Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances

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Hydrogen Production, Distribution, Storage and Power Conversion in a

Hydrogen Economy - A Technology Review
Bernard Chukwudi Tashie-Lewis a, *, Somtochukwu Godfrey Nnabuife b
a
School of Aerospace, Transport, and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Cranfield, United Kingdom
b
School of Water, Energy, and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To meet ambitious targets for greenhouse gas emissions reduction in the 2035-2050 timeframe, hydrogen has
Paris Agreement been identified as a clean “green” fuel of interest. In comparison to fossil fuel use the burning of hydrogen results
Fuel Cells in zero CO2 emissions and it can be obtained from renewable energy sources. In addition to zero CO2 emissions,
Turboelectric Distributed Propulsion
hydrogen has several other attractive properties such as higher gravimetric energy content and wider flamma­
Gas Turbines
Cryotank
bility limits than most fossil fuels. However, there are practical limitations to its widespread use at present which
CO2 include low volumetric energy density in the gaseous state and high well-to-wheel costs when compared to fossil
Pipeline fuel production and distribution. In this paper a review is undertaken to identify the current state of development
Electrolysis of key areas of the hydrogen network such as production, distribution, storage and power conversion technology.
Salt Domes At present high technology costs still are a barrier to widespread hydrogen adoption but it is envisioned that as
scale of production increases, then costs are likely to fall. Technical barriers to a hydrogen economy adoption are
not as significant as one might think as key technologies in the hydrogen network are already mature with
working prototypes already developed for technologies such as liquid hydrogen composite cryotanks and proton
exchange membrane fuel cells. It is envisioned that with continuous investment to achieve requisite scale that a
hydrogen economy could be realised sooner rather than later with novel concepts such as turboelectric
distributed propulsion enabled by a shift to hydrogen-powered network.

1. Introduction
At present, there is an increasing concern in the world today over
issues such as energy security, energy availability, greenhouse gas
emissions, and climate change. In addition to socio-political concerns,
these issues are becoming of increasing economic concern to companies,
institutions, and organisations around the world. The “Paris Agreement”
signed in 2016 by 196 Nations, set a goal of limiting global warming to
well below 2, preferably 1.5◦ C compared to pre-industrial levels [1]. The
increasing adoption of low carbon technologies by institutions around
the world has been identified as the major method by which these tar­
gets can be achieved. Some of the biggest corporations on the planet
such as Tesla, Apple, Siemens, Alphabet (Google), etc. have already
started to lead the way in becoming carbon neutral [2, 3, 4] & [5], and
countries around the world are increasingly integrating renewable en­
ergy into their national grids. Germany for instance has its “Ener­
giewende” program where it aims to achieve a 55% reduction in
emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 levels and currently produces 44%
of its total power demand from renewables [6]. Iceland is another
country leading the way in renewable power generation where
geothermal energy provides approximately 68% of its total energy needs
[7].
With the increasing use of renewable energy identified as a pathway
to a low carbon future, the characteristics of this energy supply and its
effect on national grids have to be considered. Considering solar power
conversion and wind energy, compared to fossil fuel use, power gener­
ation from wind and solar is characterised by a high degree of inter­
mittency. This has major effects on existing grid power generation and
transmission infrastructure which were not initially designed to handle
power supply from highly intermittent sources. To overcome this
problem, increasing development activity has been undertaken on the
integration of appropriate grid energy storage technologies to better
manage power supply intermittency for a more efficient low-carbon grid
power supply. Some of the technologies that have been considered for
this include pumped hydro, compressed air energy storage (CAES),
lithium-ion batteries, and hydrogen among others [8] & [9]. Hydrogen

* Corresponding author: Bernard Chukwudi Tashie-Lewis, School of Water, Energy, and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, United Kingdom
E-mail address: ben_lewis1@outlook.com (B.C. Tashie-Lewis).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2021.100172
Received 21 March 2021; Received in revised form 25 July 2021; Accepted 21 August 2021
Available online 24 August 2021
2666-8211/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

is particularly attractive for large-scale grid storage because it has high

gravimetric energy content (about 143 MJ kg− 1) and it can be used in
conjunction with fuel cells for back-up power generation. Its use is also
characterized by zero CO2 emissions and as such, excess hydrogen
produced can be stored for later distribution as a fuel in a hydrogen
economy. Additionally, the cradle-to-grave characteristics of hydrogen
technology compared to the other main energy storage option in
lithium-ion batteries is favourable because hydrogen is not toxic as
opposed to what is the case with the typical lithium-ion battery acid
chemistries used today.
The use of hydrogen as a fuel in a hydrogen economy is an attractive
proposition as an alternative to the current fossil fuel economy for
reasons beyond climate change minimisation. Considering economic
reasons, several sources have documented the diminishing discovery of
new petroleum sources combined with an ever-increasing global energy
demand (see Figure 1) as major concerns. Some sources claim we have
already reached a point where half of the world’s crude oil has been Figure 2. Alternate fuel sources will need to be developed to offset the antic­
consumed, while others indicate this will happen by the mid-century ipated peak production of conventional oil supply [10]
(see Figure 2). In any regard, appropriate mitigation options must be
implemented in the coming years, perhaps a decade in advance of the
Table 1
actual peak oil event to assure a smooth transition to “greener” options
Volumetric and gravimetric energy densities of common fuels [11] & [12]
[10]. One of the most promising of these greener options is the uti­
lisation of hydrogen as a fuel. As a fuel hydrogen has a gravimetric Fuel Gravimetric Energy Volumetric Energy
Density (MJ kg− 1) Density (MJ L− 1)
energy density which is about 2.5-3 times higher than the most
commonly used fossil fuels today (see Table 1). Considering end-user Hydrogen (liquid) 143 10.1
application within a vehicle or industrial power generation facility; for Hydrogen (compressed, 143 5.6
700 bar)
every kilogram of hydrogen burnt, the use of stored hydrogen generates Hydrogen (ambient 143 0.0107
up to 2.5 to 3 times more energy than conventional fossil fuel. However, pressure)
hydrogen has a much lower density than most fossil fuels and as such for Methane (ambient 55.6 0.0378
the same phase its volumetric energy density is lower than what is pressure)
Natural Gas (Liquid) 53.6 22.2
achievable with fossil fuels and this imposes volumetric sizing penalties
Natural Gas 53.6 9
on any media storing hydrogen [11]. (Compressed, 250 bar)
Considering other fuel options for the green economy such as bio­ Natural gas 53.6 0.0364
diesel or Syngas, a major advantage of using hydrogen as a fuel for the LPG propane 49.6 25.3
green economy is that existing infrastructure does not need to be LPG butane 49.1 27.7
Gasoline (petrol) 46.4 34.2
dramatically changed. Hydrogen can be used in internal combustion Biodiesel oil 42.2 33
engines and the fuel has good combustion properties that allow for Diesel 45.4 34.6
better machinery design. For instance, Hydrogen has a very low flash­ Kerosene 46.4 36.7
point (about -231◦ C) which is the lowest of any common fuel (see
Table 2). This is important because fuel can only be burnt in a gaseous or
vaporized state. The flashpoint is known as the temperature at which a Table 2
fuel generates enough vapour to form a flame at its surface in the air Flashpoint of some common fuels [11]
while an ignition source is present. The low flashpoint of hydrogen
Fuel Flashpoint (◦ C)
means hydrogen-powered engines require less sophisticated starting and
Hydrogen -231
ignition equipment than those which are running on other fuels. As a
Methane -188
direct result hydrogen engines can typically operate in “harsher” con­ Propane -104
ditions than engines running on other fuel. A practical example is that Gasoline -45
hydrogen vehicles have been reported to be able to start working after Methanol 11
being left in cold temperatures without ignition after a few days. Ethanol (70%) 17
Kerosene 36
Additionally, hydrogen has the widest flammability range amongst
Jet Fuel 60
comparable common fuels (see Table 3). The enormous gap between its Diesel 62
Biodiesel 130

