10 Leveraged Buyout Analysis - Street of Walls

5/1/23, 10:14 AM Leveraged Buyout Analysis | Street Of Walls
STREETOFWALLS ARTICLES TRAINING
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LEVERAGED BUYOUT ANALYSIS

of Investment Banking Technical Training
In this Leveraged Buyout (LBO) Analysis module we will cover seven key topics:
LBO Overview
Criteria for Selecting LBO Candidates
LBO Capital Structure
Building Operating Assumptions
Potential Exits and Returns Analysis
Sources and Uses
Summary of LBO Considerations
LBO Overview
A leveraged buyout is the acquisition of a company, either privately held or publicly held, as an
independent business or from part of a larger company (a subsidiary), using a significant amount of
borrowed funds to pay for the purchase price of the company. The leveraged buyout transaction is
orchestrated by a private equity firm (also called a financial sponsor) or group of private equity
firms (also called a private equity group or a consortium), which will take ownership (own the equity
of) the business after the acquisition has been completed.
The purchase of the company comes from a combination of equity capital (contributed by the
sponsor/consortium, plus potentially some tag-along investors, such as management) and debt
instruments (financed through banks and other lenders). Generally speaking, the debt will constitute a
majority of the purchase price—after the purchase of the company, the debt/equity ratio is typically
around 2.0x or 3.0x (i.e., usually the total debt will be about 60-80% of the purchase price).
In an LBO, the cash flow generated by the acquired company is used to service (pay interest on) and
pay down (pay principal on) the outstanding debt. For this reason, while companies of all sizes and
industries can be targets of LBO transactions, companies that generate a high amount of cash flow are
the most attractive (more on this later).
The overall return for the sponsor or consortium in an LBO is determined by a number of factors:
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Growth in the operating profit/cash flow of the company (EBIT or EBITDA) over the life of the
investment;
The exit multiple on EBIT/EBITDA relative to the entry or acquisition multiple; and
The amount of debt that is paid off over the time horizon of the investment.
Investment bankers typically use LBO analysis to obtain an LBO market value for a company. This can
act as a “floor” for company valuation, because it provides a reasonable amount that financial investors
(sponsors) would be willing to pay to own the company, whereas other investors may be willing to pay
more for a variety of reasons. Other typical uses of LBO modeling include:
Determining the equity returns (through IRR calculations) that can be achieved if a company is
bought privately, improved, and then ultimately sold or taken public
Determining the effect of recapitalizing the company through issuance of debt to replace equity
Determining the debt service limitations of a company based on its cash flows
The vital steps in an LBO analysis include:
The key terms an anlayst should know know regarding an LBO are:
Criteria for Selecting LBO Candidates
A company capable of successfully undergoing an LBO typically possesses the following characteristics:
Mature industry and/or company: The stock price of the target company is trading at a
lower multiple to free cash flow than new companies in high-growth industries. This enables the
LBO purchaser to buy the company at a relatively low cost compared to the annual cash flow it
produces; this cash flow will be a key ingredient in generating an attractive return for the
investors.
Clean balance sheet with no or low amount of outstanding debt: Buyers need the
ability to be able to use new debt, or “leverage” as the name suggests, as part of the acquisition
consideration. Companies with high levels of pre-existing debt limit the amount of new debt that
it can withstand, and new debt is crucial for the LBO. (Note that if a company has existing debt,
that existing debt will often need to be refinanced in an LBO, because the financial sponsor will
need to remove pre-existing financial covenants and limitations to fit the new capital structure.)
Strong management team and potential business improvement measures:
Management is capable of running the company effectively, and capable of creating a more
efficient company (lower costs) or expanding into new profitable markets or products.
Strong competitive advantages and market position: It is ideal if the company is in a

good position within its market space (relative to current and potential competitors)—this will
help shield the company from competitive pressures that might reduce profit margins (and
therefore cash flows) and will help provide possible growth opportunities for the business.
Steady cash flows: Stable, recurring cash flows are necessary, as that cash flow is needed every
year to service the large debt burden for the LBO (especially in the first several years post-
acquisition). Cyclical or highly seasonal companies, therefore, can run into trouble quickly if a
downturn occurs. Debt pay-down is also important in that it increases the equity/total assets
ratio of the company, boosting investor returns.

