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Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864

World Conference on Educational Sciences 2009

Leadership behaviors of school principals in relation to teacher job

satisfaction in north Cyprus

Mine SANCAR*
Eastern Mediterranean University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences, Famagusta-North
Cyprus
Received October 25, 2008; revised December 15, 2008; accepted January 4, 2009

Abstract

This study determines leadership behaviors of public school principals as perceived by public school teachers in relation to teacher
job satisfaction in Northern Cyprus. Teachers’ perceptions of their school principals’ leadership behavior was measured by the
Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ). Teachers’ expressed job satisfaction level was measured by the
Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Scales (MCMJSS). A Linear Regression analysis proved a significantly positive
relationship between school principals’ perceived ‘consideration’ behavior and teachers’ expressed job satisfaction. However,
there was no significant relationship between school principals’ perceived ‘initiation of structure’ behavior and expressed teachers
job satisfaction levels.

© 2009 Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Keywords: School Principals; leadership; behavior; ‘consideration’; ‘initiation of structure’; job satisfaction.

1. Introduction

The concept of leadership dates back 5000 years to Egyptian hieroglyphics in which the words (seshemu) “leader”
and (seshement) “leadership” are used (Bass, 1990). For a long time leaders were thought to be privileged men born
to be leaders shaping history through the vision of their intellect, the beauty of their art, the prowess of their
leadership, and, most important, their divine inspiration. This was the assumption behind ‘The Great Man Theory’
(Burns, 1978).
The human relations approach to leadership, which was developed after Mayo’s studies (1933) views leadership
as an interactional phenomenon depending on the interrelation of the group members pursuing common goals of the

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 00 90 392 630 10 17; fax: 00 90 392 630 40 38.
E-mail address: mine.sancar@emu.edu.tr

1877-0428 © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.508
2856 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864

organization (Murphy, 1941; Stogdill, 1948). Hence, with a humanistic perspective, leadership is defined in terms of
status, interaction, perceptions, and behavior of individuals in relation to other members within an organized group.
As a result of leadership studies in the mid 1950s, at the Ohio State University, The Leadership Behavior
Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) was developed to measure leaders’ ‘‘consideration’’ and ‘‘initiation of structure’’
behaviors (Shartle, 1950; Fleishman, Harris, & Burtt, 1955; Halpin, 1959,1966); the term ‘‘consideration’’ describing
the extent to which a leader exhibits concern for the welfare of other members of the group; and ‘‘initiation of
structure’’ showing the extent to which a leader initiates an activity in the group, organizes it and defines how the
work is to be done.
According to scholars working in the field (Halpin, 1966; Stogdill & Coons, 1957), for effective leadership
‘‘consideration’’ and ‘‘initiation of structure’’ behaviors go hand in hand. According to Maslow (1954), an
administrator’s job is to provide possibilities for the satisfaction of employees’ needs that also support achievement of
organizational goals, and to remove impediments blocking need satisfaction, and creating frustration, negative
attitudes, or dysfunctional behavior.
In the case of school management, Maslow’s suggestion was supported by Drysdale, Ford, Gurr, & Swann (2003).
They state that successful school leaders, who are achievement oriented, support all members of the school
community, provide opportunities for people to achieve, and try their best to contribute to the quality of education and
learning for the whole school community. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2000) list seven action imperatives to help
schools become learning organizations three of them, which are relevant to this study, are indispensible elements of
‘‘consideration’’ behavior: promoting inquiry and dialogue; encouraging collaboration and team learning; and
empowering people toward a collective vision.
Gardner (1986) names the person demonstrating both ‘‘consideration’’ and ‘‘initiation of structure’’ behavior as
the “leader-manager” and sums the “leader-manager’s” tasks as: (1) envisioning the group’s goals; (2) affirming
values for the group; (3) motivating the members; (4) managing the work and the group; (5) achieving a workable
unity among the members; (6) explaining what needs to be done; (7) serving as a symbol; (8) representing the group;
and (9) renewing the group.
Throughout history, the dominant paradigm for the study of leadership has evolved from research on traits and
situations to something more dynamic in terms of human relations, task analysis and contextual factors together with
personally favored behaviors. Thus, studies on school leadership have shown that, in order to account fully for the
definition of leadership, cognitive, behavioral and interactional (humanistic) explanations are needed. Thus, when
school principalship is concerned, ‘task-oriented’ and ‘relations-orientated’ behavior (‘consideration’ and ‘initiation
of structure’) might overlap and the school principal might need to exert both leadership and management behaviors
resulting in effective leadership.