Table 3
Flammability range of common comparable fuels [11]
Fuel Flammable range (%)

Hydrogen 4-75
Methane 5.3-15
Propane 2.2-9.6
Methanol 6-36.5
Gasoline 1-7.6
Diesel 0.6-5.5

Figure 1. The rate of oil discovery is falling while the rate of oil consumption is
increasing [10]

2
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
lower flammability level (LFL) and its higher flammability level (HFL)
allows for the unique combustion engine and turbine performance. LFL
and HFL are the minimum and maximum fuel concentration levels in the
air required to make the mixture flammable. If fuel content is outside
fuel LFL and HFL, air-fuel mixtures will not be flammable either due to
lack of fuel or oxygen. For many common fuels, a relatively small
flammability range when compared to hydrogen means that industrial
producers have to make enhancements and include additional systems
such as turbochargers so that their manufactured engines can perform
better in low-pressure situations such as at high altitude. The wide
flammability range of hydrogen when compared to most fossil fuels,
allows for it to be possible to design and build engines with more
structural simplicity to perform the same function (thrust or power
generation) for multiple different operating points [11].
At present, the major limitations behind widespread utilization of
hydrogen today are concerns over overall lifecycle costs and perceptions
over fuel safety. The major drivers affecting lifecycle cost include pro­
duction cost, supply cost, market price, demand, storage costs, distri­
bution costs, and investment costs. Considering cost concerns, the major
driver affecting hydrogen cost is the characteristics of the source from
which hydrogen is extracted. In 2008 approximately 96% of Hydrogen
produced in the world came from fossil fuels (see Table 4) and the share
hasn’t changed significantly since then. Ironically this doesn’t do much
to solve the global warming problem and exacerbates the carbon cycle.
Not only is a considerable amount of energy lost from fossil fuel energy
content, the infrastructure needed to extract hydrogen comes at a
considerable expense. If fuel is needed for use in a power conversion
device for end-use application such as a gas turbine, fuel cell, or piston
engine; it does not make sense to waste energy for a more expensive fuel
when a rational end-user could simply use a cheaper fuel which has
greater energy content when considering well-to-wheel efficiencies.
However, hydrogen obtained via renewable energy powered electrolysis
allows for better well-to-wheel efficiencies and potentially overall
reduced fuel cost. Hindering progress in realising this at present is the
development challenge of carrying out electrolysis of water at practical
efficiencies and scale. It must be said though that if the cost of renewable
energy power generation continues to fall, then is expected the cost of
hydrogen produced from electrolysis to reduce as well.
Considering the safety aspects of utilizing hydrogen as a fuel;
hydrogen is not toxic yet extremely flammable. This flammability arises
as a result of its laminar burning, buoyant, and propagation velocities
being significantly higher than those of most other common fuels.
However, its vapour-from-liquid-generation speed is much higher than
that of any liquid fossil fuel, and as such hydrogen fires only last about
10-20% of the duration of a fossil fuel fire of the same volume. A safety
hazard though is that hydrogen flames are nearly invisible in daylight so
visual detection of fire will take a slightly longer amount of time. Also,
unlike fossil fuel fires, smoke inhalation of hydrogen fires is essentially
harmless since it is just water vapour. The challenge with handling
hydrogen though is its sensitivity to detonation [11]. High laminar
burning velocity, as well as the high laminar flame speed of hydrogen,
makes the transition to turbulent flame speeds exceeding 800 m s− 1 up
to several km s− 1 easy. Hence, hydrogen is more sensitive to deflagration
to detonation transition (DDT) than hydrocarbons. Safety precautions
when handling hydrogen include a combination of primary, secondary
Table 4
Global hydrogen production share by a source in 2008 [13]
Source Bcma/yr Share (%)
Natural Gas 240 48
Oil 150 30
Coal 90 18
Electrolysis 20 4 hydrogen to fuel a fleet of 728,000 cars for a year if each vehicle needs
Total 500 100
a
Bcm: billion cubic meters
3
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
and tertiary measures. Primary measures include exclusion of causative
risks such as leakage and formation of explosive mixtures by appropriate
design (inertization, open-air installation, flame arrestors, etc.). Sec­
ondary measures consist mainly of the avoidance of ignition sources of
any kind (electrostatically or mechanically generated sparks). Tertiary
measures include ways of minimizing the dangerous results in the case
of a fire or explosion occurring. This is achieved by the installation of
explosion-proof or explosion relief systems, hydrogen process
shut-down systems, and suitable fire extinguishing systems [14].
Considering all of the advantages of using hydrogen in a future green
economy, this paper aims to set a foundation for any future research that
is to be undertaken in this space. With this paper, a review of the
progress that has been made in developing the technology needed to
realise the hydrogen economy is undertaken. With a focus on power
generation and transportation sectors; the state of present-day hydrogen
production, distribution, storage and power conversion technology is
discussed and analysed. Also of interest in this paper is the review of
future technology options in aerospace that can be realised with a shift
to hydrogen system architectures.
2. Hydrogen Production
2.1. Current Status
Hydrogen can be produced by several processes such as thermo­
chemical processes, electrochemical processes, photochemical pro­
cesses, photocatalytic processes, or photo-electrochemical processes
[13]. With these processes hydrogen today is either produced from fossil
fuels, water, or biomass. Unfortunately, fossil fuels are still the main
resource for industrial mass-scale hydrogen production which only ex­
acerbates the carbon cycle. The most economical method of producing
hydrogen from fossil fuels is via steam-methane reforming (SMR). In this
process, steam and methane are reacted to form carbon monoxide and
hydrogen as by-products. The other main processes for producing
hydrogen from fossil fuels include oil partial oxidation, oil cracking, coal
gasification, and coal cracking. Hydrogen from coal accounts for 30% of
production today and hydrogen from oil accounts for 18% of production
[11]. Although economical at present for producing hydrogen for ap­
plications in the space sector, ammonia production, and other miscel­
laneous applications; for widespread use as a fuel in a hydrogen
economy, hydrogen produced from fossil fuels is not a sustainable so­
lution because carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other greenhouse
gases are still emitted into the atmosphere.
Hydrogen production from the water via the splitting of water
molecules employing electrolysis has been the approach increasingly
studied in recent history for sustainable production of hydrogen [11, 13]
& [15]. Either water in the liquid phase or steam can be used for the
electrolysis process. Challenges stated at present for water electrolysis
include high production costs due to high capital investment, low con­
version efficiency, and electrical power cost. However, as renewable
