the soil fertile. This might well be composting.
Quitzon further observes: “Crop rotation follows the rice-mongo-camote
planting cycle and regular observance of a fallow period to allow the soil
to recover its vitality.” Given this culture-based production and philo-
sophical development framework, no extra demands are imposed upon
the productive capacity of the soil.
The choice of crop and the planting methods help control run-off and soil
erosion. For example, crops are alternately planted to enable roots to hold
the top soil. And the crop varieties chosen for planting are those that
quickly cover the soil surface.
Given these necessary conditions, one can think of introducing crop vari-
eties that are both high-yielding and compatible with the culture-based
production system of the Ifugao.
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This is how Quitzon summarizes the whole concept: “There are discern-
ible features in the Ifugao IKSPs that serve as cementing blocks to cultural
cooperation and perpetuation. These include the consciousness that some
things cannot simply be violated the essence of which is captured in the
native expression te pani-o (because it is taboo).”
It should be obvious by now that IKS spans a whole range of disciplines

from traditional medicine to ecosystem management. One of the defining
characters of IKS is that they seem to have passed the test of time, making
them a revelation in the present time especially when they are simpler
than current knowledge. Two more examples below.
l The Manggarai tribals in the forested highlands of Flores Island, Nusa

Tenggara Timor, Indonesia strongly believe in the idea of water spirits
inhabiting the springs and waterfalls of the Ruteng Mountains on the
island. They believe that if the people anger the spirits, they will aban-
don the springs and cause the water to disappear. Thus, in order to
get on the good side of the spirits, they plant special plants and trees
around the springs and waterfalls. This centuries-old belief, or super-
stition, led to the evolution of rare plant associations whose very exist-
ence mystified plant ecologists for a long time. In effect, this conserva-
tive practice based on superstition was responsible for the protection
of large tracts of critical watersheds in the district. ADB. 1995. “Inte-
grated Conservation Management Plan: Ruteng Nature Recreation
Park.” GOI-ADB Biodiversity Conservation Project in Ruteng, Flores Is-
land, NTT and Siberut Island, Western Sumatra.)
l In Siberut island in Western Sumatra more than 5,000 km from Flores

Island, the Mentawaian natives of the island group have practiced a
system of upland agriculture that departs drastically from the tradi-
tional slash-and-burn agriculture. The natives cut down trees but leave
them on the site to rot. They plant their lentils, yam, and other staples
beside the fallen trees so that they will be partially protected from the
oppressive sun. Since the natives of Siberut belong to the most back-
ward populations in the country, it is curious that they know about
the nutrients locked within the trunks of trees which are returned to
the soil by allowing them to decompose instead of being taken out to
be marketed as wood. (ADB. 1994. “Integrated Conservation Man-
agement Plan: Siberut National Park.” GOI-ADB Biodiversity Conser-
vation Project in Ruteng, Flores Island, NTT and Siberut Island, Western
Sumatra)
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IKS need not be “unique” to a culture or society. There is a difference

between “indigenous” and “endemic,” the former meaning “naturally
occurring but not exclusive to” while the latter means technically “unique
to” an area, culture or society. A case in point is the Ifugao rice terraces,
which are not unique to the Cordilleras. In fact, they are spread all over
the Malay region, mostly in Indonesia.
Traditional Media
Traditional media, also known as folk media, have been observed to play
significant roles in the promotion of new ideas. These consist of music,
puppetry, dance, drama and poetry. They are a good substitute to the
mass media when the latter are not available or accessible. For example,
during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines when the mass media
(radio and the newspapers) were under the control of the occupation
government, the folk media, used interchangeably with traditional me-
dia, were used as alternative media through which messages designed to
ridicule the oppressors were disseminated (Valbuena, 1987). Bonifacio
(1972) also observed that Philippine traditional media were used to rally
popular support for nationalist and independence movements in the
country.
The “idea of using traditional media to promote development programmes

became the subject of international discussion” came about in the 1970s
(Valbuena, 1987). In a seminar-workshop held in New Delhi in 1974,
some guiding principles were generated for the application of traditional
media for promoting development programs, as follows (reproduced from
Valbuena, 1987):
1. The folk media should be an integral part of any communication

programme for rural development. Wherever possible, these should
be integrated with mass media; but in all cases, integration with the
on-going extension work is vital.
2. The prerequisites to the use of the folk media are: a) an understanding

of the rural audience; and b) the use of these media to provide the
rural people with recreation, to attract their attention, and to ensure
their participation in developmental activities.
3. The utilization of folk media in communication programmes should

be viewed from the perspective not only of socio-economic develop-
ment but also cultural development.
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4. Folklore injects the changes that society undergoes; it should thus re-
tain social authenticity. The folk forms have evolved gradually, and
wherever they are flexible they retain their appeal to the rural people.
5. Not all folk forms can be used for developmental or population com-
munication purposes; thus they should be carefully studied from the
points of view of content and characterization for their possible ad-
aptation in order to carry developmental or population messages.
6. Folk media productions should be consistent with the needs of the

social environment and related to the customs and beliefs of the local
communities.
7. Since folk media have sociological rites (?), their utilization should be
related to local events, and their function in the local communication
strategy should be properly assigned.
8. Efforts should be made to preserve the originality of each folk form;

adaptation need not alter nor destroy the form.
9. For effective community-level communication strategy, an integrated

and planned use of both folk and mass media is necessary for achiev-
ing optimum impact and for desired feedback.
10. Collaboration between the folk artists and the media producers is ab-
solutely essential for the successful integration of folk media and mass
media communication strategies for developmental purposes.
Owing to the interest in traditional media as vehicles for developmental

messages in the 1970s, the Asian Mass Communication Research and In-
formation Centre (AMIC) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) funded in 1986 an action-research project to “ex-
plore alternative channels of communicating environmental issues.” The
project was implemented in Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand. The
results of this research were reported by Valbuena (1987) in a monograph
titled Using Traditional Media in Environmental Communication.
The five major conclusions from this research are:
1. Traditional media are able to create awareness of environmental is-

sues like deforestation, air and water pollution, community sanitation
and public health related matters. They are able to reinforce pre-exist-
ing knowledge about these issues. Furthermore, they have the poten-
tial to influence attitudes and future behavior of the audience. In part,
the report of the Philippine component of the AMIC-UNEP research
said, “The environmental messages incorporated in the theatre pre-
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sentation were remembered by the viewers, most notably on cleanli-

ness, diarrhea epidemic, etc.; this showed that not only did the audi-
ence enjoy what they saw but they also got valuable information from
it.”
2. The traditional media are effective channels of environmental mes-

sages, provided that when integrated into the mass media such inte-
gration does not harm the essence of the traditional media. In other
words, integration of folk media into the mass media must be in a
manner that will not alter the traditional media form. For example,
the Philippine component of the research pointed out that “an other-
wise traditional form such as the balagtasan can also be utilized using
the same rhyming, difficult words in the debate, but at the same time
incorporating lively, easy to understand gestures that fit the topic.”
3. The level of success in the use of traditional media as channels for

environmental concerns depends on the performers. It is wise to use
professional performers. These performers know the nuances of the
media and are able to inject the messages in their performances such
that these messages are easily caught and understood by the audience
as the performance is going on. Part of the report of the Philippine
component of the research says:
The choice of Dulaang Kamalayan, the theatre arm of the

Philippine Information Agency, to disseminate environmen-
tal messages through the traditional theatre form proved to
be a wise decision. Although it was the first time that most of
the people interviewed have seen a theatre presentation on
environment, they found it to be good. One of the possible
reasons for this is that competent performance of the actors/
actresses of the play, making their messages more credible
and comprehensible.
4. Integration of the traditional media through mass media is efficient

and effective because this expands the reach of the traditional media.
For example, televising the traditional media presentation extends the
reach of the presentation.
5. The successful use of traditional media as channels for environmental

concerns requires cooperation among various institutions, both gov-
ernment and non-government. Each of these institutions would per-
form specific roles and functions.
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SAQ 7-1
The promoters of environmentalism are normally “outsiders.” To
be effective, they must master the folk medium or at least make the
selected local performers internalize the principles to be commu-
nicated. The immediate constraints posed by this dilemma are the
element of time, the level of effort, and the degree of accuracy.
These kinds of constraints are probably not encountered as much
as when the familiar media are used by the promoters. In short,
why use folk media when “modern media” are easier to use and
much more effective? Are modern media, in this context, corrup-
tive or less acceptable than folk media?
Write your answers in the space below.
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ASAQ 7-1
Folk media and modern media need not be mutually exclusive.
While there are definite virtues and gains in preserving folk me-
dia, the intrusion of modern media need not be disruptive or cor-
ruptive. We can document folk media-based promotions and show
them on portable TV to these audiences. Like any type of knowl-
edge, if it is good, it will perpetuate itself. If not, it will be replaced
or diluted depending upon the needs of society.
Concientization
As conceptualized by Latin American priest Fr. Paolo Freire, in his book
Pedagogy of the Oppressed published in the mid-70s, concientisacion or
concientization is a framework not so much to educate as to understand
the worldview of less educated people. One needs to understand how
rural people perceive their problems and their coping mechanisms given
that, frequently, solutions to their problems that originate from outside
their realm of things do not work or are not appreciated.
Freire’s philosophical view is that to really arrive at appropriate solutions

to the poor’s problems, such solutions must come from within. In other
words, the poor themselves ought to generate solutions to their problems.
The function of external agencies must simply be to facilitate the process
by which the poor are able to arrive at their own solutions to their prob-
lems. Concientization, therefore, is also a process of self discovery, of be-
ing able to define and understand one’s strengths and weaknesses in dealing
with one’s real-world problems.
In the Philippines, Flor (Flor & Matulac, 1994) endeavored to operationalize

the concept of concientization in terms of three action modes, namely:
popular music, theater and videography.
Concienti-cancion
The use of music (in Spanish, “cancion”) as a tool to express environmen-
tal concerns is not really a new idea. The incantations of American Indi-
ans, for example, contain messages on the environment. But the idea of
using popular music as a vehicle for highlighting environmental issues is
of recent vintage. According to Flor and Matulac (1994), the need to pro-
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vide popular music alternatives for the youth has prompted the growth
of the alternative music movement. Alternative music, according to
Caruncho (1992), is usually equated with protest music. According to
Flor and Matulac (1994), alternative songs “concienticize its listeners to
social and ecological realities.” The combined effects of both the music
and the lyrics serve to raise the collective consciousness and make it aware
of the people’s social agenda.
Alternative music still has not gained a strong foothold in mainstream

Philippine society. But it has ad hoc type successes. Efforts to raise the
Filipino’s consciousness about environmental issues through music per-
haps started with Paul Galang. Flor and Matulac (1994) explain the role
of Galang in the development of concienti-cancion in the Philippines, as
follows:
Paul Galang is one of the forerunners and leaders of what we now

call the conscienti-cancion movement. He and Jess Santiago started
serenading student groups during the mid-seventies with socially
relevant Pilipino songs. This proved to be in sharp contrast to Rico
J. Puno’s inane Taglish versions of American hits characteristic of
Orginal Pilipino Music trends then. Paul Galang wrote and sang
about the pollution of Laguna Lake, the danger of nuclear energy
wastes and the plight of indigenous people in the Cordillera.
In 1990, Galang formed the Pambansang Koalisyon ng Musikong

Pilipino Artists’ Foundation or PAKOMPIL (National Coalition of
Pilipino Music Artists’ Foundation). One of PAKOMPIL’s earliest
projects was an environmental song festival launched on Earth
Day 1990. This activity produced eight environmental songs which
were later compiled into a cassette album, Mga Kuwentong Aray
(Ouch! Stories). These songs were eventually translated into Japa-
nese and released in Japan.
Concienti-accion
This is the conscious effort to use theater as a tool for raising people’s
consciousness about the environment. Initial efforts at understanding this
technique as it applies to Philippine conditions perhaps started with the
research done by Andrion (1993), a drama teacher at the National Arts
Center who for his master’s thesis in development communication devel-
oped a framework, methodology and test procedures for concienti-accion.
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Andrion’s study was premised on the fact that individuals respond dif-
ferently to environmental conditions; they define environmental issues
differently. The question that he set out to tackle was: Is there a creative
way for individuals to identify and define environmental issues and prob-
lems?
Andrion’s study was based on a combination of conscientization and the-

ater arts to form an interdisciplinary learning process with the following
stages of human development: a) the individual explores himself and com-
poses his character according to his awareness, positive self-concept, ap-
propriate behavior, personal responsibility and creativity; b) he examines
his social/personal capacities; c) he pursues the process upon satisfying
his personal and social needs and actualizes this satisfaction into action.
In practical terms, Andrion set out to describe how concienti-accion elic-
ited creativity among his respondents, students of the Philippine High
School for the Arts, to identify and define environmental issues/prob-
lems, and formulate plans of action regarding these issues and problems.
Andrion’s research found that:
1. The learning experiences of students pointed out three levels of aware-

ness—awareness of himself, of others, and of his environment;
2. Creativity was enhanced as awareness increased;
3. Problem documentation and energizers (clipping interaction, poem

reading, and song interaction) enabled respondents to select, identify,
and define different environmental issues like garbage disposal, de-
forestation, soil erosion, mountain denudation, water and air pollu-
tion; and
4. Improvisations in drama, writing, visual, sound and music, energiz-

ers, and reflection/discussion were used in determining the serious-
ness of environmental issues and formulation of solutions and plans
of action.
Andrion observed that concienti-accion enhanced the respondents’ cre-

ativity in identifying and defining environmental issues/problems, in es-
timating the seriousness of the issues/problems, and in planning the nec-
essary solutions or plans of action on these issues and problems.
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Concienti-vision
Flor and Matulac (1994) provide a brief account of the historical back-
ground of concienti-vision, which is the use of the video medium accord-
ing to the basic philosophy and concerns of concientization as originally
conceptualized by Freire. This is what they said:
Conscientization using the video medium traces its roots to an ex-

periment conducted in Canada during the sixties. Fogo Island is
one of the most depressed areas within the Commonwealth of
Canada. Situated off Notre Dame Bay, the island is chiefly popu-
lated by farm families. In 1967, a film crew from the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation visited Fogo to film a documentary on
the islanders’ poverty. What resulted was a television feature which
presented a superficial and at times erroneous depiction of Fogo
life. The film documentary was essentially a subjective interpreta-
tion and, hence, a creation of the film maker’s mind.
This generated a lot of resentment from local officials who knew of

the genuine situation in Fogo. To present what they felt was a more
accurate picture of poverty in Fogo, Colin Low of the Agricultural
Extension Service approached a Canadian film maker, Don
Snowden, known for his documentary work. They collaborated
on a film that eventually had a very profound, and yet uninten-
tional effect on the subjects of the film and their community.
After completing production, Low and Snowden showed the film

to the Fogo Islanders for review. In the process, the islanders be-
came conscientisized to their plight. A series of retakes, additional
shooting and reviews eventually led to action and social mobiliza-
tion. The communities of Fogo became more integrated and less
factionalized, more conscious of their social realities and less apa-
thetic to government initiatives.
The power of video to highlight a social issue is very clear. But this is true
only if it is done properly. Briefly, this is how you can effectively use video
to conscientisize people about the environment.
1. Make sure that members of the community are involved in the process
of conceptualizing and producing the video documentary.
2. Assemble the footages into a cohesive presentation that tells the story
acurately.
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3. Ask the members of the community to view the documentary and

then ask them to react to what they have seen. Allow them to clarify
the causes of the problem if they know what the causes are. Ask them
to suggest solutions that they would be willing to implement them-
selves.
This procedure, according to Flor and Matulac (1994), has the power to
force environmental issues right into the social agenda of the community.
In other words, it brings environmental issues and concerns into the con-
sciousness of the members of the community. Eventually, these individual
consciousnesses would constitute what we may call the community con-
sciousness.
Grassroots video for concienti-accion. Grassroots video (Librero, 1987) is the