Low future capital expenditure and working capital requirements: Part of the return
LBO investors seek will be generated from growing the business, and growth costs cash in the
short-term: growth must be used to finance new capital expenditures and new working capital
requirements for the business. Therefore businesses that have relatively high capital expenditure
and working capital requirements will be less attractive for an LBO.
Possible sale of underperforming/non-core assets: Some companies that are purchased
via LBO will have divisions or side businesses that are performing weakly or are a distraction to
management. Often, these businesses can be sold to raise cash to pay off outstanding debt that is
used in the purchase of the company. Note that these assets should not represent a significant
portion of the company’s current cash flow: selling the business means losing that future cash
flow, and cash flow is needed to pay off debt and interest.
Feasible exit options: Once the business has been improved and some of the debt used to
purchase the business has been paid off, an LBO investor would generally like to exit—that is,
sell—the company fairly quickly (a typical timeframe is 3-5 years after purchase). Holding the
company beyond the optimal selling point will reduce the expected annual return on the
investment, because leverage decreases every year. Therefore an analyst considering an LBO
opportunity might want to consider how the company can be sold (typically via strategic sale to
another company, an Initial Public Offering, or sale to another LBO investor). Any historical
LBO, M&A, or IPO precedents in the LBO candidate’s industry might give an indicator as to how
easily the company can be sold when it is ready for sale.
Capital Structure
While each leveraged buyout is structured slightly differently, there is a typical structure to the LBO
that occurs on deal after deal (more or less). By this, we are referring to the components of the capital
structure for the newly-purchased LBO company. Each component of the capital structure relates to a
piece of the financing package that was used to purchase the company. Some deals might include a
little bit more of one ingredient than another, or a “substitute” ingredient (such as one type of debt
financing rather than another), but overall there is a fairly specific recipe that is almost always used.
Roughly speaking, about half (50%) of an LBO’s capital structure typically includes Senior Debt, also
known as Bank Debt financing. Senior Debt is the “cheapest” of all of the financing instruments used
to buy a company via LBO: it has a lower cost of capital than other tranches of the capital structure, as
it is the first in line in the capital structure to receive value during a liquidation of the company. Thus it
will typically have lower interest rates than other debt components of the company’s capital structure.
To be clear: if everything falls apart, the Senior Debt gets paid off first. Senior Debt has a priority
claim on the cash flow of the business and is also secured by assets of the company. Additionally,
Senior Debt lenders will typically stipulate strict limitations on the business—in essence, the business
must meet certain performance criteria to be in compliance with the Senior Debt arrangements. These
agreements are known as “covenants,” and they include minimum coverage of interest (the interest
coverage ratio) and a maximum allowable debt/cash flow ratio. These performance ratios are
typically scrutinized every quarter.
Senior Debt is generally fully amortized over a five to ten year period, which creates a burden on the
company to generate sufficient cash flow from its operations to pay these debt balances off in that
timeframe.
The typical pricing (interest rate) on Senior Debt is the LIBOR rate plus 200 to 400 basis points (bps).
In addition, Senior Debt (like most debt instruments) will require closing fees in the form of financing
fees plus an Original Issue Discount. These are effectively upfront charges paid to the lenders for
the consideration of lending the company/sponsor the money to purchase the company.
High Yield Debt, or Subordinated Debt, often represents about 20% to 30% of the capital
structure of the newly acquired company. High-yield debt has higher financial costs than senior debt.
However, high-yield debt typically has less restrictive covenants or limitations and interest-only
payments with pay down due upon maturity of debt. The high-yield debt issuers are ahead of the equity
holders in the event of a liquidation of the company, but behind the Senior Debt. In other words, in a
liquidation scenario, high-yield bondholders typically will not receive any compensation until the
Senior Debt holders are paid in full. For this reason, High-yield bonds are often referred to as Junk
Bonds, because the potential loss of investment capital is significant in many cases, and the bonds
have little security for the investors aside from the cash flow generated by the company.
In many situations, high-yield debt is callable by the company after a few years, at a premium, which
gives the company the option to obtain better terms on debt options, in the event that the company is
doing well several years after the LBO occurs. This prepayment penalty (the premium) also offers
protection to the high-yield bondholders: they agreed to lend money for a riskier debt instrument, and
expect to continue receiving a high interest rate in compensation for having taken on this risk.
Subordinated debt can also consist of various types of mezzanine financing, such as PIK notes,
convertible preferred debentures, etc. Mezzanine financing is sometimes referred to as quasi-equity,
or equity-like securities. These additional securities are typically smaller slices of the capital structure
(usually around 5% apiece), and are junior to other forms of debt. They thus require an even higher
expected return than other forms of subordinated debt, but decrease the amount of equity
consideration the sponsor must contribute to purchase the company. By doing so, in a positive
investment scenario for the equity holders, mezzanine financing usually increases the sponsor’s
expected return. Indeed, the more high-yield and mezzanine financing used, the higher the equity
returns for the sponsor are likely to be, because they reduce the sponsor’s required investment amount,
but do not limit the potential gains to equityholders if the company increases in value.
Equity, which represents the private equity fund’s capital in an LBO, is the most junior tranche of the
capital structure. In other words, common equity shareholders are paid last during a liquidation of a
company, after all other stakeholders. The equity is typically around 20-30% of the notional value of
the capital structure, though it is sometimes more for certain deals.
Because the company is so heavily leveraged at acquisition, equity holders require a large projected
internal rate of return on investment—typically, investors seek annual returns in the range of 20% to
40%. Again, if problems occur during the investment, equity holders may very well receive no value on
their position, particularly if the company defaults on its borrowed debt payments, so the required
returns to compensate for that risk are high.
The following chart illustrates the various components of a typical LBO capital structure, organized
from most senior to most junior, along with the approximate proportion of the capital structure that
each tranche will represent:
Operating Assumptions
In order to assess how a company is likely to perform in an LBO, an analyst must forecast the projected
performance of the company being acquired and, from this, determine how this will impact the value of
each component of the LBO capital structure over the upcoming years. Financial projections, typically
in the range of 5-10 years after the transaction close, act as the basis of the model. The core of the LBO
model will reflect the concepts discussed in the Financial Modeling and Three-Statement Financial
Modeling chapters in this training course.
Typically the CFO of an LBO candidate company will provide internal financial projections for the
company developed by management. These projections can be assessed by the investor and possibly
adjusted according to discretion to create alternate scenarios. If internal projections are not available,
equity research analysts will often have reports available to help the analyst develop assumptions in the
operating model, such as profitability margins and growth rates.
Key questions that an investment banker or private equity investor will confront when developing an
LBO transaction analysis will generally include the following:
What is the outlook for the company’s industry?