energy technology continues to mature, it is expected that the costs of
electrical power should reduce with time. For instance, the cost of solar
photovoltaic (PV) modules has reduced in cost by 99% since 1980 and
this cost reduction is expected to continue going forward [16]. Also,
considering the significant amounts of energy wasted during off-peak
times at several renewable energy power plants without suitable en­
ergy storage, the use of this energy to drive the water electrolysis process
can reduce hydrogen production costs down further. For instance, it is
reported that in a particular wind farm in north-western Spain, a sizable
section of the farm has to be disconnected regularly from the power grid
to maintain stability during the off-peak hours. According to the oper­
ators, this off-operation wastes a total of 13 GWh of electrical energy per
year. This energy could conveniently be used to generate enough
2.5 kg of hydrogen of refuelling per week. This calculation was based on
the assumption of a weekly journey of 400 km for each vehicle for a year
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
[11]. Considering efficiency; water electrolysis requires a minimum
energy of 39.4 kWh to produce 1 kg of hydrogen generation at full
conversion efficiency. Typically though, most electrolyzers consume 50
kWh to produce 1 kilogram of hydrogen and efforts are underway to
increase the efficiency of the electrolysis process. The two main types of
water electrolysis in use today are alkaline electrolysis and polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis. Alkaline water electrolysis is a
mature technology with efficiencies between 70% - 80% achievable.
Alkaline electrolyzers typically operate at a process temperature of 343
K-353 K. Pressurized alkaline electrolyzers; however, operate at a
somewhat elevated temperature of 363-403 K [13].
Hydrogen is also produced from biomass and this represents a
cleaner approach to produce hydrogen than utilizing fossil fuels. The
major challenge to large-scale hydrogen production from biomass is
whether the land being used for biomass production is competing with
feedstock and dealing with the politics of this decision. For hydrogen
produced from biomass, the main processes for producing hydrogen
from biomass include pyrolysis, gasification, steam gasification, steam
reforming of bio-oils, and the enzymatic decomposition of sugars [13].
2.2. Novel Production Techniques
Appel et al in [17] proposed a photosynthetic hydrogen production
method using a photosystem I–hydrogenase (psaD-hoxYH ) fusion in
vivo. The NiFe-hydrogenase HoxYH of the cyanobacterium Synechocstis
sp. PCC 6803 was connected to its photosystem I subunit PsaD near the
4Fe4S cluster FB, which ordinarily donates electrons to ferredoxin. The
proposed method was because hydrogen produced photosynthetically is
sustainable. Vitro semiartificial techniques have been implemented
successfully in which hydrogenases were connected to isolated photo­
systems for the production of hydrogen. The drawback with Vitro sys­
tems is they are short-lived in general, as metabolic processes that
support self-maintenance and repair are missing. Moreso, photo­
system–hydrogenase fusions have been examined and tested only in
vitro. The resultant psaD-hoxYH mutant grows photo-autotrophically,
achieves a high concentration of photosynthetically produced
hydrogen of 500 μM under anaerobic conditions in the light, and does
not take up the generated hydrogen. Their findings demonstrated that
psaD-hoxYH photosynthetically produces hydrogen through both
oxygenic photosynthesis and anoxygenic.
Malerød-Fjeld et al. in [18] suggested a protonic membrane reformer
(PMR) that converts steam methane reforming into high-purity
hydrogen in a single-stage process with near-zero energy loss. As a
reforming catalyst, a BaZrO3-based proton-conducting electrolyte was
used and deposited as a thick film on a dual function porous Ni com­
posite electrode. Full methane conversion was achieved at 800 ◦ C by
removing 99% of the formed hydrogen, which was concurrently com­
pressed up to 50 bar electrochemically. By coupling distinct
thermo-chemical processes, a balanced thermal operation regime was
achieved. Modelled small-scale (10 kg H2 day− 1) hydrogen plant
showed a total energy efficiency of > 87%. The achieved results show
that the PMRs could be a competitive and promising alternative for
industrial-scale hydrogen plants integrating CO2 capture due to future
declining electricity prices.
Li et al. [19] presented a nickel-molybdenum-nitride nanoplate fixed
on carbon fibre cloth Ni-Mo-N/CFC for the simultaneous electrolytic
high-purity hydrogen production at the cathode and value-added
formate at the anode in low-cost alkaline glycerol solutions. Mostly,
when fitted with Ni-Mo-N/CFC at both cathode and anode, the elec­
trolyzer needs cell voltage as low as 1.36 V to obtain 10 mA cm− 2 that is
260 mV lower than that in alkaline aqueous solution. Also, 95.0% of
formate production and 99.7% high Faraday efficiencies of H2 evolution
were achieved. Considering the electrochemical efficient performances
of Ni-Mo-N/CFC, the alkaline glycerol solutions formate productions
and electrolytic H2 are considered future promising and efficient energy
technology for clean and renewable energy supply.
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
To achieve effective electrochemical power and hydrogen produc­
tion with robust, durable, and stable operation, electrodes are needed to
ease oxygen reduction and water oxidation reactions, which are the
major phases for both fuel cell and electrolysis operation, mainly at
reduced temperatures. Hence, Ding et al. in [20] developed a triple
conducting oxide of PrNi0.5Co0.5O3-δ perovskite as an oxygen electrode,
which at 400~600 ◦ C achieved superior electrochemical performance.
Moreso, reversible and self-sustainable operation was effectively estab­
lished by converting the produced hydrogen in electrolysis mode to
electricity without the addition of hydrogen.
Ito et al. in [21] presented a Miscanthus Sinensis grass model due to its
wide and easiness of cultivation in Japan. The hydrogen formation
features and electrochemical performance of electrolysis cells employ­
ing grass as a biohydrogen source were assessed at intermediary tem­
perature to obtain electrolysis. The constituents such as cellulose,
holocellulose, extractives, and lignin were parted from Miscanthus
Sinensis to comprehend the reactions of Miscanthus Sinensis in the elec­
trolysis cell. The electrolysis properties of an electrolysis cell using lignin
were degraded due to the comparatively low and high resistivity per­
formance of current-voltage compared to those using pure cellulose or
holocellulose as biohydrogen resources. The biohydrogen was made
with respect to Faraday’s law and continuously evolved at 0.1 A cm− 2
for 3,000 seconds.
Kurtoğlu et al. in [22] transformed red mud, one of the most pro­
duced technologically advanced wastes into a catalyst with remarkably
stable and high performance in the formation of hydrogen from
ammonia. The outcomes demonstrated that iron species generated after
reduction of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) absorbed red mud was
changed into ε-Fe2N throughout the ammonia decomposition initiation
period reaction at 700 ◦ C. The measurements catalytic reaction showed
that the reformed red mud catalyst gives a record high hydrogen for­
mation rate for a non-noble metal catalyst at this temperature. For
example, constant hydrogen formation rates were measured as 196 and