use of video technology to promote environmentalism at the community
level. It is interactive, personalized and localized.
Basically, grassroots video intends to highlight critical issues as they are

encountered by the people themselves. Therefore, what is emphasized on
video are problems, frustrations, solutions to problems, aspirations and
values which are defined by the people themselves in terms of their actual
lifestyles and social interaction. Moreover, the people are involved from
conceptualization to production to presentation to evaluation of the video
program.
How do you produce a video program that has the elements of

conscientization?
1. As a video producer, you start with complete immersion in the com-

munity that you want to feature. The idea is that you must be totally
familiar with the lifestyles and social structure of the community.
2. Interact with the local people, discuss with them the video project,
and flesh out their ideas about the kind of video program they want to
bring to the fore. The people must be given an opportunity to contrib-
ute their ideas. In producing the video, the people themselves are the
performers. The nature of the production is such that it follows the
cinema direct technique so that there is a minimum use, if at all, of
structured script. In other words, let the video itself tell the story.
The cinema direct is a technique of film making where you don’t follow a
pre-determined structure such as a formal production script. You simply
shoot your footages and let a story unfold without benefit of a script.
Hence, there are no narrations or musical scoring. This means that your
storyline is actually in your head.
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3. In shooting the footages, bear in mind that the local people must be
completely involved. In fact, you may consider yourself as simply re-
cording events as they are unfolding.
4. Post production activities may be done in a studio where there is edit-

ing hardware. However, as much as possible, it should be done in the
community so that the people will be able to suggest which footages
ought to be included in the final production.
5. When the video program is completed, it must be shown in its entirety

to the local people, who must be asked whether or not they agree with
the messages.
The residents of a barangay where garbage is normally scattered on the

streets all the time would probably not seriously think that they have a
solid waste management problem because they are so used to dirty and
filthy roads. They would simply dismiss the whole situation until some-
one else points out to them through a video, for example, that there is a
better condition that they probably would prefer—having clean streets all
the time. When they do realize this, then they will hopefully realize that
yes, indeed, solid waste management is a serious problem in their com-
munity. This is something that grassroots video would easily be able to
do.
At best, grassroots video can instill in the community residents’ conscious-

ness a sense of concern, responsibility, belongingness, achievement, im-
portance and purpose. When this happens, then they are ready to act
and solve their own environmental problems in the community.
Activity 7-3
The principle of concientization is at the core of the Capability
Building Exercise (CBX) developed by the Development Academy
of the Philippines (DAP) as a training model used effectively by
the Career Executive Service Development Program (CESDP) of
the Career Executive Service Board (CESB) during the Marcos re-
gime. DAP was the training arm of the CESB. The CESDP was
formed to develop highly skilled and effective managers or Career
Executive Service Officers (CESOs) of the Philippine bureaucracy.
The CBX was field-tested in the CESDP’s barrio immersion train-
ing modules, wherein trainee teams were let loose in selected “poor”
barangays to practice the theoretical concepts of the CBX.
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The trainees, who were at least middle managers (some were

undersecretaries) were not allowed to bring into the host barangay
the resources of their respective offices or their personal resources.
They were thoroughly prepared to deal with anticipated prob-
lems. Their mission was to help the host community evolve to a
higher level of social involvement, make them aware of their prob-
lems by their own recognition, and let them propose and work out
the solutions to their community problems. They utilized behav-
ioral techniques to effect the cognitive process of problem identifi-
cation, and render active guidance in the community’s efforts to
implement the proposed solutions. For example, they taught the
community leaders how to obtain resources from government agen-
cies, how to register with the Securities and Exchange Commis-
sion if they decided to form cooperatives or cause-oriented organi-
zations, how to prepare simple plans for community development
projects, how to and where to apply for loans to fund their projects,
and other meaningful assistance interventions.
However, the CBX is not applicable in communities that are so

poor the people are completely preoccupied with day-to-day ex-
istence. This is actually consistent with Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs—people who have not met their most basic needs have nei-
ther the time nor the interest to participate in community life and
development.
It takes about seven weeks of full-time immersion to complete the

assistance objectives of the CBX. After that time, the trainees (CBX
change agents) leave the barangay and resume their executive train-
ing in other topics.
Questions:
1. Without bringing in material resources to assist the commu-

nity, why would the people seriously deal with the trainees?
2. Trust must be built before the villagers can begin to pin their
hopes on the trainees. What do you suppose the trainees did or
equipped themselves with in order to generate this trust so rap-
idly? If you were a trainee, what possible entry points do you
suppose you would look for in order to gain quick acceptance
by the community?
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3. If the trainees leave after only 7 weeks, it is possible that the

community was unnecessarily awakened only to be left hang-
ing in limbo. Do you think it is right for the CBX program to
abandon the barangay so soon? If you were the director of the
CBX, what would you do?
4. What would be a key activity to get the community to start

recognizing their community problems
5. What initial projects do you suppose the community is likely

to embark on to gel community support and cooperation?
6. Do you think the CBX exemplifies and carries out the prin-
ciples of conscientization? Why or why not?
In answering the questions, you are guided only by the principles of

concientization. You are free to make additional assumptions about the
host community or for that matter, you may assign a specific community
with known attributes provided (and this is the key) it is not too margin-
ally poor.
Conscientization is diametrically opposed to the traditional politician’s

approach on the campaign trail, to wit: “This is your problem. The solu-
tion is more roads, more bridges, more schools, etc.” Allowing people to
perceive and verbalize their own problems and eventually propose solu-
tions arrived at through an active and democratic process is far more
rewarding than the “trapo” solution. They find an inward sense of achieve-
ment and benefit from meaningful processes that they can readily har-
ness and sustain. This is analogous to the Biblical teaching, “If you give a
man a fish, you feed him for one day. If you teach him how to fish, you
feed him for the rest of his life.”
Carrying out the process of conscientization suggests a conscious struc-

ture that features an array of possible interventions. The appropriateness
and timing of interventions to effect the desired change constitutes the
techniques or the “bag of tricks,” so to speak, of the change agents. It may
sound like there is a conscious effort to manipulate the respondent hosts,
but it is all part of the development change package. This example of the
oft-quoted saying, “The end justifies the means”. The manipulative effort
is technically integral to, or in most cases, identical to, the active interven-
tions carried out by the change agents.
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In the case of the CBX, it is unthinkable that a hitherto complacent host

community would readily accept a team of strangers in so short a time
without some amount of “priming” by the CBX organizers. In real life,
such priming actually occurs as when a new infrastructure project of the
government is initiated in an area. If the preparatory project negotiations
between the organizers and the affected communities are done properly,
one would expect a certain amount of guarded enthusiasm from these
communities.
Considering the short period of time to effect the desired change by the
CBX, the change agents must dig deep in their bag of tricks to quickly find
a suitable entry point to gain immediate acceptance. There are no hard
and fast rules here. The change agents are trained well for this require-
ment. One approach could be a socio-economic survey which, designed
properly, can provide an opportunity for the change agents to fan out
and interact actively with the residents while generating vital informa-
tion about the host community.
A moral question always arises from the exercise of CBX. Is it right to

leave the host community so soon after they have been awakened to a
new beginning? Perhaps, we should also ask, is it more moralistic to leave
this community completely undisturbed not knowing that they actually
hold the future in their hands and that they need only a few learnings to
change the course of their lives for good? Surely, this moral dilemma is
more likely to occur at the level of the change agents than at the level of
the host. This dilemma emanates from the phobia of starting something
and not being sure of a good outcome. Consider that what the change
agents attempt to accomplish is like sowing seeds. If the seeds are good
and viable, they will germinate, be nurtured, and tended to fruition. Ei-
ther way, the host community comes out wiser. Afterall, CBX is not sell-
ing false aspirations- only the realization that community folk have suffi-
cient resources and potential to change their life for good. It only needs
the right push to make them see that this is possible. It is a simple and
elegant philosophy and to think that it can be done without the change
agents bringing in material resources is certainly innovative by any stan-
dard.
Host communities are quick to grasp the potential gains from the CBX’s
conscientization process. In one host barangay in Western Batangas, the
community quickly formed an organization composed of their true lead-
ers (not their formal leaders). They then registered their newly-formed
group as a multi-purpose cooperative and in due time obtained a DBP
loan to develop the barangay’s drinking water system. Actually, the first
formal project carried out by this barangay, even before the change agents
could leave, was to construct a multi-purpose barangay hall which they
used as a practice activity to generate assistance from nearby government
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agencies. They accomplished the project in one week and were so elated
by their success that they immediately set out to achieve more ambitious
projects like their water system. [Ginto at Yaman ng Sinisian (GINYAMAN)
of Sinisian West, Lemery Batangas. CESDP Phase 2 Session2 Host Barangay,
1979.]
At this point, as a closing episode to this topic, it might be worthwhile to

cite a touching example of what conscientization can bring to a commu-
nity. The host barangay cited above, before they formed GINYAMAN,
was faced with a problem that threatened not only to dismember their
territory but also to undermine their self esteem. The main barangay con-
sists of the “barrio” by the highway and several “sitios” in outlying but
more remote areas. One of these sitios is Balok-balok that almost strides
the boundary with the other barangay (Sinisian East). Because of the stag-
nation of community life in Sinisian West, the folk of Sitio Balok-balok
have decided to secede and join the other barangay. It needed only the
formal agreement of the residents of the main barrio. It was, to the leader-
ship of the main barrio, a disconcerting situation. The new leaders plus
the formal leaders immediately set out to brainstorm the problem. What
they came up with amazed even the CBX change agents who were there
at the time. Balok-balok residents have to cross a half-kilometer bullcart
road to get to a waiting point on the highway along a 200-meter empty
stretch. The residents of the main barrio contributed materials and labor
to construct a waiting shed along the highway for the Balok-balok resi-
dents. When the structure was completed, it was obvious that the shed
was not for the main barrio residents but for the Balok-balok folk who
were so deeply touched by the gesture. They immediately arranged a
meeting with the main barrio to reciprocate the gesture and announced
that they no longer wanted to secede. In that meeting, teary-eyed folk
overcome with joy bilaterally pledged and re-affirmed their loyalties to
each other. What a simple gesture can do to mend differences and renew
old ties! This incident took place during the course of the leadership training
of the GINYAMAN leaders. Since the CBX change agents took no part in
the framing of the subtle solution, it was a humbling experience for them
as well as an eye-opener to conscientization at work! [From the first-hand
account of a member of the CBX Team of CESDP Phase 2 Session 2, 1979.
Members of the CBX Team included Susan Saballa, Jerry Canonizado, Virgilio
Sevandal, Dong Reyes, and Glenda Andes. CBX Program Director - Soledad
Hernando. CESDP Program Director - Carmencita Abella]
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References
Andrion, Junivic A. 1993. Effectiveness of Conscienti-action for Environmen-

tal Awareness. M.S. Thesis. University of the Philippines Los Banos.
Bonifacio, Amelia R. 1972. The “Seditious” Tagalog Playwrights: Early
American Occupation. Manila: Zarzuela Foundation of the Philippines.
Calanog, Lope A. 1997. Indegenous knowledge systems and biodiversity
conservation: two sides of the same coin. Application of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems in Sustainable Upland Development. College, Laguna:
Forestry Development Center. pp. 132-142.
Caruncho, Eric. 1992. Troubadour for troubled times. The Sunday Inquirer
Magazine. Manila. April 22, 1992.
Castro, Charles P. 1997. Enchanted trees, sacred groves and forest fairies:
a sampling of folk beliefs and practices associated with forests. Appli-
cation of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Sustainable Upland Develop-
ment. College, Laguna: Forestry Edevelopment Center. pp. 107-130.
Flor, Alexander G. n.d. Environmental Communication: Principles, Strate-
gies and Approaches to Communication Applied to environmental Man-
agement. Draft book Manuscript.
Flor, Alexander G. and Luningning A. Matulac. 1994. Cultural Dimen-
sions of Environmental Information, Education and Communication in the
Philippines. College, Laguna: Institute of Environmental Science and
Management.
Librero, Felix. 1999. Environmental communication in the Philippines:
what the research says. The Journal of Development Communication,
9(1):46-53.
__________. 1987. Grassroots video is participatory. Concept paper writ-
ten for the Philippine Information Agency, 31 March 1987.
Serrano, Rogelio C. 1997. Status and importance of indigenous knowl-
edge systems in the Philippines. Application of Indigenous Knowledge
Systems in Sustainable Upland Development. College, Laguna: Forestry
Development Center. pp. 22-27.
Valbuena, Victor T. 1987. Using Traditional Media in Environmental Com-
munication. Singapore: AMIC.
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Annex A
Case Studies on Indigenous Knowledge Systems
in the Philippines
CASE 1: Enchanted Trees, Sacred Groves and Forest Fairies: A Sampling

of Folk Beliefs and Practices Associated With Forests by Charles
P. Castro
CASE 2: Indigenous Social Forestry for Sustainable Upland Develop-

ment: Nuggets From Ifugao by Sharon C. Quitzon
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Module 8
Environmental Lobbying
I n the preceding modules, we discussed en

vironmental advocacy approaches and
strategies directed at “ordinary” people, or
Objectives
people like you and me. The advocacy cam- At the end of this module you
paigns we discussed target mainly individu- will be able to:
als, by themselves or in groups, like families
and small communities. The need to sensitize 1. Explain environmental
“ordinary” folk to environmental concerns lobbying as a strategy in
needs no explanation. But this is not all there environmental advo-
is to environmental advocacy. For one thing, cacy;
environmental problems are caused not only 2. Be familiar with interna-
by ordinary folk (who, by the way, contrib- tional environmental
ute a great deal to it, particularly to solid waste law and legal instru-
problems) but also by industries, both public ments; and
and private. For the movement to save the en- 3. Summarize global and
vironment to succeed, governments must like- regional policy re-
wise get involved. There must be pro-environ- sponses to international
ment changes in national as well as interna- lobbying for the environ-
tional policy. ment.
In this module, we will discuss environmen-

tal lobbying as a strategy in environmental advocacy. This strategy has
led to policy action in favor of the environment and has been actively
pursued on an international scale.
Environmental Lobbying Defined

Lobbying can be defined as the process of putting pressure on members of
the legislature for them to pass a bill of local or national interest. Lobbying
for the environment deals with getting lawmakers to pass laws that ad-
dress critical environmental issues such as laws on proper management
of municipal solid waste and industrial waste and laws against illegal
logging, illegal fishing, etc. While laws about the environment are en-
acted at various levels (e.g., at the barangay or village level, the municipal
level, the provincial, the national), they are based on broad, global or in-
ternational agreements such as the Rio Declaration. In the Philippines,
environmental lobbying is relatively new. There are few environmental
organizations actively lobbying for the passage of bills that can actually
contribute something to the conservation of our resources. Are you aware
of how to go about lobbying for a bill to be passed? Do you know of the
three Ws (who, why, where) and one H (how) of environmental lobbying
in the Philippines?
Who can lobby?