Does the company operate in a cyclical or seasonal industry?
What is the outlook for the current state of the domestic and global economy?
How was the company affected in past recessions?

To what degree does the company exhibit operating leverage—i.e., how much are profit margins
affected by growth or decline in revenue?
The analyst must make sure that any assumptions made are realistic and include at least three
scenarios (a “bullish” or optimistic case, a base case, and a “recession” or pessimistic case). For the base
case scenario, the following guidelines are appropriate:
Projected revenue should grow at a rate consistent with past performance.
Projected EBITDA margins should be kept flat, or consistent with results from recent prior years.
One way to do this is to use the average margins from the prior 3 years and use that average in
the forecasted years.
Working capital requirements should be projected at a constant percentage of revenue (or cost of
sales) relative to recent prior years.
Capital expenditures should grow at a slow rate, typically consistent with inflation.
Of course, depending on the specific circumstances of the company being analyzed, some of these base
case assumptions might vary. For example, if the company is realistically expecting to switch to a
lower-cost provider for its inventory, it may make sense to mildly decrease Cost of Goods Sold as a
percentage of sales in projected years.
Once financial forecasts are built, it is vital to review the overall results. Projections should seem
realistic and not overly optimistic, with no “hockey sticks”—i.e., no line items that grow at a rapid rate
in one year (typically the first projection year).
For more detail on building a leveraged buyout model, please see our Private Equity Training Module,
especially the following chapters:
Basics of an LBO Model