72 mmol H2 min− 1 gcat− 1 for the corresponding space velocities of 240
000 and 72 000 cm3 NH3 h− 1 gcat− 1, respectively, at 700 ◦ C. The
outcome offer prospects to employ one of the main harmful industrial
wastes as an effective, stable, eco-friendly, and approximately zero-cost
catalyst for the production of COx-free hydrogen from ammonia
decomposition.
Zhang et al in [23] presented a dehydrogenation route that applies to
different types of non-food-related daily waste and biomass, such as corn
straw, wheat straw, reed, bagasse, cardboard, newspaper bamboo
sawdust, and rice straw. Hydrogen (H2) up to 95% were obtained by a
one-pot, two-step reaction with a 69 ppm molecularly distinct iridium
catalyst containing an imidazoline moiety from formic acid, which was
in turn acquired via a 1 v% dimethyl sulfoxide enhanced hydro­
lysis–oxidation of biomass. Development of the undesirable side prod­
ucts CH4 and CO were not greater than 2 and 22 ppm, respectively,
while CO2 was acquired as carbonate. The subsequent hydrogen gas can
be used in proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells.
Serra et al. in [24] proposed contactless hydrogen (H2) production
through water electrolysis facilitated by the microwave-generated redox
activation of solid-state ionic constituents at low temperatures
(<250 ◦ C). Water was decreased through reaction with non-stable
gadolinium-doped ceric dioxide (CeO2) which was formerly in situ
electrochemically deoxygenated via microwave sole application. The
microwave-motivated reduction was recognized by a prompt oxygen
(O2) discharge and electrical conductivity increase. The method was
cyclable, while energy efficiencies and hydrogen yields were power and
material-dependent. Deoxygenation of low-energy molecules (CO2 or
H2O) led to energy carrier’s formation and aided the production of
Methane (CH4) when incorporated with a Sabatier reactor. This tech­
nique might be used for other reactions like oxidation or hydrocarbons
synthesis.
Studies in [25] explored the use of photoelectrochemical hydrogen
production with concentrated natural seawater produced by membrane
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
process. Key advantages of this process include the utilization of
sea-water which is a near-limitless resource on earth and means that
relatively limited freshwater supply does not have to be used, and the
presence of a large number of dissolved ion components in sea-water
mean it can be utilized as an electrolyte in a photoelectrochemical sys­
tem for producing hydrogen with increased electrolysis efficiency. With
the process, natural seawater is first concentrated via polyamide (PA)
nanofiltration (NF) membranes to concentrate the sea-water electrolyte
(see Figure 3) in a three-stream process. Then hydrogen is produced in a
light-sensitized enzymatic (LSE) system by coupling anodized TiO2
electrodes as the photoanode, cathode immobilized enzymes, and
modified seawater electrolytes in a photoelectrochemical (PEC)
configuration. For experiments undertaken in [25], PEC functionality
was conducted in a membrane cell that had a two-compartment (anodic
and cathodic elements separated by an NF membrane and a solar cell
panel) reactor. The cylindrical-shaped anodic compartment had a vol­
ume of 80 ml (headspace volume of ca. 55 ml) and contained the
seawater electrolyte solutions. The cathodic compartment was a
water-jacketed, cylindrical-shaped cell (80 ml, headspace volume of ca.
55 ml) with a silicone rubber gasket, which allowed the temperature to
be adjusted. The light source used for experiments was a 1000 W xenon
lamp, which was filtered through a 10 cm IR water filter. Although ex­
periments were undertaken at a small scale, results showed that the rate
of hydrogen production in the retentate of ca. 270 μmol cm− 2 h− 1 in the
photoelectrochemical system is greater than the hydrogen production in
seawater, showing that higher TDS leads to greater hydrogen
production.
Considering the identified novel hydrogen production techniques
further, Table 5 shows a brief overview of some of the benefits and
limitations of the identified techniques. Of the techniques identified,
studies in [21, 22] & [25] seem to be the most promising at present in
terms of producing large-scale low-cost hydrogen.
3. Hydrogen Distribution
For a holistic assessment of the hydrogen economy, consideration
has to be made to the macro-scale hydrogen production and distribution
network that is to be employed. For certain nations a large-scale
hydrogen production and distribution network may be desired; for
others a small-scale facility or a combination of large, small, and
medium-scale facilities distributed throughout the country may be
Figure 3. Schematic representation of membrane system for preparation of seawater electrolytes [25]
5
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
desired. At the national level, often the choice for a large-scale hydrogen
production and distribution network (see Figure 4) is the preferred op­
tion for a hydrogen distribution network. Producing massive amounts of
hydrogen in a single plant comes with highly reduced monetary capital
investments per unit of fuel produced. As shown in Figure 5, assessments
show noticeable capital cost reductions as production capacity in­
creases. This means it is more economically effective to build MW-scale
hydrogen production facilities. This favours a large-scale nationwide
hydrogen production and distribution network as the larger the
hydrogen production facility, the lower the unit cost per amount of
hydrogen produced.
Additionally, another advantage of a large-scale distribution
network is plant concentration which makes it easier to manage, trou­
bleshoot and service hydrogen production and distribution facilities.
This also reduces the required human resources needed for the contin­
uous operation of the entire network [11]. A major disadvantage of this
approach however, is that the building of large-scale fuel production
plants results in more significant hydrogen storage penalties. In [13]
studies show that the cost of hydrogen storage tanks rises significantly as
capacity increases. At the time of research, an industrial 50 kg hydrogen
tank costs slightly more than US$ 50,000 while a 150 kg tank will cost
around US$ 300,000. From modelling undertaken, hydrogen storage
tank price increases by US$ 100,000 for each 50 kg increase in hydrogen
storage tank capacity. However, this study assumes hydrogen produced
at a large-scale production facility will be stored in either gaseous or
liquid hydrogen storage tanks. Other storage options are being consid­
ered and one promising technology option for large-scale hydrogen
storage is the use of Salt Domes which are large geological structures
that have the potential to mitigate the high cost of storing hydrogen in
tanks [26].
The installation of large-scale hydrogen production facilities means
that safe, reliable, and cost-effective fuel transmission and delivery
infrastructure is needed for a viable hydrogen economy. For the real­
isation of the hydrogen economy, four major fuel transportation possi­
bilities were analysed in [13] to assess capacity, efficiency, and
estimated transmission costs. Table 6 shows a summary of the charac­
teristics of each of these methods. Considering hydrogen delivery
further, the most important factors affecting delivery cost (US$/kg) are
scale and distance traversed. For a nation to effectively design its
hydrogen network infrastructure, an appropriate assessment of these
factors is highly important.
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