Any individual or organized group can lobby for the passage of a bill. As
long as the bill is relevant and backed up by necessary information and
data, then it has a chance to be placed in the statute books. It is much
more practical, however, to find allies. You must look for people whose
convictions are the same as your own. Your group must be passionate,
tenacious and creative. You must also be good at marketing. Lobbying is
akin to sales talk—you must convince your Senator to back your bill and
get it signed into a Republic Act.
Why lobby?
The more pertinent question would be ‘why not?’ It is political, ethical
and in some cases, criminal, negligence not to bring to the legislature’s
attention environmental concerns. We need to lobby for sanctions against
illegal loggers and dynamite fishers; we need a monitoring system for
bioprospectors; we need laws to protect our remaining resources. For sadly,
where the environment is concerned, it is not enough that we do our little
bit to save it in our own backyard, as it were. For example, even if you
segregated your household waste, if others in your neighborhood did not
do so, then your efforts will be for naught. Or even if your whole neigh-
borhood did segregate its waste, but the city has not provided for a waste
disposal program by means of a law or policy, which among others will
allocate resources for it, then waste disposal will still be a very real prob-
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lem. As for loggers and other organized exploiters of environmental re-

sources, unless a law expressly prohibits what they do and imposes the
appropriate penalties, why would they stop what they are doing, given
how “profitable” it often is for them to exploit natural resources?
Where do we lobby?
In the Philippines, you must lobby at both Houses of Congress—the House
of Representatives and the Senate. Because of the bicameral nature of our
legislature, the bill will eventually be taken up in both forums. However,
generally, most national interest bills are filed at the Senate because the
concern of the House of Representatives are bills of local interest.
How do we lobby?
Once you have a set agenda—a proposal supported by data and research—
you can begin looking for a Senator and a Congressman who will sponsor
it in the form of a bill (to be filed separately in the House of Representa-
tives and the Senate).After filing, the bill will undergo its first reading and
is then assigned to the committee chair on the environment in both cham-
bers of Congress. It is here that lobbyists are needed again. Since commit-
tee chairs schedule bills for public hearings, it would be wise for lobbyists
to continually pressure them and their members to act on the bill. If lobby-
ists do not enter at this juncture it is highly likely that the bill will be set
aside for an indefinite period of time. Once the committee on the environ-
ment has acted upon the bill initially, the bill will undergo its second read-
ing. The sponsor or principal sponsor—in the case of various sponsors—
will then defend the bill through the interpellation process. This is the
process whereby lawmakers that find the bill of particular interest will
propose amendments. These will undergo discussion and will be incorpo-
rated into the bill should the sponsor find it relevant and useful, and to
secure the vote of the interpellator as well.The final version of the bill will
now be drafted by the Secretariat and sent back to Congress for the third
and final reading. It is here that lawmakers will vote on whether to pass
or junk the proposed bill.Once both chambers vote upon the bill favorably
(they do so separately), the bill is presented in the bicameral session to
make sure there are no inconsistencies between the House and Senate
versions. Amendments can still be incorporated at this stage. If all goes
well, the bill becomes a Republic Act and is presented to both chambers
separately before being sent to the president for signing.Aside from per-
sistence on the part of lobbyers, they need money to finance media cover-
age and ad campaigns that will make sure people are aware of what is
happening to the bill in question.
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Activity 8-1
Find out how the Clean Air Act came to be enacted by the House
and the Senate. Take note of who sponsored the bill. How many
groups supported it. Were there opposing groups lobbying against
it? Who were these groups? What were their reasons for wanting
the bill rejected? What strategies did the lobbyists for the bill un-
dertake to get it enacted? Finally, what is the status of the imple-
mentation of the Clean Air Act presently?It would be prudent of
you to conduct this research even if it’s not one of your assign-
ments. The topic of the Clean Air Act can be asked by your fac-
ulty-in-charge during your final exam. More importantly, no envi-
ronmentalist (which I hope you all are) worth his/her salt should
remain ignorant of this landmark in our legislative history.
The International Context of Environmental

Lobbying
The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Envi-
ronment held at Stockholm on 5-16 June 1972, almost 30 years ago, states
among others that “The protection of the human environment is a major
issue that affects the well-being of peoples and economic development
throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of the peoples of the world
and the duty of all Governments.”The first part of the statement hardly
needs explanation. It is fairly obvious that the protection of the environ-
ment has significant (to say the least) effects on well-being and economic
development. To put it more graphically, we can wreak damage to our
environment only to our own peril. But this is a truth that is easier paid lip
service to than acted upon. Often the desire for economic gains from ex-
ploiting the environment is too strong for people and governments to re-
sist. It is very hard for many governments to balance their nation’s eco-
nomic needs with their environmental concerns. And if asked to choose,
most underdeveloped and developing nations have, can and will choose
the former over the latter. What’s more is that such nations are well within
their rights (legally speaking that is) to do so. The Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development enacted in 1992 recognizes that:States
have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the prin-
ciples of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own re-
sources pursuant to their own environmental and development policies,
and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction
and control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of
areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. (Principle 2) Ah, there’s
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the rub in the last clause of the sentence. Arguably, because the environ-
ment is so interconnected and national boundaries with respect to most
environmental resources are more real in the minds of people than in fact
(the classic example is air which, notwithstanding national boundaries
on air space, is really a “seamless” whole), what people do in one part of
the world will have an impact, in the long run, on other parts of the
world. You have studied in the past that environmental problems are
never isolated. Their effects are far reaching, spatially and temporally.
For example, heavy release of toxic pollutants in the air can travel far
distances because of wind. These pollutants have a high probability of
settling over an area that is pristine and untouched. The damage is enor-
mous if the pollutants come in the form of acid rain. Another example:
The hole in the ozone layer that is causing global warming may be caus-
ing, in turn, the melting of our polar ice caps. If this happens, our world’s
oceans may rise and flood the coastlines of many continents, wiping out
cities and some island nations. This damage to life, property and land
resources would be immeasurable.This is why we need to address envi-
ronmental problems collectively. To refer back to the Rio Declaration, the
statement on the right of states to exploit their own resources as stated in
Principle 2 is premised on the recognition of “the integral and interdepen-
dent nature of the Earth, our home” and is qualified by subsequent state-
ments (Principles 3-27) in support of sustainable development (the key
concept in the Rio Declaration) and international cooperation in this re-
gard. Principle 4, in particular, states: “In order to achieve sustainable
development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part
of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from
it.” Principles 6 and 7 articulate the complex partnership between devel-
oping and developed countries with respect to the protection of the envi-
ronment, thus:
Principle 6
The special situation and needs of developing countries, particu-
larly the least developed and those most environmentally vulner-
able, shall be given priority. International actions in the field of
environment and development should also address the interests
and needs of all countries.
Principle 7
States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve,
protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosys-
tem. In view of the different contributions to environmental deg-
radation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities.
The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they
bear in the international pursuit to (sic) sustainable development
in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environ-
ment ad of the technologies and financial resources they command.
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Agenda 21 and the declarations for the environment before it (such as the
Stockholm Declaration and the Nairobi Declaration) are given teeth by
the enactment of several international agreements and instruments that
together constitute the international environmental law. The task of pro-
moting and developing international environmental law is assigned to
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Activity 8-2
Attached to this module are excerpts from Agenda 21 on environ-
mental law and legal international mechanisms (Annex A) and
excerpts from the United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP) website on international environmental legal instruments
(Annex B). Read these carefully to gain understanding of what
national governments must focus on in customizing these interna-
tional concerns to fit the national situation and be able to explain
the need for international environmental law and why it is im-
perative that there be a governing body monitoring the efforts of
UN member countries. Also, in the UNEP documents included
here several environmental legal instruments are mentioned.
1. Do research on the difference between binding and non-bind-

ing instruments.
2. Which conventions is the Philippines a signatory to?
3. To what extent do Philippine laws comply with these conven-
tions?
4. Get more information on the Basel Convention on
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Dis-
posal, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Con-
vention on International Trade in Endangered Species (or all
of the conventions mentioned, if you wish).
You may find these topics brought up in your final exam so it is

worth studying them thoroughly.
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Global Policy Responses to Environmental

Advocacy
As a result of international lobbying over the last three decades, some
headway is being made in the protection and preservation of the environ-
ment, as Chapter 3 of Geo 2000 will show. Read the portion of this chap-
ter titled “Global and regional synthesis” (Annex D) and take careful note
of the challenges faced by environmental institutions in the face of inter-
national and national legislation. Make sure you familiarize yourself with
the reasons for the problems in responding, policy-wise, to global envi-
ronmental issues.Then read the portion on Asia and the Pacific (Annex
D). We decided to include this particular portion of the chapter to em-
phasize that efforts to address environmental issues in the Philippines
must take into account the rest of the region of which our country is a
part. Geographic proximity should be sufficient reason for this. In addi-
tion, there are ties that bind countries in the Asia-Pacific economically,
socially, politically and culturally. One government’s actions invariably
have an immediate effect on the others. Politically, in the international
scene, bonding together gives developing countries greater bargaining
power. And it goes without saying that this is relevant to environmental
policy responses as well. To cite a concrete example, an international
embargo on wood cut from unmanaged forests with a deadline for na-
tional implementation can kill the logging industry of the entire ASEAN
member countries. The embargo is undoubtedly justified by the need for
forest conservation. But without consideration of the region’s peculiari-
ties, this decision will do great economic damage to already suffering na-
tions like ours. Carefully read the chapter from GEO 2000 and compare
how our region fares against the global situation which you read in An-
nex D. It is critical that you examine what state our policy actions are in,
what it is we are emphasizing at this point, and what environmental
concerns we need to pay more attention to. Take note of the kind of sup-
port for the cause of the environment that is provided by our laws and
institutions, the economic instruments now in place, how environmental
action is financed, and whether there is adequate public participation in
supporting environmental policies.
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Unit II
Approaches and Strategies in
It is said that advocacy can be very effective if it involves all groups and
sectors of society. “Advocacy is most effective when, besides mass media,
individuals and groups and all sectors of society are engaged in this pro-
cess.” (Servaes, 1994)
This is the reason why in this Unit we are focusing on various approaches
to and strategies in environmental advocacy designed to awaken political
commitment and provide empowerment to people: the IEC and social
marketing approaches, conventional development communication strat-
egies, indigenization strategies and environmental lobbying.
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Module 9
Designing An Environmental
Advocacy Plan Of Action
W e operate on the assumption that a

simple plan of action is easier to imple-
ment than a complicated one. Furthermore, a
Objectives
simple plan of action is likely to be more ef- At the end of this module,
fective and efficient. you’ll be able to:
This module puts emphasis on seven critical 1. Apply the approaches

elements that ought to be included in any and strategies to envi-
advocacy plan of action. This however, does ronmentalism that
not mean that other concerns not among these you’ve learned in previ-
seven elements are unimportant. ous modules;
2. Evaluate the effective-
ness and appropriate-
What is the Problem? ness of these approaches
and strategies in the
Everything starts with the question, “What is design of an environ-
the problem?”. We must be able to define ex- mental advocacy plan of
actly what the problem is. This is rather diffi- action or campaign; and
cult to do in the field of environment where 3. Design an environmen-
the issues are rarely mutually exclusive. They tal advocacy campaign
are all related one way or another so that of your own.
when we define what a problem might be,
invariably we deal with a whole lot of con-
cerns that sometimes need to be tackled at the same time. However, we
cannot always tackle multiple problems in one sitting. Perhaps it would
help if we look at environmental problems in terms of blocks of concerns
or issues¾e.g., garbage management, reforestation, sewage systems, haz-

ardous wastes, coral reef management, and the like. If we do this, then
we may be able to focus our attention and perhaps use limited resources
more efficiently.
Our definition of the problem should include all the specific elements or
components that we consider part of the problem. This paints a clear
picture of the problem itself, including the associated issues involved. In
other words, we deal with environmental issues holistically.
For instance, a polluted lake is one whose water is greenish or blackish

due to chemicals and where fish and even weeds do not survive, where
there is fishkill almost weekly and the water stinks. The lake does not
have an outlet so dirty water cannot be washed out and replaced by fresh
rain water, and when you bathe in it you feel itchy and smell like garbage
water. An example of a polluted lake is Laguna Lake. This example is a
clear definition of lake pollution.
Who Is Your Key Audience?

Remember our discussion on social marketing? We talked then about tar-
get adopters. Well, social marketing’s target adopters are the same as the
key audience.
The audiences of an advocacy plan of action, or communication cam-

paign if you will, may be better understood if we group them into seg-
ments. The priority audience groupings depend largely on the specific
topic of the advocacy campaign. However, in general, we can classify our
audience groupings into general categories as follows.
Policy and decision makers. This group consists of legislators and execu-
tive officials at the national and local levels. It is very important that con-
cerned environmental groups reach the policy-makers (legislators) because
these are the people who craft laws and ordinances that are the bases for
environmental programs. The decision-makers (national and local execu-
tives) have very important roles and functions because they are the ones
tasked to implement the laws and ordinances on environmental issues.
Schools. The schools have a unique role and function in promoting envi-
ronmentalism. The most important role of the schools is perhaps the inte-
gration of environmental concepts in the curricular programs at all levels.
School programs where teachers and students are expected to participate
must, one way or the other, include environment-related activities. That
is to say, environmental concerns may be clearly included in all school
programs and activities, whether curricular in nature or otherwise.
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Media organizations. The social influence of the media cannot be doubted.

Media reaches all age and education levels so they have the capacity to
influence a cross-section of society. Thus, they play a significant role in
promoting environmentalism.
Youth organizations. When it comes to promoting environmental con-

cerns perhaps the most active groups are the youth groups. Operating on
the principle of peer pressure, youth groups have the great potential of
influencing the youth of the land. This group must have access to envi-
ronmental knowledge that it can spread to its sector.
General public. We can specify our groupings when we design the envi-
ronmental project we would like to undertake. These specific groups are
hereby subsumed in the category general public. This audience sector, by
the way, is a recipient not only of any specific campaign directed to the
general public but also of campaigns that are directed to specific audience
segments. Too, this audience sector can participate in reaching out to spe-
cific sectors that need to be reached.
What Are Your Objectives?

Nature of Objectives
Objectives are very specific statements about what we want to achieve
under certain conditions. According to most management experts, any
statement of objectives must have five critical characteristics, as follows:
Time boundedness. You must be able to achieve the objective within a

specific period of time.
Observability. You must be able to observe what you intend to accom-

plish.
Measurability. You must be able to measure what it is that you want to

achieve.
Achievability. Your objective must be achievable.
Simplicity. Your objective would be clearer if it is simply stated.
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Given these traits of an objective, we can perhaps state an objective about

reforestation, as follows:
To be able to plant 1,000 mahogany seedlings in one hectare in five days.
Time frame? Five days.

Observability? You can see the seedlings and the land.
Measurability? You can count the number of seedlings, and
measure the land planted to mahogany
seedlings.
Achievability? Yes, one or more persons can do it in five days.
Simply stated? The objective statement seems straightforward.
ABCD of environmental advocacy objectives

This is another way of stating objectives. Consider the following:
Audience: Who are your audiences?
Behavior: What do you want your audience to be able to

demonstrate?
Condition: When do you want to begin observing this

behavior in your audience and under what
conditions?
Degree: To what extent or degree is your audience able

to demonstrate the behavior expected of them?
Like 9 out of 10?
Example: By December 31, 2000, all drivers of passenger

jeepneys plying the Calamba-Los Baños route
shall have installed a covered plastic garbage
container in their respective vehicles.
What Is Your Specific Advocacy Strategy?