1.2 Leadership behavior and teacher job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an amalgamation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Research in the mid-twentieth century,
on which this study is mainly based, has produced strong evidence that school administrators are effective factors on
teachers’ extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction (Brown, 1967; Fast, 1964; Greenfield, 1968; Keeler & Andrews,
1963; Seeman, 1957). According to Fast (1964) ‘‘consideration’’ and ‘‘initiation of structure’’ behaviors of principals
positively relate to teachers’ satisfaction. Stromberg (1967) obtained a significant relation between teachers’ morale
and the attitudes of their principals towards ‘‘consideration’’ and ‘‘initiation of structure’’.
Lepper and Henderlong (2000) suggest that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation operate simultaneously
and are not necessarily reciprocal. Extrinsic motivation is affected by the way a leader behaves and can actually
enhance intrinsic motivation. Similar studies in the field also show that there is a significant relationship between
leader behavior, operating as extrinsic motivation and teacher job satisfaction (Fast, 1964; Brown, 1967; Stromberg,
1967; Andreas and Ilada Andreas, 1987; David, 1990; Fjelstad, 1990; Lunenberg and Ornstein, 2000; Allegre, 1994;
Reyes and Shin, 1995; Bare-Oldham, 1998; John & Taylor, 1999).

1.3 Purpose of the study

Based on research done in various contexts, the present study focuses on leadership behaviors of school principals
in relation to teacher job satisfaction in North Cyprus. It investigates the existence of a significant relationship
between perceived leadership behaviors of school principals and expressed job satisfaction of the teachers.
 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864 2857

The unique quality of this study lies in the fact that no such study has been done before in North Cyprus. It is
expected to serve as a starting point for further study.
The study aims at involving teachers working in schools in all five districts of North Cyprus (Nicosia, Famagusta,
Kyrenia, Güzelyurt, and Yeni øskele). The idea is to collect comprehensive data to be able to comment on the
leadership behaviors of school principals as perceived by the teachers, and the impact of leadership behaviors of
school principals on teachers’ expressed job satisfaction. Findings from this study will provide evidence to make
helpful recommendations for future practices.
Based on the review of literature, it is hypothesized that a significantly positive relationship will exist between
principals’ perceived leadership behavior and expressed teacher job satisfaction (Brown, 1967; Stromberg, 1967;
David, 1990; Fjelstad, 1990; John and Taylor, 1999; Reyes and Shin, 1995)

1.4 Research questions

1. What is the significantly perceived leadership behavior of public school principals by public school teachers in
Northern Cyprus as measured by the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)?
2. What is the expressed job satisfaction level of public school teachers in Northern Cyprus as measured by the
Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Scale (MCMJSS)?
3. Is there a significant relationship between perceived leadership behaviors of school principals and expressed
teacher job satisfaction in North Cyprus?

2. Method

The survey for the study was conducted in the 2002-2003 academic year in North Cyprus. The population of
teachers working in public elementary and secondary schools in the 2002-2003 academic-year was around 2200,
excluding part time teachers, as identified by the Ministry of National Education and Culture. One thousand seventy
seven (1077) of these teachers worked in 87 public elementary schools and 1270 worked in public secondary schools.
Three hundred and fifty-eight (358) teachers working in randomly selected twenty-one public elementary schools and
452 randomly selected teachers working in 26 (total number of secondary schools excluding technical-vocational
schools ) public secondary schools were sent the questionnaire packages. The return rate from the public elementary
school teachers was 77% (274) and the return rate from the public secondary school teachers was 72% (325 - 134
from middle schools, grades 6 to 8; 121 from combined middle and high schools, grades 6 to 11; and 70 from high
schools, grades 9 to 11). The public elementary school teachers who responded comprised 46%, and the public
secondary school teachers responding comprised 54% of the total number of 599 respondents (n = 599).

Table 2.1 Total number of elementary schools, number of questionnaires sent, and number of questionnaires returned

District Total number Number of schools Number of Number of questionnaires returned

of elementary selected for the study questionnaires
schools sent
Nicosia 24 4 94 57
Güzelyurt 12 4 72 51
Kyrenia 13 4 82 59
Famagusta 30 5 76 62
Yeni øskele 14 4 61 45
Total 93 21 385 274 (76.53%)
2858 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864

Table 2.2Nnumber of secondary schools, number of questionnaires sent, number of questionnaires returned

District Total Number of Secondary Number of Number of questionnaires returned

Schools questionnaires
sent
Nicosia 10 168 121
Güzelyurt 4 74 41
Kyrenia 4 50 40
Famagusta 8 113 85
Yeni øskele 3 47 38
Total 29 452 325 (72%)

The Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) was used to obtain data on public school teachers’
perception of their school principals’ leadership behavior. The instrument consisted of three sub-scales, 15 items
measuring ‘consideration’, 15 items measuring ‘initiation of structure’ behaviors of school principals and 10 items
measuring conditions for administration. The Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Scale (MCMJSS)
instrument was used to determine public school teachers’ level of job satisfaction. The instrument contained four
items measuring intrinsic motivation and four items measuring extrinsic motivation, which altogether measured
teachers’ overall job satisfaction.
The first statistical analysis to be performed was coefficient alpha to measure the reliability of the instruments.
Although the instruments were proven to be reliable and have been used since the mid-twentieth century, reliability
tests were needed for this study since the instruments were translated into Turkish, and were used in a different a
culture at a different span of time.
An internal consistency estimate was computed for both instruments and the alpha value for both ‘‘consideration’’
and ‘initiating structure’ behaviors was .95. The value for total satisfaction was .90, for intrinsic motivation it was .86,
and for extrinsic motivation it was calculated as .90. All of these values were above the cut off value of .70 suggested
by Nunnaly (1978).
The returned questionnaires were tabulated for frequencies of perceived leadership behaviors and expressed job
satisfaction level scores. In order to answer research questions 1 and 2, statistical tests using Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) were performed to determine perceived leadership behaviors of public school principals and
expressed job satisfaction levels of public school teachers in Northern Cyprus. The mean scores of the totals of the
items related to ‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of structure’ behavior were compared to reveal the perceived leadership
behaviors of public school principals and the mean score for job satisfaction was taken to determine the expressed
job satisfaction levels of public school teachers in Northern Cyprus. A Linear Regression analysis was performed to
test research question 3.

3. Findings

3.1 Perceived leadership behavior of school principals in North Cyprus

As Table 3.1.1 illustrates, public school principals in Northern Cyprus are considered to display high
‘consideration’ (M = 2.25; SD = .81) and high ‘initiation of structure’ (M = 2.10; SD = .72) behaviors.
As tested by Pearson’s Paired Sample t-Test, the correlation coefficient .783** between the two perceived
behaviors demonstrates a very strong positive and significant correlation between the two perceived behaviors.
Because of a positive mean difference, .15 points, to the advantage of perceived ‘consideration’ behavior, (t = 7.49
and p = 000, p < .01), it may be stated that school principals in Northern Cyprus are perceived to display
‘consideration’ behavior to a greater degree than ‘initiation of structure’ behavior (Table 3.1.2).
 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864 2859

Table 3.1.1 Means and Standard Deviations of perceived leadership behaviors

MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION

‘CONSIDERATION’ 2.25 .81
‘INITIATIION OF STRUCTURE’ 2.10 .72

Table 3.1.2 t-test results related to correlation between the two perceived leadership behaviors

Mean SD t Pearson p
Correlation
‘CONSIDERATION’ minus ‘INITIATION OF .15 .51 7.49 .783** .000
STRUCTURE’

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

3.2 Teachers’ expressed job satisfaction levels in North Cyprus

As the mean scores clearly indicate (Table 3.2.1), public school teachers in Northern Cyprus express high overall
job satisfaction (M =4.53; SD = 0.96); intrinsic motivation (M = 4.54, SD = 1.02) and extrinsic motivation (M = 4.52,
SD = 1.15). All these scores are above the cut off point, which is 3.00 for each. As it can be seen in Table 3.2.2,
overall job satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are very highly positively correlated. There is a
very highly significant positive correlation between overall job satisfaction and intrinsic motivation (.869**) and
extrinsic motivation (.898**). There is also a very significant positive correlation between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation (.562**).
The compared mean score of .02 points to the advantage of intrinsic motivation, as tested by Pearson’s
paired sample t-test (t = .578, p = .000 which is p< .01) (Table 3.2.3), indicates that expressed intrinsic motivation
level of public school teachers in Northern Cyrus is significantly higher than their stated extrinsic motivation.

Table 3.2.1 Means and Standard Deviations of expressed job satisfaction

Mean SD
Overall Job Satisfaction 4.53 .96
Intrinsic Motivation 4.54 1.02
Extrinsic Motivation 4.52 1.15

Table 3.2.2 t-test results related to correlation between overall job satisfaction, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Overall Job Satisfaction Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

Overall Job Satisfaction 1.000 869** .898**
Significance .000 .000
Intrinsic Motivation .869** 1.000 .562**
Significance .000 .000
Extrinsic Motivation .898** .562** 1.000
Significance .000 .000
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
2860 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864

Table 3.2.3 Compared Means Scores of Expressed Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation by Pearson t-test.