Table 5 be made to ductile-brittle transition if storing liquid hydrogen since

A brief overview of the benefits and limitations of identified novel hydrogen
production techniques
Technique Benefits
Cyanobacterial hydrogen Under anaerobic
production using a conditions, achieves a high
photosystem concentration of
I–hydrogenase fusion in photosynthetically
vivo [17] produced hydrogen of up
to 500 μM and does not
take up the generated
hydrogen
Steam methane reforming It achieved a total energy
using a protonic efficiency of > 87%.
membrane reformer
[18]
Electrolysis with nickel- Capable of achieving
molybdenum-nitride 95.0% of formate
nanoplate fixed on production and 99.7% high
carbon fibre cloth fitted Faraday efficiencies of
to cathode and anode hydrogen evolution.
[19]
Electrolysis with a triple This process achieves
conducting oxide of significant electrochemical
PrNi0.5Co0.5O3-δ performance.
perovskite as an oxygen
electrode [20]
Electrolysis with The abundance of
Miscanthus Sinesis grass Miscanthus Sinesis grass and
as electrolyte/ simplicity of its cultivation
biohydrogen source [21] for use as a biohydrogen
source
Ammonia decomposition Less expensive. It has the
with red mud as a potential to provide COx-
catalyst [22] free hydrogen with a high
storage density (17.7% wt
%).
Non-food biomass Hydrogen is produced from
dehydrogenation with a renewable energy source.
iridium catalyst [23]
Water electrolysis at low Highly repeatable process
temperatures facilitated
by microwave-triggered
redox activation of solid-
state ionic materials
[24]
Photoelectrochemical Use of sea-water which is a
electrolysis with near-limitless resource on
concentrated natural earth and means that
seawater produced by relatively limited fresh
membrane process [25] water supplies don’t have
to be used. Presence of
large number of dissolved
ion components in sea-
water mean it can be used
as an electrolyte in a
photoelectrochemical
system for producing
hydrogen with increased
electrolysis efficiency
In addition to the general macroeconomics of hydrogen trans­
portation, detailed consideration needs to be made to the material
properties of structures containing (whether in liquid or gas state) for
general system reliability. Key material issues that affecting vessels
transporting hydrogen included “hydrogen embrittlement”, changes in
material mechanical characteristics due to cryogenic temperature stor­
age, thermal expansion, thermal contraction, and thermal conduction
[27]. For use of metallic storage vessels, special consideration needs to
Limitations
The process is short-
lived in general as
metabolic processes
that support self-
maintenance and
repair are missing.
Its cost intensive and
not sustainable as
hydrogen is still
obtained from
methane which is a
non-renewable
resource
Currently, finding
appropriate catalysts is
extremely difficult.
In the development of
new materials, finding
evidence that
characterises the
existence of proton
diffusion is rarely
available.
Detailed
understanding of the
electrolysis of
Miscanthus Sinesis
grass is unknown.
Mechanism by which
ammonia decomposes
with red mud as a
catalyst is highly
complicated.
Carbon dioxide and
methane are emitted
from the
dehydrogenation
process
The process is energy-
intensive.
To date, most
experiments
demonstrating the
process have only been
undertaken on a small
scale.
hydrogen only exists as a liquid at cryogenic temperatures below 20 K.
Additionally vessels will need to be specially designed so that changes in
material hardness, elastic modulus, and fatigue strength do not
adversely affect vessel structural integrity during the desired operational
lifetime. If using composite materials for vessel design, consideration
has to be made so that non-linear thermal expansion characteristics do
not adversely affect the structural integrity and hydrogen permeation.
4. Hydrogen Storage
4.1. Overview
For the hydrogen economy, hydrogen can be used for novel power
generation systems, ammonia synthesis, rocket fuel, and internal com­
bustion engine fuel [13]. Depending on application hydrogen may be
stored in gaseous form, a liquid form, or a 2-phase of gas and liquid [28].
Storage of hydrogen in the liquid form abates some of the volumetric
sizing penalties imposed on any media containing it compared to storage
in the gaseous form due to increased fluid density. However, even in
liquid form hydrogen’s volumetric energy density is still about 3.6 times
less than kerosene and 1.7 times less than liquefied natural gas (see
Table 1). A consequence of lower volumetric energy density means that
greater space is needed for the storage of hydrogen per mega joule of
energy stored. From a designer’s point of view, this penalty, combined
with the challenges of pressurising and liquefying hydrogen to achieve
acceptable volumetric energy densities for a given application; means
larger, stronger, and more sophisticated apparatus is needed for the
same unit of energy stored (when compared to a conventional fossil
fuel). This causes a snowball effect of cost, maintenance, and weight
penalties on any media storing hydrogen. Considering end-user appli­
cations, the severity of these penalties is dependent on the sector and
point in the hydrogen cycle where hydrogen is being stored. In trans­
portation where size, available space, and weight are key factors
affecting vehicle design & performance; volume penalties from utilising
hydrogen are expected to be greater than penalties that arise when using
hydrogen for industrial power generation.
The selection of the form in which hydrogen should be stored is
heavily dependent on end-use energy conversion applications with each
form having its advantages and disadvantages. For large-scale storage
for stationary systems where weight and volume penalties are not the
greatest design driver, the use of hydrogen stored in gaseous form is
advantageous for reduced costs and fuel energy content loss from the
well. This is because hydrogen only liquefies at cryogenic temperatures
(20.3 K at 1.01325 bar) [29] and thus there is a greater energy content
reduction in the fuel when accounting for hydrogen distribution from
well-to-wheel as a result of the need to use additional energy (typically
via a cryocooler) to liquefy hydrogen. However, for aviation and space
applications where weight and size become major design drivers, stor­
age of hydrogen in liquid form becomes the only viable option because
of the significantly increased volumetric energy density when compared
to storage as a compressed gas. Figure 6 shows a general ranking of
current hydrogen storage technologies, comparing volumetric capacity
to gravimetric capacity. From Figure 6, the liquid-phase technologies
such as liquid hydrogen and cryocompressed are characterized by higher
volumetric capacity and gravimetric capacity when compared to com­
pressed gas hydrogen storage. This is due to higher fuel density and the
use of lighter and thinner materials because the fuel storage pressure is
not as high. Novel storage technologies include complex and chemical
hydrides which in certain instances can achieve higher volumetric ca­
pacities than compressed gas storage because hydrogen is chemically
bonded to certain compounds and elements which allows for storage of
hydrogen at higher densities than compressed gas despite tank weight
penalties. In the following sections, key characteristics of the different
forms of hydrogen storage are reviewed and discussed.
It should be noted that materials with constant and direct contact