If we are dealing with a very specific topic, then we must use a specific
strategy¾that is, much more specific than what we discussed in Module
5. What I mean is that we should employ a combination of methods, mes-
sages, and techniques by which we want to achieve our advocacy objec-
tive.
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In our example above, we want drivers of passenger jeepneys plying the

Calamba Los Baños route to install covered plastic garbage containers in
their jeepneys by the end of December 31, 2000. This particular objective
can be achieved in various ways. But since our model for environmental
advocacy is based on the communication campaign, then let us employ
communication methods. According to experts, there are four ways of
reaching our audiences. We can inform, educate, persuade or entertain
them. Or, we can do all four at the same time.
Now let’s take a break. Do some stretches, get something to eat, then
come back and do the activity below.
Activity 9-1
Solid waste management advocacy projects usually have clear-
cut objectives, well-identified target audiences, and carefully cho-
sen strategies. For example, the Solid Waste Management Project
of the Municipality of Los Baños is trying to achieve full solid waste
segregation in three years. The target audiences are individual
households, business establishments, and the Los Baños Science
Community (LBSC) institutions. In your judgment, what would
be the component strategies of this project objective? Rank the fol-
lowing according to their relative effectiveness and achievability.
l Prior to and during initial implementation, launch a vigorous

information and education campaign on solid waste segrega-
tion using the local cable operator, radio programs, barangay
level seminars, posters, leaflets and brochures, and rolling public
address systems, among others.
l Enlist official institutional support from LBSC institutions
l Privatize garbage collection
l Set up pilot barangay composting centers
l Develop new dumpsites/landfills
l Purchase new garbage trucks
l Strengthen enforcement of waste segregation with focus at the
barangay level
l Setup collection areas for recyclables and pay for such items
brought in
l Hold an annual Cleanest Barangay Contest
l Sponsor a Solid Waste Management Slogan Contest
l Construct kennels for confining stray animals
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l Construct a special jail for litterbugs

l Hire environmental consultants from UPLB
l Develop and enforce a system of credits and penalties for proper
waste segregation at the household level
For this exercise, you do not need to have an intimate knowledge

of the Los Baños situation. When you consider a specific strategy,
just rely on your professional assessment of why you think it should
or should not be pursued. This exercise is intended to provide you
a spectrum of possible approaches that you can examine to rein-
force your action planning skills.

The list above is only a partial list of all possible strategies to get the
population of Los Baños to segregate their garbage properly. This
kind of exercise is a distinct possibility when you set out to prac-
tice your environmental training. There are no cut-and-dried strat-
egies for general application. The success of projects like these de-
pends on a lot of factors and a specific strategy might not work in
the context of the municipality’s social, cultural, political or eco-
nomic makeup.
Now, let’s go back to our discussion.
What Is Your Message?

The message in our example before the activity is that the drivers must
provide covered plastic containers where passengers can deposit their
garbage when they are in the jeepney. I think that is clear. The next ques-
tion is: How will you treat your message?
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Well, you will have to frame your message so that it will easily catch the
attention of the intended audience, and persuade them to act accord-
ingly. To achieve this, you will have to design your messages according to
communication campaign principles and techniques. The following are
techniques in message design that you might employ (Assifi and French,
1984).
1. Emotional vs. rational appeals. Emotional appeals stimulate human

emotions, while rational appeals build strong arguments based on logic
and supporting evidence for claims being made.
2. Positive vs. negative appeals. Negative appeals are also a form of

emotional appeal, but they are threatening. They suggest unfavorable
consequences resulting from non-compliance with the suggested prac-
tice. There is enough evidence in the literature indicating that people
tend to ignore potential threats for as long as they can. It takes quite a
substantial amount of threatening evidence to get people to take nega-
tive appeals seriously. This is clearly the case with the voluminous
amount of write-ups about smoking causing lung cancer which has
been largely ignored by smokers. Psychologists have found that there
is a psychological tendency among people to regard themselves as
being actually exempt from a potential danger.
3. Mass vs. individual appeals. Mass appeal builds on the strength of

social pressure on an individual. In effect, what we are saying is: “Ev-
erybody is doing it, so why are you not doing the same thing?” So
mass appeal is appropriate when the adoption of an idea or practice
needs some kind of social approval. On the other hand, if the idea or
practice is personal, then the individual appeal approach is more ap-
propriate. The message may be designed for the individual but it does
not have to go through individual channels only. In fact, you can use
mass channels to disseminate messages directed at individuals.
4. Humorous vs. serious appeals. Use humor to increase the effective-

ness of the communication message, but make sure that the humor is
consistent with the message. A rule of thumb on the use of humor is:
Your humor should not violate group norms. If the humor makes lis-
tening to the message more enjoyable, then it is likely that the message
will be remembered and will result in favorable attitudes.
5. One-sided vs. two-sided arguments. One-sided arguments have been

found to be more effective with people who have initially agreed with
a favorable point of view expressed in the communication message.
Two-sided arguments have been found to be more effective with those
who were initially opposed to the viewpoint expressed in the mes-
sage. Research has found that better-educated people tend to be influ-
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enced by two-sided arguments, while less educated people are influ-

enced by one-sided arguments.
6. Definite conclusion vs. open conclusion. If your target audiences

are intelligent, then the open conclusion approach may be more ap-
propriate because they may be able to draw conclusions themselves.
On the other hand, if you are sure that your audience is not intelli-
gent, then you employ the definite conclusion approach in order to
make sure that they will not miss the point.
7. Repetitive vs. one-time appeals. Research on the effects of repetition

indicate that repetition increases the amount of information that the
audience can remember. However, after three or four repetitions, any
additional information that can be remembered would be less signifi-
cant and therefore less useful. If the repetition is too frequent and
there is no corresponding reward, then there is likelihood of loss of
attention. Furthermore, repetition can have a negative effect if the
message is weak or perceived to be offensive. As a general rule, there-
fore, increase the interval of repetition each time you give the
message¾e.g., twice a day for two days, then once daily for a couple
of days, then twice a week for a week, then once a week for a month,
then perhaps twice a month for a couple of months, until you decide
to discontinue.
Time for another activity.
Activity 9-2
Your job as environmental consultant for a bumper sticker com-
pany is to coin catchy phrases for an anti-littering campaign on
the highways. On the basis of the foregoing dichotomies of mes-
sages, choose five phrases you believe would be most effective from
the list below. Place a check mark on the phrases of your choice.
1. Exterminate litterbugs!
2. This town welcomes all¾except litterbugs.
3. What would you do if you were made to eat your own litter?
4. Only dummies litter. They can’t read and can’t teach their chil-
dren.
5. Nothing spoils my day, more than a litterbug astray.
6. If you read this sign and not talk about it, you are a LITTER-
BUG.
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7. Hindi ako ang basurero mo!

8. Please keep our roads clean and beautiful.
9. Filipinos do not spoil the beauty of their highways.
10. Litterbugs are the dregs of humanity.
You might want to coin your own phrases for inclusion in this list.

The above messages may not represent all the listed dichotomies.
What is important is to categorize specific messages and apply the
attendant concepts associated with these message categories. To
make your choice, you must have an idea of the patterns of behav-
ior of motorists. And if you really were an advertising consultant,
you would defend your choices before your client who is going to
invest a lot of money in producing bumper stickers.
Now back to our discussion.
What Are Your Media Channels?

We can look at three categories of channels that you can use. These are:
individual channels, group channels and mass media channels.
Individual channels are personal. They include home visits, office calls, per-
sonal letters, individual tutorials and self-learning materials, to name a
few. These are very effective when dealing with individuals.
The Internet is a new medium that is fast becoming a campaign channel.

In spite of the fact that you can reach a large number of people at the
same time through the Internet, however, it is still largely an individual
medium. This is the reason why you compose your messages as if they
were intended for an individual.
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Group channels are designed to reach groups of people. Examples are group
meetings, study tours, role playing (given that this would require more
than one individual at a time), group discussions, demonstrations, drama
groups, and the like.
Mass media channels are designed to reach the general public. The tradi-
tional mass media include pamphlets, posters, newsletters, billboards, bro-
chures, books, bulletins, circulars, newspapers, magazines, radio, televi-
sion, movies. Today, we have more options such as video programs, CDs,
and the like.
The effectiveness and efficiency of use of various media channels depend

largely on the nature and purpose of the communication as well as the
target audience. As indicated in Figure 9-1 below, the various media chan-
nels can reach multiple audience segments, but it must be kept in mind
that there will be one or perhaps a couple of media that are appropriate
only for a specific audience group. Other media would be supportive.
Figure 9.1. Relationship between media and audience grouping
Individual Channels
(Small media, e.g. Specific, Site-Based
slidesets, etc.) Projects/Groups
Group Channels Policy/Decision

Makers
Mass Channels Public

Policy/Decision
(big media, e.g., radio,
Makers
TV, Cinema, etc.)
Figure 9.1 indicates that while the mass media, sometimes referred to as
big media, may be used to reach individuals, individual channels (also
sometimes referred to as small media) may not be effective means of reach-
ing a mass audience. Clearly, you can use a combination of media to reach
various audience segments.
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How Are You Going to Evaluate Your

Advocacy Campaign?
In any evaluation activity, you would normally deal with two processes.
These are monitoring and evaluating. Monitoring is recording what is or
is not happening, and checking or observing activities. For example, you
may be simply recording the number of feedback letters or perhaps the
number of seminar participants. Evaluating is actually judging or rating ac-
tivities, or appraising or interpreting data. For example, you can do an ap-
praisal of whether or not there has been an improvement in the collection of
garbage and the effectiveness of the garbage disposal system, judge the im-
pact of community participation in solid waste management, and so forth.
In planning your monitoring and evaluation system, you need to ask the
following questions:
1. What do you want to achieve?

2. What do you accept as evidence of your success?
3. What information do you need to produce this evidence?
4. What are your sources of information?
5. How are you going to collect the data/information?
6. What tools or instruments are you going to use to collect and analyze
the data?
7. Who will collect the data for you?
8. Who will use the information you have obtained?
How Much Funds Do You Need to Implement

Your Advocacy Campaign?
It is said that the budget is your plan of action expressed in financial
terms. A very effective way of presenting budget requirements for advo-
cacy campaigns is to list down all the specific activities and cost them. It is
necessary to know how much it will take to perform a particular activity.
To be able to present your budget in an appropriate format, you need to
prepare as well your work plan: a Gantt chart showing the various activi-
ties and the relative time frame within which to undertake these activi-
ties. For each activity, you need to show the specific items and their re-
spective cost. Cost includes personal services, supplies, travel requirements,
equipment rentals, and so forth.
Let’s go back to our hypothetical example of a work plan in Module 5.

We did try to translate the work plan into a budget plan. Let’s have a
look at that budget plan again.
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Proposed budget for a community garbage disposal program (Year 2001)
Particulars Quarterly Budget

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Total
Planning Phase
Personal Services:
Honorarium
1 Consultant, P5000/mo 15,000 (15,000)
Salaries
1 Coordinator, P10000/mo 30,000 (30,000)
2 Staff @ P6000/mo 36,000 (36,000)
MOOE:
Supplies 5,000 (5,000)
Travel 5,000 (5,000)
Miscellaneous 1,000 (1,000)
Sub-Total 92,000 92,000
Personal Services:
Honorarium
1 Consultant, P5000/mo 5,000 15,000 15,000 (35,000)
Salaries
1 Coordinator, P10000/mo 10,000 30,000 30,000 (70,000)
2 Staff @ P6000/mo 12,000 36,000 36,000 (84,000)
MOOE:
Supplies 1,000 5,000 5,000 (11,000)
Travel 1,000 7,000 8,000 (16,000)
Garbage Collection Contract 20,000 60,000 60,000 (140,000)
Miscellaneous 500 1,000 1,000 ( 2,500)
Sub-Total 49,500 154,000 155,000 358,500
Evaluation Phase
Personal Services:
Honorarium
1 Consultant, P5000/mo 15,000 (15,000)
Salaries
1 Coordinator, P10000/mo 30,000 (30,000)
2 Staff, P6000/mo 36,000 (36,000)
MOOE:
Supplies 5,000 ( 5,000)
Travel 2,000 ( 2,000)
Publication of Terminal Report 20,000 (20,000)
Miscellaneous 1,000 ( 1,000)
Sub-Total 109,000 109,000
TOTAL 92,000 49,500 154,000 264,000 559,500
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Activity 9-3
You are a resident of Livewell Village and an active member of its
homeowners association, the Livewell Village Residents’ Associa-
tion (LVRA), which is governed by a Board of Trustees. You have
been elected into the Board and appointed Chair of the Enterprise
Management Committee. The Board has decided that instead of
banning enterprises inside the Village, it will allow certain forms
of enterprise provided they do not run counter to the primal resi-
dential use purpose of the Village. Through the years, four sari-
sari stores have been put up in the Village. A few houses have
been used as business addresses, and a couple of houses are doing
limited warehousing of dry goods. There is also one vacant lot
owned by a resident which was converted into a small taho fac-
tory employing two laborers. The Village is divided into five blocks
for administrative purposes and occupies a land area of 30 hect-
ares. As of today, there are 125 residential houses inside the Vil-
lage. And on average some 12 houses are added every year. The
LVRA is now fully in control of day-to-day affairs inside the Vil-
lage and its decisions have the force of law. The function of your
Committee is to come up with popular policies and rules to govern
and regulate the formation of enterprises inside the Village. This is
principally an environmental advocacy assignment because of the
environmental requirements for specific enterprises to be permit-
ted. Your Committee is newly formed and you are tackling this
problem for the first time. During your last committee meeting,
you came up with a tentative set of criteria to qualify an enterprise
and a list of candidate enterprises that will be shortly submitted to
the Board for consideration.
Criteria for Enterprise Formation
1. It must be environmentally benign.
2. It must not strain the Village infrastructure and utilities.
3. For security purposes, it must not bring in a substantial vol-

ume of visitors (strangers).
4. It should serve a useful community function.
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Initial List of Permissible Enterprises
1. Sari-sari store
2. Limited warehousing/storage
3. Warehouse structure separate from household
4. Seamstressing/Tailoring
5. Baking/Food services/catering
6. Manufacturing Cottage industries (to be defined and itemized)
7. Plant-growing (subject to environmental restrictions)
8. Planting seasonals on vacant lots (subject to environmental re-
strictions)
9. Mechanical workshops (for household appliances only)
10. Electrical workshops (for household equipment only)
11. Cold storage (meat and meat products, baked goods, other
foods)Your committee will meet again soon to finalize your
report to the Board.
Now do the following:
1. In not more than 10 sentences, define for the illumination of

the Board members, what an environmentally benign enter-
prise means in the context of Livewell Village.
2. State what terms and conditions must be satisfied by store own-
ers so that their business will be acceptable to the general mem-
bership. Also state how many such stores should be allowed
to operate and why.
3. State why plant growing as a business should be encouraged
and with what environmental restrictions.
4. What negative environmental effects can you expect from
planting seasonals in vacant lots?
5. Will you allow the taho factory to continue operation? Explain
your position purely on environmental grounds. [Taho is a sterile
food produced by fermentation.]
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Many supposed-to-be exclusive subdivisions have slowly but gradu-
ally evolved into commercial areas because of the inability of the
governing boards to anticipate the environmental implications of
commercial uses. This example has all the elements of an environ-
mental advocacy campaign. The target audience are the resident
members themselves and the governing board will translate your
recommendations into a standard set of rules and regulations to
be applied to all aspiring entrepreneurs within the Village. These
rules and regulations will feature guidelines for specific enter-
prises—guidelines that will safeguard the environmental integrity
of the Village.This type of exercise provides a lot of freedom in
crafting environmental advocacy action plans that, upon approval
by the decision makers, lead quickly to institutionalization. In big-
ger systems like an entire municipality or city for that matter, the
process of institutionalizing an advocacy campaign will most cer-
tainly be more complex since the target audience will be more di-
verse and the decision making process more elaborate.
Activity 9-4
You have been hired as an environmental consultant in an ADB
project in a South Asian country. South Asian countries are noto-
rious for their lack of sanitation and personal hygiene. It is com-
monplace to see tourist spots reeking of urine and littered indis-
criminately. One day, you are traveling with your local counter-
part and come upon a public ferry landing across a wide river.
The place is terribly filthy, littered with waste paper, plastic bags,
peanut shells, fruit peelings, and all kinds of organic and inor-
ganic wastes. As you are waiting for your turn to board the ferry,
you feel hungry and you reach for a banana. You peel it and when
you are done, you stash the banana peel in a small plastic bag you
let hang by the window lock. Your counterpart Abdul remarks.
“You don’t have to do that. The place is so filthy anyway, just
throw it out the window. I used to do that myself, but I’ve given
up. Nobody really cares if the place is filthy or not. Frankly speak-
ing, nobody can tell the difference!”
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What are you going to do or say? Tick the options(s) you would
choose.
1. Ignore his remark.