Mean SD t P
Intrinsic Motivation (minus) Extrinsic
Motivation 0.2 1.02 .578 .000

3.3 Relationship between perceived leadership behaviors of school principals and expressed teacher job satisfaction

A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to evaluate how well the school principals perceived
leadership behaviors (‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of structure’) predicted state school teachers overall job
satisfaction. ‘Consideration’ behavior and ‘initiation of structure’ behavior were the predictors, while overall teacher
job satisfaction was the criterion variable. Table 3.3.1 is presented to indicate the relative strength of the individual
predictors. The bivariate correlations between the perceived leadership behaviors (‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of
structure’) of school principals and expressed overall teachers job satisfaction in North Cyprus were positive, as
expected. The predictors (‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of structure’ behavior) together indicate a high direct
relationship to expressed overall job satisfaction (R = .555, R2 = .309, p < .01). Thus it can be stated that, when the
other variable is controlled, 31% of the total variance related to ‘expressed teacher job satisfaction’ is explained in
relation to perceived ‘consideration’ behavior of the state school principals.
The beta coefficients indicate that perceived ‘consideration’ behavior of state school principals makes a great
contribution of the prediction of teachers expressed overall job satisfaction, however, ‘initiation of structure’ behavior
of state school principals has no contribution to expressed teacher job satisfaction on its own. Therefore, if the
predictors are to be relatively ordered in importance, it can be stated that perceived ‘consideration’ behavior of the
public school principals is more important in predicting teachers’ expressed overall job satisfaction. .
When significance of regression coefficients is considered, the only important variable in predicting teacher job
satisfaction is ‘consideration’ behavior (t = 7.21, p < .01). ‘Initiation of structure’ behavior has no effect on
predicting the overall teacher job satisfaction (t = -.434, p > .5). The relationship between teachers’ perceived
‘consideration’ behavior of the school principals may be said to be inverse because of the negative t = -.554 and the
negative partial correlation score (r = -.23). As the histogram (fig. 3.3.1) reveals teachers’ expressed overall job
satisfaction residual is scattered almost normally. Moreover, as shown in the Normal P-P plot of regression statistics
there is a very strong direct positive relationship between the expected cumulative probability and the observed
cumulative probability, the two almost match.

Table 3.3.1Lenear Regression analysis of perceived ‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of structure’ behavior and expressed overall teacher job
satisfaction

VARIABLE Unstand. Std. Stand. t p Zero Partial

coefficients Err coefficients order r
B β R
CONSTANT 30.55 .593 - 51.48 .000 - -
(overall job satisfaction)

‘CONSIDERATION’ 0.172 0.024 .597 7.208 000 .555 .309

‘INITIATION OF
STRUCTURE’
R = .555, R2 = .309 -0.014 0.025 -.046 -0.554 -.55 -.498 -.23
F(2,596)=132.95 p = 000
 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864 2861

Histogram
Dependent Variable: OVERALL
70

60

50

40

30

20
Frequency

Std. Dev = 1.00

10 Mean = 0.00

0 N = 599.00

-.7

-.2

.2

.7

1.

1.

2.

2.
-3

-2

-2

-1

-1

25

75

25

75
.
.

25

5
25

75

25

75

Regression Standardized Residual

Figure 3.3.1 Histogram for Regression-Standardized Residuals

Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual

Dependent Variable: OVERALL
1.00

.75
Expected Cum Prob

.50

.25

0.00
0.00 .25 .50 .75 1.00

Observed Cum Prob

Figure 3.3.2 Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Conclusions

Literature has shown that in the field of leadership thorough out history, personal traits, and consideration of
others feelings, thoughts, needs and inspirations gain importance along side administrative and managerial skills. In
relation to this, the following conclusions were drawn from the findings of the study.
1. Public school principals are perceived by teachers to display high ‘consideration’ and high ‘initiation of structure’
behavior throughout Northern Cyprus. A sample mean score of public school teachers’ rating of ‘‘consideration’’
behaviors of public school principals (M = 2.25) and a sample mean score of public school teachers’ rating of
‘‘initiation of structure’’ behavior of public school principals (M = 2.09) show that school principals are perceived to
be highly considerate of teachers’ needs and wants while providing a lot of guidance about what must be done and
how it must be done. Thus, they are perceived to be effective and efficient in managing both tasks and people
(Halpin, 1966; Stogdill & Coons, 1957).
2862 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864