6
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
Figure 4. Large scale hydrogen production and distribution [11]
Figure 5. Investment costs for hydrogen production via alkaline electrol­
ysis [11]
with hydrogen become brittle. This phenomenon is known as hydrogen
embrittlement which can affect a variety of materials, even high-
strength steel. For metals, this phenomenon starts with the diffusion of
lone hydrogen atoms through the metal. At high temperatures, small
quantities of hydrogen can diffuse into the metal, while at low tem­
peratures, a concentration gradient aids diffusion. While re-combining
in minuscule voids of the metal to form hydrogen molecules, these
atoms create pressure from the cavity they are trapped in. This pressure
may build-up to the point where the metal cracks open. On the other
hand, it should be noted that there are design guidelines in place
developed to prevent this issue. By adhering to the recommended safety,
overhaul and maintenance procedures, undesired damage and losses can
be prevented [11].
4.2. Gaseous Hydrogen Storage
The most cost-effective and convenient form of storing hydrogen for
most applications is in its gaseous form. In the gaseous form the typical
storage media known today for storage are listed below:
• Pressure Tanks
• Metal Hydrides
• Boron- and Nitrogen-based Hydrides
• Carbon Nanotubes
• Capillary Storage/ Microspheres
7
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
For most gaseous hydrogen storage applications; pressure tanks
storing compressed hydrogen gas at high pressure is the option most
readily utilized and investigated today [11, 28] & [30]. This is primarily
due to the efficiency, design, cost, and environmental advantages
manufacturers gain via the use of high-pressure tank storage. In addition
to these manufacturer benefits, the use of high-pressure tanks enables
hydrogen to be stored at pressures of close to 700 bar at standard in­
ternational standard atmosphere (ISA) conditions at sea-level which
allow for up to an 80 to 90 times increase in gas storage density (see
Figure 7). This greatly aids in improving the volumetric energy density
of hydrogen for intended energy-conversion application. However,
despite the greatly increased volumetric energy density of compressed
hydrogen gas in pressure tanks compared to uncompressed; gas density
is still low when compared to the typical fossil fuels used today for
energy-conversion applications such as gasoline and kerosene. It is for
this reason that many professionals anticipate that hydrogen storage in
high-pressure cylinders is very unlikely to be a popular method in the
future [11]. As such, for future applications novel storage technologies
such as the storage of hydrogen in metal hydrides and carbon nanotubes
become attractive for the future hydrogen economy.
4.2.1. Pressure Tanks
When utilizing high-pressure storage tanks, a key trade-off that hap­
pens is the increase in tank mass necessary to withstand the higher pres­
sures. The wall thickness of the tank will increase with increasing hoop
stress due to the higher gas pressure. However, the extent to which tank
mass is increased will be affected by tank material, shape, and design [28].
Increased tank mass can be abated via the use of higher strength-to-weight
ratio materials such as carbon-fibre-reinforced-plastic (CFRP) and tita­
nium when compared to the use of aluminium and steel. However, a high
strength-to-weight ratio is not the only important property that should be
considered when selecting storage tank material. Pressure vessels must be
able to withstand the embrittlement possible with hydrogen in addition to
being lightweight, inexpensive, and easy to work with [30].
Pressure vessels for storing hydrogen were originally made from
aluminium, which is ideal for construction and has a high thermal
conductivity. However, aluminium vessels were not strong enough and
often could not comply with safety standards. Thus, in recent times the
material of choice for pressure tanks has been CFRP. Although CFRP
vessels are lightweight and extremely solid, they have a low thermal
conductivity. As a result, the material must be maintained below 358 K
at all times to meet safety standards. This temperature constraint can be
an issue, especially during the filling of the tank when the exothermic
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

Table 6
Major hydrogen transmission methods [13]
Transmission Type Pipeline Tube trailer Liquid – road Liquid – ships