2. Do as he says. Throw your trash out the car window. After all,
the place is so filthy one more piece of trash is not going to
make a difference.
3. Tell your counterpart, “Your country may be filthy, but I will
not have it in my conscience to contribute to this filth.”
4. Tell your counterpart, “It is tragic that nobody appreciates the
value of having a clean environment. Don’t you think some-
one has to start somewhere?”
5. Tell your counterpart, “As hopeless as it seems, if we can con-
vince our families to stop littering, we can start an anti-litter-
ing campaign snowballing in due time!”
6. Do it your own way as follows:

As an international consultant, you must always try to exercise
extreme discretion in situations like this. Your response must be
politically correct at best, and tactful at the very least. There are
subtle readings from both sides and the two of you are looking
through very small windows of insight about your respective cul-
tures. Your counterpart most likely belongs to the upper echelon
of their society, and he perceives your action as probably perva-
sive in your country. You don’t want to make him feel inferior.
You know he is wrong, but that is no reason to rub it in. Like
environmental advocacy messages, your response must elicit the
approval of your intended audience so that it will take effect.
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Activity 9-5
You have been hired as an advertising consultant to produce a 20-
second TV clip to advocate biodiversity. Your audience is the gen-
eral urban and suburban population of the country. Describe your
TV ad briefly in terms of pictures to be shown and the message
you are going to convey to your audience. Briefly explain why you
chose this particular ad.
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Planning will be more effective if you can anticipate or visualize
the actual outcome arising from the implementation of the plan.
In real life, we rely only on expectations on the assumption that
everything goes according to plan. In this exercise, you have a
clear objective and you want to create a visual image of the final
product—the outcome of your planned action. Simple problems
like this provide a wide array of effective responses. Actually, you
can produce dozens, maybe hundreds, of possible clips that will
address the biodiversity message with equal effectiveness. My fa-
vorite storyboard example runs like this:The clip starts with a
closeup view of a pristine and lush forest. The camera moves slowly
sidewards showing big trunks of trees of different species, at the
same time zooming in slowly on a nearby waterfall that looks like
a bridal veil with the water cascading into a clear pool lined with
big rocks. The sound of birds, cicadas, crickets begin to be heard,
the volume increasing as the camera zooms away from the falls to
birds perched on a branch and flying lemurs gliding nearby. As
the camera zooms out gradually to an aerial view of the area (as if
the viewer were a bird in flight), the image dissolves into a com-
munity of crowded buildings in an almost tree-less environment.
As this happens, a low male voice narrates, “Life as we know it is
rarely life as we want it. Its diversity is its beauty. Instead of losing it,
we can actually live it and make life as we know it, the life we want for
ourselves and generations to come.” As the last sentence is nar-
rated, the image dissolves to a community of buildings in the middle
of which is a large natural forest park. The camera zooms in again
into the park and this time features the birds and the lemurs with
their sounds and the lilting sound of children’s voices enjoying the
amenities of the park.
Reference
Assifi, Najib M. and James H. French. 1984. Guidelines for Planning Com-
munication Support for Rural Development Campaigns. Bangkok:
UNDP development training and Communication Planning.
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Module 10
Case Studies in
Environmental Campaigns
T wo case studies are presented here. The

first discusses a project in Canada that is
designed to communicate climatic change from
Objectives
the perspective of local people in Arctic Canada. After studying the two cases
This case study was reported by Neil Ford, a in this Module, you shall be
development communication specialist of the In- able to:
ternational Institute for Sustainable Develop-
ment in Winnipeg, Canada. Ford’s report was 1. Determine whether the
published in The Journal of Development Com- video component in
munication (JDC) (June 2000, Vol. 11, No. 1, Case No. 1 can be
pp. 92-108). The article is reprinted here with considered grassroots
permission from the JDC. video;
2. Articulate the strategies
The second case has to do with public accep- adopted to gain public
tance of radioactive waste management in confidence in Case No.
Malaysia. It was written by Dr. Syed A. Malik 2; and
and Dr. Samsudin A. Rahim. The article was 3. Determine whether the
published in The Journal of Development Com- steps to ensure a suc-
munication (December 1996, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. cessful public informa-
100-110) and is reprinted here with permis- tion campaign in Case
sion from the JDC. No. 2 fits the model of
social marketing.
Case 1
COMMUNICATING CLIMATE CHANGE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE

OF LOCAL PEOPLE: A CASE STUDY FROM ARCTIC CANADA
By Neil Ford
The primary goal of this project is to understand how an aboriginal group

in Arctic Canada uses traditional knowledge and local observation to
perceive and explain climate change. Its secondary goals are to communi-
cate the aboriginal group’s knowledge of climate change to decision-mak-
ing forums in southern Canada, and to evaluate the potential contribu-
tion of Traditional knowledge and local observations to scientific research
on climate change. To achieve theses goals, a project team from the Inter-
national Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) is working in part-
nership with local people from Sach’s Harbour, a community of Inuvialuit
(Inuit from the Western Arctic) on Banks Island in the Beaufort Sea. Sach’s
Habour is the most northerly community in Canada’s Northwest Territo-
ries; the nearest administrative center is the town of Inuvik, 500 kilome-
ters to the southeast across the sea ice. Many of Sach’s Harbour’s inhabit-
ants base their livelihood on traditional skills: hunting musk-ox for food
and fur, fishing for arctic char, guiding big game hunters in pursuit of
polar bears. They have a close relationship with the land, and they notice
the smallest changes to their environment.
For the last ten or 15 years, the changes they have seen have been any-
thing but small. The seasons are shifting on Banks Island. Autumn free-
up occurs up to a month later than usual and the spring thaw seems
earlier every year. Hot weather in the summer is melting the permafrost
and causing large-scale slumping on the coastline and along the shores of
inland lakes. Animals are changing their behaviour; new species of fish
and insects have been sighted. The Inuvialuit, known for their resource-
fulness, wonder if they can adapt to the new conditions.
Scientists in Canada have identified the Mackenzie valley and delta as an

area of rapid climate change1. The knowledge and observations of local
people on Banks Island, which lies across the Amundsen Gulf from the
Mackenzie delta, could be used to corroborate the conclusions of these
scientists. The task of the scientific part of the project is to determine the
extent of local knowledge on climate change and its relevance to scientific
research. If local observation is found to be relevant, the project team will
also suggest ways that research scientists can use it to enrich or comple-
ment their work. The task of the public awareness component of the project
is to make a video production in partnership with local people to express
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the depth of their knowledge and the extent of their observations about
climate change.
The project began in June 1999, and will last until autumn of 2000. It
employs several communication methodologies in order to understand
the traditional knowledge and local observations of Inuvialuit.
As team leader and participation specialist, I began the project by facili-

tating a participatory workshop, so that Inuvialuit could organize their
observations and knowledge of climate change in their own way, then
help the IISD team develop an implementation strategy that reflected their
perceptions. During the workshop, participants:
l Identified all phenomena that they have noticed related to climate

change;
l Organized the phenomena into categories that they themselves deter-
mined;
l Explained why the phenomena may be occurring, using traditional
knowledge and their experience of the land;
l Explained adaptive strategies that they have developed to deal with
climate change phenomena; and
l Construct timelines and seasonal calendars to show the extent and
rate-of-change of phenomena related to climate change.
The project team used a visual approach to organizing local information

at the workshop. Participants wrote their ideas on cards, which they taped
to the wall and organized into categories and clusters.
After the initial workshop, the project team traveled to the community
during three different seasons to:
l Videotape climate-change phenomena from the point-of-view of local

people for the communication component of the project; and
l Conduct semi-structured interviews with them for the scientific com-
ponent.
The video production team is using participatory techniques to ensure

that the video reflects Inuvialuit viewpoints, not those of the project team.
Local people are determining the scenes that are videotaped, the people
who will speak about their knowledge of climate change, and the way
traditional activities are portrayed. A “rough edit” will be shown to them
during the post-production process, so that the community can approve
the story-line and structure of the video, helping to ensure that it tells
their story in their way.
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The scientists on the project team are using semi-directed interview tech-
niques to allow local people to guide the interview process. This tech-
nique has been used successfully in other traditional knowledge projects
in the North2. It uses some pre-determined open-ended questions and top-
ics, but allows for new topics to be pursued as the interview develops.
This process allows the science team to document climate change phe-
nomena as explained and understood by the Inuvialuit according to their
worldview, rather than the viewpoint of the scientist who is asking the
questions.
The video production and scientific reports that are produced from these
trips will convey Inuvialuit observation and traditional knowledge in three
areas:
l Direct climate-change consequences such as earlier freezing and thaw-

ing, different ice formations and thicknesses, different prevailing winds
and the occurrence of thunder and lightning;
l Indirect climate-change consequences such as the appearance of new
plant and animal species, the different behavior of birds and mam-
mals; and
l Adaptive strategies that the Inuvialuit have developed to deal with
these changes.
The last phase of the project was scheduled for the autumn of 2000, when
the video and scientific reports would have been completed. The team
would then convene a workshop of relevant stakeholders to plan a series
of public awareness events and activities that focused on the project. These
events could involve presentation of the video to focus groups of decision-
makers on climate change such as provincial politicians or corporate lead-
ers, use of the video in schools and universities and broadcast of the video
on an appropriate television channel. Workshop participants would also
plan a “scientific awareness” strategy to explain the project’s work to
technical specialists in science and adaptation. The team would use the
results of the workshop to write a proposal for an additional project to
deliver the public and scientific awareness strategies.
The Community of Sachs Harbour
Inuvialuit have been traveling to Bans Island on a seasonal basis for many
generations. It is known as a rich hunting ground for musk-ox and cari-
bou; arctic char and seals are also plentiful. But the island is best known
for its population of white arctic fox which, before the animal rights move-
ment decimated the market, provided a rich livelihood for Inuvialuit trap-
pers. From the 1930s to the 1960s, a skilled group of trappers would sail
to Banks Island at the end of summer, trap fox all winter, and return to
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the mainland after spring breakup. They made thousands of dollars sell-
ing their pelts, and bought sturdy wooden schooners to support their
lifestyle.
In 1953, some of the trappers decided to stay on Banks Island year round,
so they established the community of Sachs Harbour on a sheltered inlet
on the southwest shore of the island. It is the only community in Arctic
Canada that was founded by Inuvialuit themselves—the others were es-
tablished by the Government of Canada as a way to provide education,
health services and law enforcement for traditionally nomadic people.
The government soon began providing services in Sachs Harbour, too.
Today the community has a modern school, health center and hamlet
office. Wage labor, small business activity and government assistance aug-
ment people’s income from traditional activities. A degree of local au-
tonomy has been provided through the Inuvialuit land claim agreement
with the Canadian Government. Local people now co-manage natural
resources with federal and territorial officials in the settlement area. Many
young people, however, have left the community for bigger centers to the
south. In recent years, the population of Sachs Harbour has stabilized
around 120 people.
There have been cultural changes as a result of this more modern lifestyle.
The current generation of adults have been educated in residential schools
in Inuvik. Many have lost their language and found it difficult to main-
tain the traditional skills at which time their parents and grandparents
excelled. Nevertheless, community members are still very active on the
land, hunting, guiding and fishing. The entire community supports a com-
mercial musk-ox harvest in the autumn; meat from the animals is sold to
restaurants in North America and Europe. The community Elders still
excel at crafts and Inuit carving from musk-ox horn.
The Participatory Planning Workshop
Implementing a “fly-in, fly-out” project in true partnership with local

people is a challenge. The project team must secure active participation
quickly and effectively. Although funding for the project was limited, the
project team decided to devote entire first trips to planning a workshop,
so that Inuvialuit could identify traditional knowledge and local observa-
tion regarding climate change and organize it into categories that they
themselves thought appropriate. Together, the IISD team and the Inuvialuit
would use the results of the workshop to plan both the video production
on climate change and the articles for scientific journals. A participatory
planning workshop would also encourage local people to take ownership
of the project, helping them to think of it as theirs, not something imposed
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by a group of outsiders. The project team scheduled two full days of work-
shop activities during the third week of June in 1999.
The people of Sachs Harbour, however, have a wide range of meetings to

attend, including the Hunters and Trappers Committee, the hamlet coun-
cil and their land claims organization. Quite often, they suffer from “meet-
ing fatigue.” We were concerned that only a few people would attend a
two-day event. To encourage participation, Rosemarie Kuptana agreed
to accompany the IISD team to Sachs Harbour and talk about the project.
Ms. Kuptana was born and raised in Sacks Harbour. During her career,
she has been President of the Inuit Broadcasting Corporation, President
of the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada, and President of the Inuit Circumpolar
Conference. Currently, she is a member of IISD’s Board of Directors.
The day before the workshop started, Ms. Kuptana took a few members
of the IISD team to tea at virtually every house in the community. We sat
at the kitchen tables, explained the project informally and personally in-
vited most of the adults in the community. The next morning, 31 people
attended the workshop at the hamlet office—approximately half the adult
population then in the hamlet and the most to attend a community meet-
ing in many years. Participation during the workshop was high: local
people spoke out, actively engaged with the issues, worked in small groups,
and presented findings back to all the participants. During a videotaped
interview, Norman Snow, the lead scientist for the project, commented
“It was a great meeting. I was impressed with the representation that we
had – it’s a small community, but we had a good mix of young people and
elders, a very good turnout, and a lot of participation. We all learned a lot
from what local people had to say.”
To structure the community workshop, I developed a methodology from

the “ZOPP” approach used by GTZ, the German development agency.
ZOPP is an acronym for Ziel Orientierte Projekt Planung, or “Objectives
Oriented Project Planning”3. German development specialists use it to
design projects with the assistance of local people and other stakeholders.
ZOPP encourages participation by everyone at a workshop, allowing a
community to identify and analyse its own problems. Participants write
their ideas on cards, which they arrange into “problem trees,” showing
the causes and effects of local concerns. This visualization makes it diffi-
cult for verbal or powerful people to dominate a meeting. An Inuvialuit
youth, for example, can write an idea on a card and pass it to the facilita-
tor, who will give it the same weight as the ideas of a male community
leader.
I adapted the “problem tree” approach slightly to suit the topic of climate
change. Often, the causes of climate change phenomena (the “roots” of
the tree) are difficult to determine. For the roots of problem trees on cli-
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mate change, I asked participants to write cards about the extent or scope
of the phenomena that they were experiencing. If they thought they knew
some of the causes of the phenomena, they could include those as well.
In addition to problem tree analysis, I asked people to participate in three

exercises drawn from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). PRA is a set
of tools, exercises and games that outsiders ask local people to perform so
that they can learn from them. Development professionals working in
partnership with local communities have developed this process, first de-
scribed by Robert Chambers of the University of Sussex, over the last 20
years4. In this project, PRA exercises included:
l Developing a timeline for the community

l Ranking the importance of observed climate change phenomena
Developing a seasonal calendar.
The time-line showed that people have observed a marked increase in

phenomena related to climate change from the mid-1980s onwards.
In order to determine which aspects of climate change the community