Paper LBO Model Example
LBO Modeling Test Example
Potential Exits and Returns Analysis
All LBO acquisitions are made with the goal in mind of improving the company, paying down debt, and
selling the company for a handsome profit. Thus it is important, when evaluating a potential LBO, to
consider the exit opportunities that may be available for the company when the time is right, and an
appropriate exit strategy should be developed. There are three typical exit strategies for a private equity
LBO transaction, illustrated in the graphic below:
Most private equity investors require an expected return (called the Internal Rate of Return, or IRR) in
excess of 25% to consider an LBO of a potential target company (though in some situations this can
stretch down to 20%). Typically, senior members of the investment team will be required to make
critical assumptions on the potential exit multiple (EBITDA and P/E) and the maximum amount of
debt load the target company can handle to achieve such high returns without taking on excessive risk.
Here is an example of how the amount of leverage affects the IRR of an LBO transaction scenario:
In the high-leverage scenario, we assume 75% of the acquisition consideration is borrowed money or
various debt instruments, which may consist of a combination of senior debt and subordinated debt.
This scenario gives us an expected 28.7% IRR. In the low-leverage scenario, we assume 50% of the
acquisition consideration is borrowed money. The low-leverage scenario gives us an expected 19.8%
IRR. Thus the low-leverage scenario is much safer—the value of the company (excluding debt
paydowns) would have to decline by half for the equity value to be completely wiped out, while in the
high-leverage scenario, a decline in company value by only 25% would wipe out the equity (at least in
theory). However, the low-leverage scenario would produce returns that would probably be considered
unacceptably low by a private equity investment firm.
Sources and Uses
In an LBO transaction, an investment banker or private equity investor is required to build a Sources &
Uses table that lays out the pro forma adjustments that are made to the balance sheet of the underlying
LBO target company. In effect, the Sources and Uses table traces the flow of money being used for
various purposes to complete the transaction: the Sources of funds (lenders and equity investors) and
the Uses of those funds (paying previous debt holders, previous equity holders, transaction fees, etc.).
The sum of the Sources and Uses must be equal.
The following presents an overview of the Sources and Uses for an example transaction, including the
required company Balance Sheet adjustments using purchase accounting. (Note in this graphic that
blue data points represent input values and black data points represent formulas, or values that are
calculated from other inputs):
Let’s walk through this example table to understand what it represents. The “Sources” section lists how
the transaction will be financed, and the “Uses” section lists the capital uses—i.e., the places that the
money from the “Sources” section will be going. First, we calculate the Transaction Value and Equity
Value of the target company:
$3,568 (LTM EBITDA) × 8.0x (EBITDA Multiple) = $28,544 (Transaction Value)

and
$28,544 (Transaction Value) – $10,141 (Debt) + $1,354 (Cash) = $19,757 (Equity Value)
Note that the Cash is subtracted because when the company gets acquired, the Cash that it owns can be
used to pay off existing Debt. This reduces the amount of pre-existing Debt the company has as of the
time of the transaction—this figure (Debt – Cash) is called Net Debt. (Alternatively, you can think of
company Debt as a Use of capital while company Cash is a Source of capital, and any Cash can be used
to partially net out Debt as a Source.)
From above, we calculated the purchase Equity Value of the business. This Equity Value will be equal to
the Purchase of Equity line item ($19,757) in the “Uses” section. Current Debt ($10,141) will also need
to be refinanced, so this also is a use of capital.
In addition, the transaction will occur a series of fees. M&A fees, used to compensate advisors on the
transaction, typically range from 0.5% to 2.0% of the Transaction Value. In this case, 0.5% of the
transaction value ($28,544) is $143. Additionally, each tranche of the debt portion of the capital
structure will incur fees. These financing fees (totaling $494) must also be included as a Use of capital.
Now, let’s take a look at the “Sources” section. Notice that the first line item, Balance Sheet Cash
($1,141), is different from the amount used to compute the company’s Equity Value (that Cash balance
was $1,341). The difference arises from the “Minimum Cash” assumption included in the model—this is
a reserve used to estimate the amount of Cash currently on the company’s Balance Sheet that it will be
necessary to keep for its operations (paying suppliers and employees, making interest payments, etc.)
The next line item is the Revolving Credit Facility, or Revolver. The balance of this facility typically is
zero at the beginning of an LBO transaction. The Revolver is a reserve of debt capacity that the
company can use, like a credit card, to fulfill its cash needs if necessary. (This will especially be the case
for seasonal companies, which might run at an operating loss for a portion of the year while making
larger gains in the other parts of the year.)
Next are the Term Loan and Notes, which we calculate as a multiple of EBITDA:
Term Loan: 2.5x (EBITDA multiple) × $3,568 (LTM EBITDA) = $8,920 (Term Loan)
Notes: 2.0x (EBITDA multiple) × $3,568 (LTM EBITDA) = $7,136 (Notes)
Finally, we calculate Equity under the Sources section. Note that this is the equity that must be
contributed by the private equity investor (sponsor), not the value of the equity being purchased: it is
simply equal to the total of the “Uses” section less all of the other “Sources.” In other words, it is a
“plug” that is solved for once everything else is known. Any capital needs for the transactions, as
specified in the “Uses” section, that is not covered by another “Source” of funds must be covered by the
sponsor.
$30,535 (Total Sources) – $8,920 (Term Loan) – $7,136 (Notes) – $1,154 (Excess Cash) =
$13,325 (Sponsor Equity)
As a footnote, the Financing Fees are calculated as follows:
Revolver: $500 (Revolver Availability) × 2.5% financing fee as a percent of committed