Suitability Short, medium, and large distance transfer of Short distance gas state Short and medium Very large quantities of gas for international
large and very large quantities in a gas state transfer distance transfer of large transportation
volumes of fuel
Investment Costs $200,000-$1,000,000 per km depending on the Around $300,000+ per $300,00-$400,000 per $465,000,000-$620,000,000 for each LH2
terrain truck truck barge
Operating and Around $0.03 per kg for pipeline compressors Driver labour at around 18 $ Driver labour at around Crew labour and fuel consumption costs
Maintenance h− 1 18 $ h− 1 unknown
costs
Efficiency Over 99.2% per 100 km 94% per 100 km 99% per 100 km 0.3% boil-off per day
(liquefaction efficiency
is around 75%)
Capacity Up to 100 tons h− 1 (3.9 GW) Up to 400 kg per truck Up to 4000 kg per truck Up to 10,000 tons per shipment
Energy required Electricity required for pipeline compressors Vehicle fuel consumption Vehicle fuel and Transport fuel
liquefaction energy
consumption
Advantages Large and very large quantities can be Small scale deployment Larger volumes than gas International transportation of massive
transported to any distance with high efficiency, possibilities transportation quantities for long distances
low running costs, and very low variable
expenses. This method also provides storage
and buffering possibilities
Disadvantages Relative expensive investment costs and Small scale delivery per Costs and inefficiency of There isn’t any industrial experience of
requirement of the very large amount of vehicle, energy inefficiency, liquefaction and boil-off shipping LH2. It’s not feasible until large
hydrogen delivery to be justified short-distance product losses supply and demand exist. Boil-off losses are
transportation more significant than road transport
Total transmission $0.10-$1.00 $0.50-$2.00 $0.30-$0.50 $1.80-$2.00
cost ($ kg− 1
100km− 1)

compression of the gas causes the temperature to rise drastically. The

CFRP unit is also sensitive to fire and high temperatures which causes a
degradation of its mechanical properties. This is primarily due to most
resin materials used in the CFRP laminates ply not having the same
thermal resistance as the carbon fibres. As such CFRP tank wall struc­
tural integrity is a safety concern in the off-chance a vehicle crash
happens that results in fire or an explosion [30]. However, it is possible
that the right tank design and resin material choice can abate some of
these safety concerns.
From publicly available literature reviewed there are four typical
types of high-pressure vessels used for gaseous hydrogen storage (see
Figure 8) which are listed below [27]:

• Type I: pressure vessel made of metal

Figure 6. Ranking the current hydrogen storage technologies by volumetric
and gravimetric capacities showing the US Department of Energy (DOE) 2015
and ultimate targets [30]
• Type II: pressure vessel made of thick metallic liner hoop wrapped
with a fibre-resin composite
• Type III: pressure vessel made of a metallic liner fully-wrapped with
a fibre-resin composite
• Type IV: pressure vessel made of polymeric liner fully-wrapped with
a fibre-resin composite. The port is metallic and integrated into the
structure (boss)

Figure 7. Hydrogen density at various pressures and temperatures [28] Figure 8. Schematic representation of the 4 typical pressure vessel types used
for gaseous hydrogen storage [27]