considered most important, participants developed a set of climate change
categories, and then “voted” for the categories that they considered most
significant, by placing coloured dots next to each one. Every participant
had three dots; if they thought one category stood out above the rest, they
could place all three dots next to it or they could spread their dots be-
tween two or three categories. The result of this exercise showed that
local people consider problems associated with health, permafrost ero-
sion, severe storms and harvesting animals to be the most serious con-
cerns of the community related to climate change.
Local people created the annual calendar to identify the date and dura-
tion of seasonal events. Together with project team members, they used it
to identify times when the most climate change phenomena were occur-
ring, so that future trips to the community could be planned around them.
The following times were identified:
l Late July or early August, to videotape permafrost melting, gill-net

fishing and seal hunting
l Late October or early November, to videotape the annual musk-ox
harvest, male polar bear hunting and the autumn freeze-up
l Late May, to videotape the spring goose hunt.
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During implementation, the winter trip was rescheduled from November

to February, so that it would not conflict with the community’s commer-
cial musk-ox harvest.
In sum, six separate activities took place during the two days of work-
shops:
1. Issue identification: Inuvialuit participants wrote down all the phe-

nomena that they have observed in their hunting/fishing livelihood
system that indicates the arctic climate is changing, one observation
on each card.
2. Cause-effect analysis: Participants arranged the cards into “trees,”
with the extent or scope of each phenomenon forming the “roots” of
the tree, and the effects of each phenomenon forming the “branches”
of the tree.
3. Timeline: Participants (especially Elders) charted changes in their en-
vironment, and in fish and wildlife behavior, back through time to the
earliest memories of local people—in this case to the 1930s.
4. Ranking: Participants “voted” with five coloured dots each, by plac-
ing their dots next to the climate change phenomena that they consid-
ered most important.
5. Annual calendar: Participants created a circular chart of the seasons,
and showed the time of year for each traditional activity and each
climate change phenomena.
6. Trip planning: Based on all the information that came out during the
workshop, participants chose the best times for the project team to
videotape and interview people about traditional activities and cli-
mate change phenomena.
The environmental changes the Inuvialuit identified in the participatory

planning workshop are presented in Table 2. Further trips allowed the
project team to work closely with community members in order to distin-
guish climate-related change from other changes.
Participants appeared very pleased with both the process and the results
of the workshop. During a short, videotaped interview, John Keogak, a
member of the Hunters and Trappers Committee, said: “I think all projects
should be considered this way, where you meet with the people and start
right from where the knowledge is and work your way up from there.”
The project team’s task during the remaining three trips to Sachs Harbour
was to visually portray local knowledge of climate change by going out
on the land with Inuvialuit to perform traditional activities, then inter-
viewing them about the changes they were observing in their environ-
ment, and also to conduct separate, more detailed interviews on audio-
tape to provide information for articles in scientific journals on the poten-
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tial value of traditional knowledge to research on climate change. Team

members paid local people $100 each time they were interviewed either
by the video or scientific groups within the project team. As the participa-
tion specialist on the project team, I was uncomfortable with the concept
of paying for local information. To me, it detracted from participatory
nature of the project, the information that the team gathered; since paid
informants might give answers that they thought we wanted to hear.
However, scientists who had previously worked on Banks Island had set
the precedent of paying for local knowledge. And, as local people them-
selves pointed out, why should they, the holders of the knowledge, be the
only ones not paid to participate in the project?
Activity 10-1
Analyze the process of video production as reported in this Mod-
ule. Can you see the elements of grassroots video in video materi-
als in the Canadian campaign? Prepare a 100-word analysis. Be
prepared to discuss your analysis in the class course forum.

The main elements of grassroots video are that the producer must
be completely immersed in the community he wants to feature,
the producer must interact and mingle with the residents of the
community to the point of being considered one of the residents,
the community residents must be completely involved in the pro-
duction, and the completed video program must be shown to the
residents themselves so they may comment on the accuracy of the
production.
A review of the process that was to be followed in the production

of the video documentary depicting how the residents developed
their knowledge about climatic patterns in their area indicates that
the requirements for grassroots video were in fact present. It is
possible that in the original video production plan there was no
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conscious effort to follow the procedures for the production of

grassroots video, but the actual process as discussed by Neil Ford
indicates that in fact the video production element of the cam-
paign was done according to the grassroots video technique.
In fact, the video production was even subjected to another form

of “village approval” prior to the actual shooting, when the project
agreed that the community represented by the Hunters and Trap-
pers Association in the community would first approve the pro-
duction before it was shown to outsiders, and an additional com-
mitment that no part of the footages would be used for purposes
other than for the video production of the project. As a result of
these commitments, together with what Ford refers to as the sensi-
tivity of the video crew contributed immensely to the fact that the
community residents eventually thought of the production as their
work, not the work of outsiders.
Read on and understand the processes that were followed during

the video production part of the project. This should give you an
opportunity to appreciate, in highsight, what the video crew went
through as they produced their video documentary.
Video Production
The participatory video is being produced to achieve three objectives:
l to demonstrate the close connection between the Inuvialuit and their

surrounding landscape;
l to show outsiders what is happening to that environment because of
climate change; and
l through demonstration and discussion of traditional knowledge, to
examine why the changes may be occurring and how Inuvialuit can
adapt to them.
The traditional activities that create Inuvialuit environmental knowledge

all involve harvesting animals—it is impossible to gather wild produce, or
to grow food in the Arctic. However, Inuvialuit are extremely sensitive
about pictures showing them hunting, fishing and trapping. They respect
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the animals that they kill and consider themselves good environmental
stewards. But they know that animal rights groups can use a video se-
quence of, for example, a hunter shooting and skinning a musk-ox to turn
public opinion against the fur industry. Taken out of context, these im-
ages can appear brutal and bloody; they have already done great damage
to local livelihoods.
At the same time, the pictures demonstrate why the Inuvialuit are on the
land, and show how they have developed such detailed knowledge of
their environment. Most local observations about climate change are di-
rectly related to harvesting. For example, until a few years ago local people
used to hunt seals in the summer by taking small boats to the ice edge.
They would then walk along the ice and harvest animals as they lay bask-
ing in the sun. 20 to 25 animals could be killed in a day using this tech-
nique. The Inuvialuit would use the fur for clothing, and the meet for
food, both for themselves and their dogs, making the seal harvest an im-
portant part of the local subsistence economy. But for the last several years,
there has been no summer ice within sight of the community. Local people
have been shooting seals from boats and the shoreline when they have
seen them swimming in the water. But these techniques are far less effi-
cient than the old way. The project team spent three days seal hunting
with local people using the new methods and harvested just one animal.
Local people know the climate is changing because they have been forced
to adapt their hunting techniques to new conditions. So it is important to
show them killing animals and using their meat and fur. But it is equally
important to show the respect that local people hold for the natural world
as an integral part of these video sequences. The video crew on the project
team included a camera operator with more than 20 years of experience
in Northern Canada, and an Inuvialuit audio recorder on loan from the
Inuvialuit Communications Society in Inuvik. These professionals quickly
built a relationship of trust with local concerns about harvesting images.
As team leader, I made a commitment to the Hunters and Trappers Asso-
ciation that the community would approve the video production before it
was shown to outsiders, and a further commitment that so sequences
would be taken from the video and used for other purposes, such as anti-
harvesting productions. These assurances, along with the sensitivity of
the video crew, so that the Inuvialuit came to think of the production as
their work, not work of outsiders.
At the time of writing (April 2000), the project team had made two trips
to Sachs Harbour, videotaping traditional activities in both summer and
winter. A final trip is scheduled for May 2000, to record the effect of
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earlier melting on the spring goose hunt, a major cultural event for the
community. To date, the following video sequences have been recorded:
l Seal Hunting: this sequence will start with pictures of the way Inuvialuit
used to hunt seals, and then contrast the old way with the new meth-
ods of hunting. It will conclude with a campfire interview with Elders
Lena and Geddes Wolki, who talk about the way the climate is warm-
ing in the summer, how climate change has affected traditional activi-
ties such as sealing, and whether they will be able to adapt to new
conditions.
l Permafrost melting/mudslides: This sequence will show landslides
caused by melting permafrost, occurring at a rate that local people
say is increasing. It will continue with images of inshore erosion caused
by permafrost melting along inland lakes. John Keogak, a local hunter,
will comment on the extent of the slumping, and the effect of the envi-
ronmental damage on people from Sachs Harbour.
l Gill-net fishing: this sequence will show Roger Kuptana, a local resi-
dent, taking a small boat out to check his nets. This day he harvests
Arctic char, but recent catches have included species never seen in the
area before, such as salmon.
l Musk-ox hunting: this cold-weather sequence will focus on a tradi-
tional hunt instead of the larger commercial harvest that takes place
every autumn. It will provide an opportunity for local people to talk
about shorter, warmer winters on Banks Island, and hope this sea-
sonal change affects the population and behavior of large mammals.
l Interviews with Elders: the video crew has interviewed several Elders
regarding the climate change phenomena that they have noticed over
the decades, and whether these changes are more noticeable now than
they were before.
l Interviews with the Science Group: the scientists were interviewed
both in Sachs Harbour and at a camp by an inshore lake. They com-
ment on the contribution that traditional knowledge and local obser-
vation can make to their specific fields of research.
The video crew was very satisfied with the quality of pictures that it taped,
both in summer and winter. Local people speak powerfully on taped in-
terviews, especially about the impact of climate change in the summer,
such as permafrost melting and shoreline slumping. Some residents, for
example, think there is a danger that the community will slip into the
Beaufort Sea if the rate of permafrost melting continues to increase. The
interviews on climate change during the winter were not as powerful,
largely because the Inuvialuit have not noticed the same degree of change.
Generally, they have observed that winters are warmer on Banks Island
than they were 15 or 20 years ago, with minimum temperatures hovering
around –35 or –40 degrees rather than –50 degrees. The winters are also
shorter in duration, with freeze-up coming about a month later than be-
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fore and the spring thaw a few weeks earlier. While changes may not be
affecting wildlife behavior, the ability of people to hunt and travel on the
land has been affected, particularly in the spring.
The video crew worked in extremely variable conditions, as might be ex-

pected. They enjoyed 24 hours of daylight in the summer, with tempera-
tures of 20 degrees Celsius. Winter weather was clear and cold, with day-
time temperatures hovering around –35 degrees and just six hours of day-
light. The camera operator used chemical warmers inside a “polar blan-
ket” to ensure that his video camera worked properly in extreme winter
conditions.
The Science Component of the Project
During each trip to Sachs Harbour, a science group conducted detailed

semi-structured interviews on climate change with a wide range of people
from the community, including Elders and hunters. They will write a se-
ries of journal articles on the potential contribution of traditional knowl-
edge and local observation to scientific research on climate change as an
output of the project. The group consists of a lead scientist who partici-
pates in every trip, who takes a holistic approach to traditional knowl-
edge and climate change, as well as a “guest” scientist who is individu-
ally selected for each trip, and focuses on a specific area of traditional
knowledge and climate change. A graduate student specializing in tradi-
tional ecological knowledge assists in the development of questions and
in recording the answers of local people. Fikret Berkes, a specialist in tra-
ditional ecological knowledge at the University of Manitoba, provides
guidance from Winnipeg.
The goal of the science group is to determine:
l The extent of traditional knowledge and local observation in the com-

munity;
l The relevance of that knowledge to scientific research on climate
change; and
l The most effective process to give scientists better access to Inuvialuit
traditional knowledge.
Participants at the planning workshop chose topics for the science com-
ponent of each trip. The summer trip focused on changes related to sea
ice and the winter trip examined wildlife related change. The upcoming
spring trip will look at changes associated with melting permafrost and
soil erosion.
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The interviews were loosely structured, focusing on seasonal activities

and the way in which they were changing because of climate variability.
They were conducted in an informal, flexible manner in the homes of the
interviewees over tea. Most conversations lasted more than an hour, build-
ing on enhancing the initial observations that local people documented
during the participatory planning workshop in June. Most interviews were
conducted in English; one or two required the help of an Inuvialuktun
(Inuvialuit language) translator. Interviews were recorded on audiotape,
unless the participant did not wish to be recorded. Detailed notes were
kept as well.
The science group started by asking each participant to recall observa-

tions they had made at the planning workshop, and then to expand on
them. For example, a semi-structured interview might begin with a ques-
tion such as “The last time we were here, you told us that there was less
ice in the summer. How do you know that?” or “At the workshop, people
said the land was going down in some places. Can you tell us about that?”
The science group found that the interviews:
l Gave the initial observations more detail;

l Allowed for the separation of climate-related observations from non-
climate-related observations;
l Placed the observations in time and space;
l Identified the context of the observations;
l Allowed for the stratification of observations and identification of
which community members were observing which phenomena;
l Identified which community members were most knowledgeable about
climate-related change and traditional activities;
l Gave insight on indicators of change as used by the Inuvialuit;
l Individual interviews.
The objective of the science team during the winter trip was to conduct
interviews relating to the potential impact of climate change on large
mammals such as caribou and musk-ox, as well as the impact of climate
change on the community when local people harvest these animals. The
“guest” scientist for this trip was a wildlife biologist who had visited the
community many times to collect harvesting data and report on the health
and population of different species. Although asking for local advice and
knowledge is part of his normal methodology, this was his first opportu-
nity to focus exclusively on the potential contribution of traditional knowl-
edge to scientific research.
These interviews began by establishing when the participant came to Banks