availability = $13.
Term Loan: $8,920 × 3.0% financing fee as a percent of principal = $268.
Notes: $7,136 × 3.0% financing fee as a percent of principal = $214.
The Financing Fees are then added up ($13 + $268 + 214 = $494 after rounding) and linked to the
Financing Fees entry in the Uses section.
Next, we calculate the new Goodwill that will be added to the company’s Balance Sheet via an
adjustment after the LBO is completed. The new Goodwill generated by the transaction is the Purchase
of Equity ($19,757) less the current Book Value of Equity of the target company ($18,838). The
difference is the premium ($919) paid to acquire the target company. We simply have to make one
adjustment to this figure to get the final Goodwill figure.
Next, we calculate the Intangible Write-up (919 × 35% = $322). This is the portion of the Premium paid
that we assume will be allocated to increasing the book value of intangible assets on the Balance Sheet.
This is done at least in part to minimize the amount of Goodwill generated by the purchase of the
company.
Next, we calculate the Deferred Tax Liability ($322 × 35% = $113). The Deferred Tax Liability (DTL) is
incurred because the Intangible Write-up occurs on the financial statements, but on a tax basis (i.e., on
the company’s tax statements), the value of the assets do not change. Over time the DTL will be
amortized on financial statements as an expense, and this expense is not deductible for tax purposes.
This difference will be unwound each year the Write-Up is amortized.
Now that we have that difficult concept explained: the new Goodwill is simply Premium minus the
Intangible Write-up plus the Deferred Tax Liability: $919 – $322 + $113 = $710.
Once we have completed the Sources & Uses table and calculated the new Goodwill, we can make the
necessary pro forma Balance Sheet adjustments to the company’s financial statements in the LBO
analysis. The Goodwill of $710 and the Intangible Write-up of $322 will be added as assets in the pro
forma Balance Sheet adjustments, while the Deferred Tax Liability of $113 will be added as a liability.
Thus, the new Net Assets (Assets – Liabilites) added to the Balance Sheet = $710 + $322 – $113 = $919,
exactly equal to the Premium paid for the company’s Equity relative to its book value.
Summary of LBO Considerations
The following graphic summarizes some of the most important high-level aspects of a typical LBO, such
as strategy, multiples, covenants, and timing. All of these things must be taken into consideration by
the analyst when constructing a proper LBO analysis model:
←Three Statement Financial Modeling Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) Valuation→
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5/1/23, 10:14 AM Leveraged Buyout Analysis | Street Of Walls

STREETOFWALLS ARTICLES TRAINING

Follow Site Founder & Author on Twitter

LEVERAGED BUYOUT ANALYSIS

Criteria for Selecting LBO Candidates

LBO Capital Structure

Building Operating Assumptions

Potential Exits and Returns Analysis

Sources and Uses

Summary of LBO Considerations

of) the business after the acquisition has been completed.

the most attractive (more on this later).

bought privately, improved, and then ultimately sold or taken public

The vital steps in an LBO analysis include:

Criteria for Selecting LBO Candidates

Strong competitive advantages and market position: It is ideal if the company is in a

ratio of the company, boosting investor returns.

typically scrutinized every quarter.

each tranche will represent:

operating model, such as profitability margins and growth rates.

What is the outlook for the company’s industry?

How was the company affected in past recessions?

Projected revenue should grow at a rate consistent with past performance.

Basics of an LBO Model

Potential Exits and Returns Analysis

unacceptably low by a private equity investment firm.

Sources and Uses

$3,568 (LTM EBITDA) × 8.0x (EBITDA Multiple) = $28,544 (Transaction Value)

As a footnote, the Financing Fees are calculated as follows:

Revolver: $500 (Revolver Availability) × 2.5% financing fee as a percent of committed

Summary of LBO Considerations

←Three Statement Financial Modeling Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) Valuation→

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