It can also be stated that that, although public school principals are perceived to display high ‘‘consideration’’ and
high ‘‘initiation of structure’’ behaviors, they are perceived to display significantly higher ‘‘consideration’’ behavior
(Mean dif. = .15, SD = .41, t = 7.5, p = .000, p < .01).
School principals’ display of high ‘consideration’ and high ‘initiation of structure’ behaviors may depend on two
factors: social structure of the community and institutional structures of schools. Living in one distinct part of a small
island, the school principals in North Cyprus are members of a closely knit society in which human relations remain
warm and intimate creating an atmosphere in which people’s needs, desires and emotions are important and are taken
into consideration. At the same time, the school principals are appointed officials are being monitored by the Ministry
of Education and Culture. Hence, they need to maintain a steady and efficient operation of their schools, quality
education, and day-to-day routines of the job.
2. Findings show that public school teachers in North Cyprus express high job satisfaction (M = 4.53;
SD = .96). It is also evident that, perceived ‘consideration’ behaviors of school principals significantly positively
affect teachers’ expressed job satisfaction whereas ‘initiation of structure’ has no significant relation to teacher job
satisfaction.
Surveys in the field have also shown that employees’ favorable attitudes toward their supervisors contribute to
their job satisfaction (Bergen, 1939; Houser, 1927; Kornhouser and Sharp, 1932; Viteles, 1953; Bass. 1990). Hence,
success of an organization depends on how the employees perceive their supervisor’s leadership behavior which
affects their satisfaction levels and their performances (Bass, 1990).
As it was hypothesized, teachers in Northern Cyprus tend to be relations oriented and prefer ‘consideration’
behavior. Consequently, when such behavior is practiced they seem to have further job satisfaction.
3. The bivariate correlations between the perceived leadership behaviors (‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of structure’)
of school principals and expressed overall job satisfaction of teachers in North Cyprus are positive. The predictors
(‘consideration’ and ‘initiation of structure’ behavior) together indicate a high relationship to expressed overall
teacher job satisfaction (R = 555, R2 = .309, p = .000, p < .01). The beta coefficients indicate that perceived
‘consideration’ behavior of state school principals make a great contribution to the prediction of teachers expressed
job satisfaction, however, ‘initiation of structure’ behavior has no contribution to expressed teacher job satisfaction on
its own. When relatively put in order of importance, ‘consideration’ behavior is more important in predicting overall
teacher job satisfaction than ‘initiation of structure’ behavior of school principals.
When significance of correlation coefficients are considered, the only important variable in predicting teachers job
satisfaction was ‘consideration’ behavior (t = 7.21, p = .000, p < .01). The results clearly indicate that perceived
leadership behaviors of the public school principals in Northern Cyprus significantly correlate with teachers’
expressed job satisfaction; and that perceived ‘consideration’ behavior is important in assuring teacher job
satisfaction.
Studies since 1950s have also shown a significant relationship between leader behavior and teacher job
satisfaction (Fast, 1964; Brown, 1967; Stromberg, 1967; Andreas and Ilada Andreas, 1987; David, 1990; Fjelstad,
1990; Lunenberg and Ornstein, 2000;, Allegre, 1994; Reyes and Shin, 1995; Bare-Oldham, 1998; John & Taylor,
1999). This study, therefore, gains significance in demonstrating the relationship between perceived leadership
behaviors of school principals and teacher job satisfaction.

4.2 Recommendations

The following recommendations can be made based on the findings of this study:
1. The findings of this study should be used in the selection, training and appointment of school principals because
awareness of teachers’ perceptions and expectations could lead to better school administration and principal-teacher
relations.
2. Findings of this study should be made available to authorities responsible for making educational policies and/or
designing staff training and development programs;
3. Educational policy makers should offer pre-service and in-service training programs for the prospective and
present school principals;
4. Such programs should:
a) ensure that they are based on andragogical (adult learning) assumptions and principles, and the conditions
cater for adult learners (Knowles, 1984);
 Mine SANCAR / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 (2009) 2855–2864 2863

b) include all five components of a staff development program suggested by Joyce and Showers (1980)2, with
an additional component of reflection, which will allow the school principals to think critically of themselves
while excreting leadership;
5. School principals, in order to function in the most effective way, should attend leadership training and development
programs as these programs have proven to increase achievement and motivation and enhance the personal
competencies vital to effective leadership, (Cherniss, 1998);
6. School principals, in order to promote teacher satisfaction, should create an open and collegial climate; a climate
which is open and honest, in which teachers feel secure about their jobs, freely express and share their feelings and
opinions, and in which they collaborate on important decisions. This will reduce stress and boost job satisfaction and
morale (Sinclair, 1992; Scott & Dinham, 1998; Wakonick, 2004).

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