Island and the extent of the person’s knowledge of the area, including
primary hunting and traveling areas. A discussion about the location of a
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former trap line, for example, might begin an interview. Questions would
then explore community knowledge and understanding of:
l Caribou, musk-ox, wolf populations over time (with some questions

on geese, foxes);
l Animal condition/health;
l Severe weather events and impacts on caribou and musk-ox;
l Changes relating to vegetation in the area;
l Snow depth on winter ranges;
l Changes related to insects, and relationship to caribou/musk-ox;
l General weather patterns; i.e., winter temperatures, wind patterns,
snowfall; and
l General questions pertaining to how changes (i.e., warmer winters)
will impact animal populations, and the impact on the community.
Discussion would begin in the decade the participant first came to Banks
Island, and proceed decade by decade to the present. The interviewers
would also ask for recollections of knowledge and stories passed on by
parents and grandparents. Several key events were also used as starting
points for discussion, including a wolf poisoning program in the late 1950s
that had significant ecological impacts, as well as severe icing event in
1952 that resulted in movement of caribou off the island.
Discussion and Conclusions
This project will run until the autumn of 2000. IISD will then propose a
“follow-on” project, during which the video and scientific reports will be
presented to decision-making forums in government, industry and the
scientific community. Discussion of results at the time of writing (April
2000) is therefore preliminary in nature.
It is possible to say, however, that the project has been a success in terms
of the participation of local people. Approximately half the adult popula-
tion of the community took part in the two-day exercise to draw out local
knowledge of climate change, organize it according to criteria that
Inuvialuit themselves consider relevant, and then advise the IISD team on
the implementation of the project. The visual approach of the planning
workshop worked well, both from the point-of-view of local people and
the project team.
During the summer and winter trips, it became apparent that the Inuvialuit
had taken ownership of the project to a large degree. Community mem-
bers volunteered to take the team out on the land, and readily agreed to
be interviewed about traditional activities and the climate-change phe-
nomena that they observed while performing them. Attendance at a com-
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munity meeting to present a short “demo video” from the summer trip
was well above average for Sachs Harbour: 17 people attended and ac-
tively discussed the project. These people asked the project team for more
involvement, not less. The project’s work plan called for a community
member to travel to Southern Canada while the final video was being
edited, to ensure that the production portrayed local people in an appro-
priate manner. Rather than have one person take responsibility for this
task, the people at the community meeting asked the project team to send
a “rough edit” of the final video to Sachs Harbour so that everyone could
view and comment on it. Local people see the project as a chance to tell
their story their way.
It is possible to say that the project will be a success in terms of communi-

cating the effects of climate change to decision-makers in the South of
Canada. The images and interviews that have been recorded by the video
group will show that climate change phenomena have increased signifi-
cantly since the mid 1980s, and are already making a dramatic impact on
the livelihood of the Inuvialuit. The video will help Southern Canadians
think of climate change as something that is “here and now” rather than
something that might happen sometime in the unspecified future.
The science group has drawn several preliminary conclusions from the
interviews conducted during the summer and winter trips:
l There is abundant knowledge in the community relating to historical

and current sea ice conditions, weather patterns, erosion/permafrost
melt and wildlife populations, as well as the linkages and relation-
ships between these phenomena.
l Understanding some aspects of climate-related change, such as those
related to wildlife, are complicated by other factors such as harvesting
patterns or species interaction.
l Traditional knowledge clearly contributes to current science-based
knowledge of climate change; in many cases it is spatially and tempo-
rally extensive and can help “piece together” historical information.
l While the specific impacts to climate change may be difficult to assess,
it is clear that changes will have an impact on the community and the
way in which people harvest animals.
Generally, scientists with the project feel that there are many opportuni-
ties for using traditional knowledge and local observation in research.
However, it is very difficult to directly integrate traditional knowledge
into a scientific framework, as it comes from a different knowledge sys-
tem. Scientific and traditional perspectives are separate ways of “know-
ing;” each way contains a richness that cannot be produced by the other.
It remains to be seen whether the project can suggest cost-efficient meth-
ods or techniques to include traditional knowledge and local observation
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in future research on climate change in the Arctic. The work conducted

by scientists and local people in this project lends a greater understanding
of methods and techniques for collaborative climate-change research.
The project has been well received, both by the general public and within
the scientific community. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation has
featured the project on its national radio service in English; a news report
on its national French television service is also in production. Reports on
the project have been printed in several Canadian newspapers. The Beau-
fort Sea 2000 scientific conference in Inuvik awarded first prize to the
project’s explanatory posters. In addition, the project’s lead scientist made
a presentation on the project at a conference on climate change in
Yellowknife. IISD also plans to promote the project at a conference on
communicating climate change in Waterloo, Ontario before the project’s
final workshop in the autumn of 2000. A detailed description of the
project’s methodology and preliminary results can be found on IISD’s
website, at:
http://iisd.ca/casl/projects/inuitobs.htm
Of course, local people themselves will perform the most important evalu-
ation of the project. The video will be shown to the people of Sachs Harbour
before it is released at decision-making forums. IISD will then contract an
independent specialist on traditional ecological knowledge to interview
local people and evaluate the project from their point-of-view. Commu-
nity members will be asked to assess both the results of the project and the
approach that was used to achieve them.
This project helps the Inuvialuit of Banks Island communicate their knowl-
edge and observation of climate change to stakeholders outside their com-
munity directly and effectively. A participatory planning workshop helped
them organize their knowledge according to categories that they them-
selves developed. Participatory video allowed them to tell their story in
their own words and in their own way. Through video, they were able to
show the source of their knowledge, which is their close connection to the
environment around them. By participating in semi-structured interviews,
they provided scientists with insight on the ways in which traditional
knowledge and local observation can enrich scientific research on climate
change, and also on ways in which traditional knowledge can be made
accessible to scientists.
Inuvialuit are removed for their ability to flourish in a harsh climate, to

adapt as conditions change and to thrive where others cannot. Climate
change poses a threat unlike any they have faced before. Their lifestyle
and culture may depend on their ability to adapt to this new challenge.
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Table 10.1. Results of the ranking exercise
Skin/health problems 21 votes
Permafrost/erosion, land and wind 20
Storms, rain and wind 20
Harvesting problems 15
Changes in seasons 11
Hot weather, warm winters, clouds 10
Changes in snow, ice and water clouds 9
Changes in land animals 4
More/different insects 3
Changes in birds 1
Changes in fish 1
Changes in seals 0
Changes in plants 0
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Table 10-2. Workshop results.
Birds l Occurrence of new species such as Robins and Barn

Swallows
l Changes in native bird populations (e.g., more snow
geese)
l Changes in bird behavior (e.g. snow geese stay for a
shorter period in spring, many small birds now over
wintering)
l Higher incidence of deformed snow geese eggs.
Marine animals l Occurrence of new species such as salmon and her-
ring· Smaller populations of rock cod
l Arctic char have increased in size
l Higher incidence of deformed fish
l Seal population appears higher
l Lack of sea ice resulting in young seals being sepa-
rated from mothers and starving, and fewer adult seals
accessible to community
l Increase in bowhead whale populations
Land animals l Caribou population smaller
l Fewer large male caribou
l Increase in musk-ox population
l Higher incidence on deformed musk-ox
l Polar bears are leaving their lairs earlier and moving
away from community
l Higher wolf population
l Smaller rabbit population
l Occurrence of new types of foxes (black or red)
Insects l Shorter winters, longer summers and more water
were linked to increases in insect populations
l Mosquito populations larger, season longer
l Occurrence of new beetles and sand flies
Weather Patterns l Milder winters and warmer summers
l Shorter fall and slower/later freeze-up
l Increased rain, summer hail, stronger winter winds,
intense summer sun, thunder storms and lightning·
Greater fluctuations in the seasons, in particular an
earlier arrival of spring
l Bigger waves in the harbour
Harvesting problems l Thinner and .less abundant sea ice makes it difficult
to hunt for seals and polar bears
l Melting permafrost creates difficult conditions for over-
land travel making it difficult to harvest and transport
animals
Health problems l Increased incidence of skin rashes and other skin
problems due to sun and wind
l Allergies to white pine pollen increasing as it moves
farther north.
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Table 10.3. Examples of interview topics
Ice l Multiplayer and pack ice; ice conditions and hunting;

ice conditions and sea mammals; freeze up and break
up times; pressure ridges; lake ice; ice thickness
Permafrost l Permafrost melting times and rates; landslides and

erosion, and slumping; coastal and inland permafrost
timing.
Weather Patterns l Frequency and severity of storm events; hail, thunder,

lightning and rain; wind patterns; seasonal timing
Fish l Populations and conditions of char, lake trout and cod;

occurrence of salmon and blue herring
Insects l Types of insects, unusual insects, abundance and

changes in timing
Birds l Bird species, unusual bird species, abundance and

migration patterns and timing change
Wildlife l Caribou and musk-ox conditions and populations, as

well as responses to weather conditions; populations
of rabbits, wolves and fox; conditions and unusual ob-
servations of sea mammals such as seals, whales,
and walrus
Endnotes
1 Cohen, S.J. 1997. Mackenzie Basin Impact Study final Report: Sum-
mary of Results. Atmospheric Environment Canada. Downsview,
Ontario, Canada. 377pp.
2 Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the Utility of the Semi-Di-
rective Interview for Documenting Traditional ecological Knowledge.
Arctic 51(3):237-42.
3 ZOPP: an Introduction to the Method. 1987. Deutsche Gesellschaft
for Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Gmbh, Frankfurt, Germany.
4 Chambers, R. 1997. Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last.
Intermmediate Technology Publications, London.
UP Open University
Activity 10-2
Prepare a 200-word critique of Case No. 1: Communicating Climate
Change From the Perspective of Local People: A Case Study From Arc-
tic Canada.
What are its strong and weak points insofar as environmental cam-
paign is concerned? What are the components of this campaign,
and do you think that these components would work under Phil-
ippine conditions if similar project were undertaken in the Philip-
pines? Why or why not?

You are going to write a critique. In your critique, I expect to see
the following concerns:
UP Open University
Case 2
Public Acceptance of Radioactive Waste Management:

The Malaysian Experience
By Syed A. Malik and Samsudin A. Rahim
Waste of whatever nature does not bring much benefit to be appreciated

by the people. However, in recent years much attention has been given
either to recycling or ensuring their safe disposal. The basis of concern
stems from the inherent toxicity of some elements in the waste and its
potential to return to humans. Radioactive waste, undeniably, poses
greater concern simply because of its extra property, i.e., radiation which
could result in somatic and genetic effects. With the setting up of PUSPATI
(presently known as MINT) in 1972, the awareness among the public on
nuclear technology has improved significantly. Malaysia’s involvement
in nuclear technology is relatively new. It started when the 1 MW TRIGA
MARK II research reactor went critical in June 1982. However, radio iso-
topes had been used in medicine as early as in the fifties. Given the small
volume of waste generated from both areas, none has become a major
concern.
Malaysia has been well known for its tin production. It has been the world’s
largest producer since 1883 redundancy. The situation changed in the
last twenty years with the dwindling price of tin. There was one thing
which was not highlighted in the tin mining industry before. The miner-
als associated with it contained the natural uranium and their daughter
products. The byproducts of tin, known locally as among, were scattered
in many places in the tin rich states.
The Thorium Waste Disposal Controversy
A test case for Malaysia in the management of radioactive waste was

experienced by a company called Malaysian Rare Earth Corporation Sdn
Bhd (MAREC). Later it was renamed Asian Rare Earth Sdn. Bhd. (ARE)
and runs a business of processing monazite for the rare each elements.
The company commenced its operation on 11 July 1982. Monazite is basi-
cally a phosphate rare earth element [RE, Th (PO4)3] having about 7 per-
cent thorium oxide (Table 1). After undergoing a caustic soda rare earth
extraction process, the semi fluid byproduct (waste) contained about 14
percent thorium hydroxide (Table 2).
UP Open University
Chronological events. In the early days, MINT was set up to encourage

peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Obviously, this would include develop-
ing technology for nuclear power. Thorium could be converted and used
as fuel for a breeder reactor. Although the use of breeder reactors was not
foreseen in the near future, its potential as a fuel in the future justified its
storage. This led to discussion that the waste should be stored for future
use.
In April 1978, the Geological Survey Department in Ipoh was asked to

look into possible cavern sites of the limestone hills in Kinta Valley in
which to store the waste. The alkaline environment would effectively re-
tard thorium migration. Out of ten sites initially selected, the department
recommended three sites. They were Gunung Rapat, Gunung Kandu and
an unnamed hill near Kampong Sungai Ular (Tan, 1978).
The sites were then subjected to environmental studies by the Depart-

ment of Environment (DOE, 1979). In its analysis, the Department re-
jected gunung Kandu and the unnamed hill near Kampung Sungai Ular.
In rejecting the sites, they cited that the two hills could be turned into
tourist resorts, set aside for the conservation of flora and fauna, or uti-
lized as high water table, for its flooding potential, as a settlement area,
etc. This left Gunung Rapat as the most viable site. However, it was later
found that the cave was not big enough to accommodate the total amount
of waste generated.
It was then suggested that if a proper design of storage facility be made,

the waste might not necessarily hed to be placed in a limestone cavern.
This led to a search for a new site. One proposal was to locate a site near
a trunk road of Jalan Ipoh – Parit. The land was temporarily occupied by
a farmers’ cooperative society for a plantation project. Judging from the
close proximity to the main road, it was later found that the site was also
unsuitable.
The milestones. The search for a new site continued, and it was proposed
that an area near the town of Papan be used. This became a historic mile-
stone in the public acceptance issue of radioactive waste management.
The nearby residents formed various committees to resist the siting pro-
posal. They were the Papan Support Group, Papan-Pusing-Seputah Anti
Radioactive Waste Dump Joint Committee, Perak Anti-Radioactive Com-
mittee and Bukit Merah-Lahat-Menggelembu-Taman Badri Shah Action
Committee.
On the other hand, “concerned groups,” or environmentalists, also joined

the discussions to bring pressure to the government. The groups, such as
Friends of the Earth and Environmental Protection society of Malaysia,
have long been against nuclear technology.
UP Open University
The politicians too were not left to spare their contribution on the issue.
They did not only come from the opposition, but components of the rul-
ing party also voiced out their concern. They had to show sympathy to
the people (electorates) or risk losing their confidence. The issue was so
hotly debated that even the Prime Minister had to intervene in the situa-
tion.
Advisory role of the foreign experts. As the issue grew larger, it was nec-
essary to seek opinions from foreign experts. The Malaysian government
requested two different organizations for an expert service. The first group
came from the National Radiological Protection Board of United King-
dom, consisting of O’Riordan, Pinner and Maple. In their report, they
made a comprehensive assessment of the radiological impact of thorium
storage. The Group concluded that there was no significant radiological
implication in handling, transporting and storing the waste, as long as it
would be done in the proposed manner and in compliance with the ICRP’s
recommendation (O’Riordan, et al, 1984).
The other group under the IAEA comprised of Soman, Dory and Jooma
came to inspect and presented their report. They concluded that the
trenches were not built according to the standard specifications. They
also emphasized on the need to establish an effective process of public
consultation to ensure the public was well informed.
The controversy went on. Eight residents filed an injunction with the court
against the company in February 1985 (Table 3). It underwent a long
hearing process. The residents’ committees also sought other foreign ex-
perts’ views on the storage facility. They engaged Prof. Ishikawa from
Japan to undertake monitoring work and to report his findings on the
dose rate levels nearby the company. He claimed a high radiation level
(exceeding 500 Rem/y and even 5 Rem/y) existed at least at five locations
(Ishikawa, 1984). Other experts, Dr. Edward P. Radford (an American
environmental medicine expert) and Rosalie Bertell (a Canadian expert
who was also the President of the International Institute of Concern for
Public Health) were called in to testify on the health hazards from the
waste. While Dr. Bernie Lau (a Canadian radiation expert) was engaged
to investigate on the radon effect of ARE’s plant on the nearby residents.
On July 11, 1992 the Ipoh High Court’s Judge ruled that the company
was not entitled to operate its factory and ordered that the waste on its
premises be removed (The Star, 12/7/92). However, after the company
appealed, the Lord President (The Star, 27/7/92) and the Supreme Court
(NST, 27/7/92) allowed the stay of execution to suspend the order. It is
interesting to note that the residents chartered 30 buses to come for the
final hearing. And the hearing was put off due to the large number of
people that gathered in the Court’s vicinity. Finally, the Supreme Court
UP Open University
resided on 23 December 1993 and delivered its final verdict in favour of

the company. One of the reasons given was that the Atomic Energy Li-
censing Board would not have issued the licenses had the practice been
unsafe (NST, 24/12/93). On 18 January 1994, the company announced it
would cease operations permanently because of the unavailability of
monazite which made the market more competitive (NST, 19/10/94).
Since the trenches for storing the wastes were not built according to the
design specifications, they were therefore found unacceptable. The gov-
ernment agreed to shift the storage area away from Papan on 11 January
1995. A 14.5 acre land provided by the Perak State Government was cho-
sen for the purpose. The facility was designed and built 70 meters above
sea level in Bukit Kledang, Mukim Belanja. At present, more than five
bays have been constructed and all the waste in 200L drums has been
shifted to the storage facility.
Lessons learned. In the above case, there were two-stage issues involved.
The first was the rejection by the nearby residents (of Papan) of the pro-
posed site for the storage facility. The second was the rejection of the
factory’s nearby residents (of Bukit Merah) to the existence of the factory.
What we learn from here is that the tactic used to mount pressure is a
two-step process. First it targeted is the proposed facility and subsequently
the source of the waste. In addition, siting if any facility which requires a
high degree of safety should be decisive. Shifting from one place to an-
other would construe it as unsafe and, thus, undermine the public’s con-
fidence.
Secondly, construction of such kinds of facilities should be monitored

closely and should be ensured to meet the technical specifications. Any
deviation would result in losing public confidence.
Strategies for Gaining Public Confidence
Enhance public awareness. Not much is known about the Malaysian public
perception of nuclear technology because there is yet to be a national
study on the issue. Nevertheless, a study of 1700 school children by MINT
from 1990 to 1992 indicated that a relatively low percentage (44 percent)
was aware of the use of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes
(Samsudin, 1993). The percentage was comparatively low, considering
the 76 percent of the sample was aware of MINT’s existence.
If these data can be used as an indication of the general public’s aware-

ness, then we must admit that there is much to be done to create a more
favourable perception among the public on the use of nuclear technology.
A public information campaign is not about delivering the necessary mes-
UP Open University
sages to the general public. With an adequate budget and proper media
planning, the message could get across to the public easily. What money
cannot buy is how to overcome the psychological barriers that hold nuclear
technology as a source of destruction. This is so because for a greater part
of our life, the media have created a public agenda about the destructive
nature of nuclear technology especially during the Cold War. The public
might be surprised if it was told that some of their kitchen appliances are
using nuclear technology! Inability to overcome psychological barriers is
the most important factor that causes failure to public information cam-
paign.
Demonstrate technical viability and safety. Seeing is believing. No matter

how thick the pile of papers on the technical design to ensure safety, people
still rely on their eyes to be convinced. Radioactive waste management,
like many nuclear reactors, has shown a great attention to safety. Records
of the safe operations of radioactive waste repository sites around the
world should be compared with other toxic repositories. Following that
principle, it would give confidence to the public if we could demonstrate
the technical viability of the proposed activity in the waste management
with safety being the only objective.
Educate public through media and open talks. Media have always been a
daily mirror in affluent society. They can tilt public’s perception to either
side depending on how subtly they present the issue. Given the right op-
portunity, we can portray a more balanced rationale to the issue. In our
efforts to provide as much information, MINT has successfully cooper-
ated with a local newspaper to print a series of articles regarding nuclear
technology. The author of this paper has contributed six articles in rela-
tion to waste management. The titles of the articles were as follows:
l Radioactive waste – sources and controls;
l Approaches in the management of radioactive wastes;
l Treatment techniques for radioactive waste;
l Classification of radioactive wastes;
l Radioactive waste packages for disposal;
l Choosing sites for radioactive waste repository
There is no doubt that media can play a bigger role in enhancing public
awareness on nuclear technology. The study by MINT indicates the news-
papers are the main source of information even though the percentage is
rather low at 30-33 percent. The percentage is higher (46-49 percent) if
exposure through newspaper and television is combined. To get news
published in the media is one thing, but getting the media audience to pay
attention to the news is yet another consideration. Communication stud-
ies have indicated that attention to a particular news is a prerequisite for
the media audience to process and give meaning to the information that
is the basis for knowledge.
UP Open University
One night argue that the technical nature of news related to nuclear tech-
nology would not get much attention from the general public. Only the
educated are interested in such news. The Papan issue indicates that irre-
spective of educational background, when the issue is threatening their
well being, people from all walks of life will give their attention. With
environmental issues becoming more prominent, any effort to dispose in-
dustrial waste would be up for public scrutiny. Interested parties would
all too happy to drive the bandwagon of environmental protection to
arouse public fear of industrial waste disposal, particularly radioactive
waste.
Well-planned versus ad hoc activities. Public information activities to cre-

ate public acceptance of radioactive waste management can be successful
if there is a well-planned effort. After all, information activities are not
necessary media related activities. Efforts must also incorporate face-to-
face communication with a specific target public, especially those in the
position to influence public opinion.
Ad hoc activities would not get maximum returns because activities and
messages are not coordinated to achieve a specific objective. A well-planned
public information campaign would create the necessary environment to
make the issue salient and thus capture public attention and discussion
about the issue. One major aspect of the campaign is to position the safety
features of radioactive waste vis-à-vis the numerous benefits that it brings
to modern living. According to Kotler and Roberto (1989), prominent so-
cial marketers, a message can be successful if and when it shows that
rewards exceed the effort and sacrifices that one has to make. In this
regard, an information campaign has to alleviate fear synonymous with
nuclear technology and highlight how the public can personally benefit
from such technology. Whatever resistance to radioactive waste would
be abated in the context of personal gains.
Future strategies to create a more favorable public opinion regarding the

use of nuclear technology and the disposal of its radioactive waste should
be well-planned and coordinated effort. A word of caution with regard
to the planning of public information campaign: it is not a publicity gim-
mick! Getting media coverage is necessary but this is not what a success-
ful information campaign is all about. Efforts must go into formulating
the core message. After all, a sellable product is one that meets the needs
of its customers. The same is true with a public information campaign.
The message that will get public attention is one that fulfills the informa-
tion needs of its public.
Involve mass media in seminar or conference on nuclear issues. Realising

the prominent role of the press in educating the public, it is suggested that
a forum should be established to communicate issues relating to nuclear
UP Open University
technology. Journalists are a group of people very close to the public. The
impact of their writings could arouse public’s sentiment over an issue.
Hence, it is essential to communicate effectively with them by providing
relevant information or facts to which they can base their reports on. Our
experience has proven that the success of such efforts is very encourag-
ing.
A Seminar on Nuclear Science and Technology for Journalists was held in

Kuala Lumpur on 17-18 November 1992. The Seminar was jointly orga-
nized by the IAEA, Malaysian Press Institute and MINT. There were 58
registered participants who consisted of local journalists, staff of the broad-
casting/information agencies, lecturers from higher learning institutions,
environmental groups and even a member of Parliament. The objectives
of the seminar are listed in Table 4. Ten out of eleven speakers were for-
eigners from developed countries. It was noted that the seminar brought
closer views on nuclear science and technology between the selected groups
of members of the public and the scientific community.
Standard safety documents. In the past, much of industrial development

has paid less attention to the need to preserve the environment. As such,
pollution has become a major issue in this century. The outcome of The
Rio summit, which emphasized the need for sustainable development,
has become a commitment by many countries. As such, the generally ig-
norant public has also turned to be more environmentally conscious.
Hence, management of radioactive waste has to be tailored to the current
demand. Radiological Impact Assessment should now the standard docu-
ment to be presented in a simple, comprehensive and easily understand-
able manner for the public to scrutinize.
Steps to Ensure a Successful Public Information Campaign
Public opinion study. One important aspect that needs high priority be-
fore planning a public information campaign is to get “feedforward” data
about the various segments of Malaysian public. Such data are important
as input for planning, formulation, and delivery of messages to suit spe-
cific segments of the public. Unless we are really sure about their fears,
criticism, knowledge, opinion, etc. regarding radioactive waste, we might
be “barking up the wrong tree.” Message formulation must be in line
with the problems that form the information needs of the public.
Segmentation of public. The Malaysian public can be segmented accord-

ing to interest; such as NGOs with environmental agenda, politicians who
need to win “the hear and mind” of the people, public administrators
who have to make decisions on dumping sites, local and community lead-
ers redundant and, of course, the general public. The Papan case indi-
UP Open University
cated that the resistance was confined to a certain group only. The locals
were instigated by NGOs particularly on the emotional and fear senti-
ments related to the effects from radiation.
Since the case was one of the early experiences of Malaysia in regard to
radioactive waste, not much information was forthcoming to allay the
fears among local communities on the issue. Even media coverage was
focused mainly on the negative reporting of statements from activists who
were opposed to the site. In such cases, the public’s decision-making pro-
cess was not enhanced because they only had one-sided information as
the basis for decision. Getting the message across to a specific segment of
the public is very important. Each segment has a role to play and this,
might need different information.
The study by MINT showed that school children who perceived the use of
nuclear technology as safe increased to 40 percent in 1992. The signifi-
cant difference might be due to the availability of more information from
the media and also from the public lectures conducted by MINT’s staff.
One fact that we have to bear in mind is that the school children come
from schools with science classes. Their reception to an interest in science
subject matter are obviously better than the non-science students. This
brings us to the important aspects of public segmentation. Non-science
students and all other laypersons might need a different approach and
materials in order to attract their attention and thus process the vital in-
formation about the nuclear technology and its waste products.
Message formulations. The next question is to determine how to “sell” the

message to the different target segments. There seems to be two aspects of
the message that need greater consideration: safety and benefits. The school
children’s survey indicated that although 90 percent considered nuclear
technology as “safe” and “somewhat safe” to be used for peaceful pur-
poses, 89 percent would cautiously recommend its use. When asked hy-
pothetically if a factory using nuclear technology is built near their home,
68 percent want more briefing about the technology and another 27 per-
cent are doubtful about its safety.
A workshop to discuss, formulate and test the core message is necessary.

Participation from various segments of the public will be an advantage in
order to identify the information needs of the public. Not everyone is in-
terested in the technical aspects of nuclear technology. Nevertheless, the
numerous benefits of its use in their daily life should form an important,
message. This “soft selling” approach is more favourable if the objective is
to change attitude. Information on benefits and usefulness is better than
facts and figures to convince the public.
UP Open University
Conclusion
The skeptical mind of the public on the issue of radioactive waste is rooted
in several tragedies involving nuclear technology. Its first destructive ap-
plication as the atomic bomb leaves bitter memories to peace-loving people.
Accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl resulting in massive evalu-
ation further complicate public acceptance of nuclear issues. Since radia-
tion cannot be seen by the naked eyes, this adds furthe3r anxiety to people.
Medical reports on the radiological impacts (somatic and genetic) of ra-
diation have enhanced their basis to be skeptical of radiation. Radioactive
waste is much associated with nuclear technology and, therefore, it re-
ceives similar treatment. ARE’s case provides a clear indication of the
degree of acceptance by the Malaysian public of the radioactive waste
issue. Shifting the site might undermine the reliability that the storage is
safe. Further, the public lost confidence when the facility was not built
according to the recognized safety standard. It is important that in an
open society, effective public communication is the key that ensures suc-
cessful implementation of any activity requiring a high degree of safety.
Moreover, waste does not bring benefits to the people surrounding the
storage or disposal area. Hence, like everyone else, the NIMBY syndrome
applies everywhere.
Table 1. Chemical composition of Monazite (Lu).
Oxides Percentage
Rare Earth (RE) 203 61.00
Th02 7.00
P2O2 26.35
Si02 1.65
Table 2. Composition of the waste (O’Riordan, 1984).
Hydroxide Percentage
Rare Earth hydroxide 7.00
Thorium hydroxide 14.00
Insoluble residues 19.00
Water 60.00
UP Open University
Table 3. Matters brought up by the plaintiffs against the ARE company.
l A declaration that the company is not entitled to produce and keep

the toxic radioactive waste on its land and adjoining lands so as to
result in the escape of radioactive gases.
l An injunction to restrain the company from producing, storing and

keeping the toxic and radioactive waste on its land and adjoining
lands.
l An injunction to restrain the company from repeating or continuing

the nuisance set out above or any similar nuisance.
l A mandatory injunction for the removal and proper disposal of the

toxic and radioactive waste in ARE’s land and adjoining lands.
l Damages, interest and costs, plus other relief deemed fit by the
court.
Table 4. Objectives set for the National Seminar on Nuclear Science and
Technology for Journalists, Kuala Lumpur,
17-18 November 1992.
l To disseminate information regarding the development of nuclear

science and technology to professionals in the mass media.
l To increase the level of understanding of professionals in the mass

media regarding development of nuclear science and technology in
order to facilitate effective dissemination of information to the public.
l To provide an opportunity for interactio0n between the journalists,

the experts and the scientists involved in the field of nuclear science
and technology.
l To encourage more publication, reporting and broadcasting of mat-

ters related to nuclear science and technology in mass media.
UP Open University
Activity 10-3
Review the steps to ensure a successful public information cam-
paign as described in Case No. 2. What are these steps? Compare
these steps in those suggested in social marketing. On the basis of
your comparison, can you say that Case No. 2 has satisfied the
requirements for a successful social marketing campaign? Submit
your report to your Tutor in the next tutorial session.
References
Department of Environment, “Report on the Site Investigation of Caves

Proposed for the Storage of Radioactive Thorium: An Environmental
Consideration,” Ministry of Science Technology and environment.
Kuala Lumpur, May 1979.
Ichikawa, S. 1986. The Results of the Dosimetry With TLDs Carried Out
Around the Temporary Thorium Waste Dumping Site of the Asian
Rarfe Earth Sdn. Bhd. Plant, Bukit Merak, Perak, Malaysia. Japan.
Kotler, P. and E.L. Roberto. 1989. Social Marketing: Strategies for Chang-
ing Public Behavior. New York: The Free Press.
Lu, L.C. n.d. Feasibility Study of Processing Malaysian Monazite by the
Caustic Soda Route. NISIR.
The New Straits Times, 12 July 1992.
The New Straits Times, 27 July 1992.
The News Straits Times, 6 August 1992.
The Star, 24 December 1993.
The Star, 19 January 1994.
UP Open University

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Environmental Advocacy

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Environmental Advocacy

University of the Philippines

Copyright © 2000 Felix Librero, Frances M. Canonizado

Published in the Philippines by the UP Open University

First printing, 2000

Layout by Cecilia Geronimo-Santiago

Printed in the Philippines

Unit I A Framework for Environmental Advocacy

Module 1 The Context of Environmental Advocacy, 3

Module 2 Principles of Environmentalism: A Review, 13

Module 3 Developing Environmental Ethics, 27

Module 4 The IEC Approach, 47

Module 5 The Social Marketing Approach, 59

Module 6 Conventional Development Communication Strategies, 79

Module 7 Indigenization Strategies, 105

Unit III The Environmental Advocacy Plan of Action

Module 9 Designing An Environmental Advocacy Plan of Action, 137

Module 10 Case Studies in Environmental Campaigns, 155

Unit IV Environmental Advocacy: Future Directions

Module 11 Environmental Advocacy: Future Directions, 187

So that we can be effective in our efforts to promote environmentalism

This first Unit is composed of three modules:

Module 1. The Context of Environmental Advocacy

Module 2. Principles of Environmentalism: A Review

Module 3. Developing Environmental Ethics

E nvironmentalism, loosely defined as con-

In this module, we will take a look at the rise of environmental advocacy

What is Environmental Advocacy?

make institutions more responsive to human needs.” Advocates are nor-

A general working definition of advocacy has been proposed by Servaes

Advocacy for development is a combination of social actions de-

In addition, “Advocacy is most effective when, besides mass media, indi-

Question: So what is environmental advocacy?

But is it as simple as that? Many people these days seem to be jumping on

‘Anything’ can be manifested in proper waste disposal, being conscious

the state of existing resources, or simply working with children in schools

Why the Need for Environmental Advocacy?

noticeable of all, the rapidly growing mountain of trash in Payatas) in the

That’s another metaphor for what environmental advocacy is all about—

Do the research, look for newspaper articles in print, on television,

Activity 1-1 continuation

Write a summary of what you’ve learned. Identify key issues—has

Comment on Activity 1-1

What we need is a sustained advocacy of environmental issues and con-

This is why we need environmental advocacy.

Why Environmental Advocacy Now, Not

Comment on Activity 1-2

l Am I aware of what strategies I can use to advocate my environmen-

What is in Store for Us?

l The rate at which commerce and industry in the Asia-Pacific region is

Read Annex A. It takes you through discussions on the importance of the

To What Extent are We Responsible?

But it is also within our power to do good. We can make progressive

l Improve public access to environmental information;

Advocacy is About Making a Difference

Environmental advocacy is about making people listen and pay

E nvironmental advocacy uses many com

on what you’ll be communicating to others. At the end of this module,

Activity 2-1 continuation

Comment on Activity 2-1

Ecological Truths to Live By

Our environment operates, much like we human beings do, on certain

Variety is the spice of life

There is an abundance of genetic information (genetic diversity) in each