8
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
Pressure vessels are typically cylinders, but composite vessels may be
polymorphic or toroidal. The choice of which pressure vessel type
hydrogen should be stored in is based on the final application which is a
compromise between technical performance and cost-competitiveness.
Hydrogen as an industrial gas for large-scale storage is usually stored
in type I tanks, the pressure of which is from 150 bar to 300 bar (usually
200 bar). These are the most widespread pressure vessels today and are
the cheapest. Type II tanks are preferred when only high pressures are
needed, which is typically for stationary applications. Type III and Type
IV vessels are preferable for portable and general transport applications
(e.g. use with fuel cells in the automotive industry), for which weight
savings are essential. However, these vessels are much more expensive
[27].
4.2.2. Metal Hydrides
Metal hydrides are metallic alloys that absorb hydrogen. Because of
their ability to absorb and release hydrogen, these alloys can be used as a
storage mechanism. The release of hydrogen is directly related to the
temperature of the hydride. Metal hydrides will typically hold only
about 1% to 2% of their weight in hydrogen. If active heating is supplied
to remove the hydrogen, this can increase to 5% to 7% of the hydride
weight. A metal hydride tank can be used to repeatedly store and release
hydrogen but a limiting factor on its ability to store hydrogen is the
accumulation of impurities within the tanks. These impurities clog up
the spaces where hydrogen would usually be stored, reducing the tank’s
capacity [28]. A simplified model of how hydrogen is stored and
absorbed in a metal hydride is shown in Figure 9. The amount of heat
transferred, hydrogen absorbed and hydrogen desorbed in a typically
reversible metal hydride operating at room temperature and atmo­
spheric pressure is typically a function of the metal alloy used to store
hydrogen [31].
Key challenges to utilising metal hydride storage systems are (1)
whether there is sufficient heat generated to extract hydrogen from the
hydride, and (2) the time lag between initial heating and release of the
hydrogen gas. Focusing on heat generation to extract hydrogen implies
that there is a need for an on-board heat generation and transfer system
whether this is from an internal combustion engine or fuel cell via
thermal components (e.g. heat exchangers). This imposes external
design complexities and energy penalties on the general system which is
utilizing hydrogen as a fuel with a metal hydride storage system which is
not characteristic of other hydrogen storage options. Considering the
metal hydride time lag, hydrides constructed of heavy metals such as
vanadium, niobium, and iron-titanium release hydrogen at ambient
temperatures which greatly diminishes the time lag effect. However,
this, unfortunately, comes at an increased system weight penalty due to
the general physical compositions of these heavy metals. Lighter hy­
drides do not impose the same system weight penalties as heavy-metal
hydrides; however, they need to be heated from an auxiliary heat
source until the temperature is sufficient to release hydrogen. Table 7
Figure 9. A simplified model of metal hydride storage [31]
9
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
Table 7
Metal hydrides and hydrogen density capability [28]
Metal Hydride Hydrogen Density (kg/m3)
Magnesium (MgH2) 109.0
Lithium (LiH) 98.5
Titanium (TiH1.97) 150.5
Aluminum (AlH3) 151.5
Zirconium (ZrH2) 122.2
Lanthanum (LaNi5H6) 89.0
shows a list of potential metal hydride storage materials and the density
of the hydrogen achievable within the material.
From Table 7 it can be seen that the storage of hydrogen in metal
hydrides allows for high-density hydrogen storage greater than densities
achievable than both compressed gas hydrogen storage and liquid
hydrogen (liquid hydrogen density at normal boiling point = 71.0 kg/
m3). However, this does not take into account how tank weight affects
the system of interest for a given application. Studies in [32] for auto­
motive applications showed that for a heavy metal hydride such as
FeTiH1.9, tank weight of a metal hydride fuel-cell vehicle is much higher
than the tank weight of a compressed hydrogen gas FCV. In the study,
this resulted in a significant reduction in the driving range for each
re-fuel of the metal hydride FCV when compared to the compressed
hydrogen gas FCV. For a total fuel plus tank weight of 400 kg, a com­
pressed hydrogen gas FCV has approximately three times greater driving
range than a metal hydride FCV. However, in the study, a heavy metal
hydride was considered. For future development, the use of lighter metal
hydrides could potentially result in this discrepancy being significantly
reduced for future transport applications.
4.2.3. Boron- and Nitrogen-Based Hydrides
Boron- and nitrogen-based based hydrides such as sodium borohy­
dride (NaBH4), hydrazine borane (N2H4BH3), hydrous hydrazine (N2H4.
H2O), ammonia (NH3) and ammonia borane (NH3BH3) can also be used
for the storage of hydrogen. With these hydrides, dehydrogenation re­
actions are the means by which hydrogen is released to provide the
hydrogen need for a given application. These hydrides are considered to
be promising for chemical hydrogen because of their high hydrogen
content and the advantage of CO-free hydrogen produced [33]. The
challenge with employing these hydrides is the development of eco­
nomic, highly efficient and stable catalysts that enable effective
hydrogen evolution from these hydrides. Increasing research has been
done in recent times [34, 35, 36] & [37] to develop more effective
catalysts to allow for higher rates of hydrogen generation that would be
needed in a hydrogen economy.
4.2.4. Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are tubular carbon structures with a diameter of
about 2 nm. These structures are theoretically capable of storing
hydrogen within the tube structure. The storage mechanism is similar to
that of metal hydrides except for the amount of hydrogen capable of
being stored is much greater [28]. In carbonaceous materials such as
carbon nanotubes, the fundamental mechanism behind hydrogen
adsorption is the “Van der Waals” interactions that carbon atoms exert
on hydrogen molecules [8]. Hydrogen storage in carbon nanotubes is
still very far from being a practical reality as carbon nanotube fibre
development is still in its infancy.
4.2.5. Capillary Storage
An alternative for compressed hydrogen storage is capillaries or
microspheres. Hydrogen is stored in microspheres via the placing of
heated spheres or capillaries in high-pressure hydrogen environments.
The spheres are heated because heat addition increases hydrogen
permeability which allows for hydrogen filling. After filling spheres are
cooled to lock hydrogen inside. Hydrogen can then be release on-
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
demand via sphere heating when needed [28]. Engineered microspheres
provide great potential for the high-density storage of hydrogen. This is
due to the high hoop stress values they are predicted to be able to
withstand. It is estimated that a bed of 50 μm diameter engineered mi­
crospheres can store hydrogen at 62 MPa with a safety factor of 1.5 and a
hydrogen mass fraction of 10%. This allows for hydrogen stored with a
density of 20 kg m− 3 [28]. Other advantages of capillary storage include
the following [30]:
• They require less hydrogen infrastructure because the capillaries will
be filled at the fuel plant before delivery to the filling station
• Capillaries are safer because each one acts as an individual high-
pressure vessel containing only a small amount of hydrogen
• The system is lightweight because minimal material is required for
each capillary and many can be stored together in a larger tank
At present, capillary hydrogen storage greatly exceeds DOE targets in
many areas. However, capillary storage does not meet the DOE targets
for volumetric capacity and a large amount of energy is needed to
release hydrogen from the capillaries. The systems also have limited
long-term durability. Therefore, they are not currently in use [30].
4.3. Liquid Hydrogen Storage
4.3.1. Overview
As shown in Table 1, hydrogen has much higher energy content in
liquid form than in the compressed gas state. The main advantage of the
storage of liquefied hydrogen is its high density at low storage pressure.
These features enable compact lightweight storage and efficient delivery
options [11]. However, since hydrogen liquefies at cryogenic tempera­
tures below minus 250◦ C, a consequence of this is that at least 35% of
the fuel’s energy content is needed to liquefy it during the liquefaction
process [30]. Furthermore, utilizing gas liquefiers adds more sophisti­
cation to the hydrogen production system and imposes significant
operational constraints on the fuel system since liquid hydrogen needs to
be stored cryogenically [28]. Some of these constraints are listed below
as follows:
• Cryogenic storage requires an airtight insulation system to reduce
the boil-off of the liquid hydrogen to maintain it at cryogenic
temperatures
• Handling liquid hydrogen necessitates the use of specialised equip­
ment and processes. Also, the storage of the liquid hydrogen is time-
limited (due to boil-off) so the fuel usually needs to be manufactured
on-site or at a nearby location
• The fuel tanks need to be maintained at constant pressure, usually
around 1.45 × 105 Pa to minimize boil-off. This necessitates an
appropriate venting system and procedure for the cryogenic storage
system
• Liquid hydrogen tanks and lines must be sealed off from the atmo­
sphere. If air enters the tanks it will freeze solid and can block the
flow lines.
Considering the sophisticated production process required to pro­
duce liquid hydrogen and the operational constraints of cryogenic
storage, storing liquid hydrogen at present costs 4-5 times more than
storing hydrogen in the compressed gas form [11]. In applications such
as power generation and general transport, this cost limits the use of
liquid hydrogen in these sectors. However, for applications where high
fuel volumetric energy density and high tank gravimetric efficiency (see
Equation 1 for definition where ηtank is tank gravimetric efficiency, mfuel
is fuel mass and mtank is tank overall mass) techno-economic concerns
dominate over fuel cost per kg such as in air transport and space, liquid
hydrogen storage is the more attractive option in most instances for
long-range and long endurance missions [38, 39] & [40]. This is because
even though liquid hydrogen is more expensive, air and space vehicle
10
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
weight savings as a result of utilizing liquid hydrogen means signifi­
cantly less fuel is burnt which causes a snowball effect of increased
aerodynamic efficiency, reduced vehicle weight, and reduced overall
fuel cost per mission. Considering these benefits in mind, there have
already been recent successful efforts of technology demonstrator ve­
hicles such as the Boeing Phantom Eye and the Aerovironment Global
Observer which have completed missions burning liquid hydrogen fuel
with installed cryotanks [40, 41] & [42].
mfuel
ηtank = (1)
mfuel + mtank
4.3.2. Tank and Insulation Design
Similar to compressed gas hydrogen storage, liquid hydrogen must
be stored in specially designed cryogenic tanks (cryotanks). For a given
application and fuel amount, liquid hydrogen tanks are typically lighter
than compressed gas hydrogen tanks primarily due to the reduced
amount of tank wall thickness needed for storage. For instance with
CFRP liquid hydrogen tanks, tank gravimetric efficiencies of greater
than 93% are achievable [43] compared to only about 6.5% achievable
with compressed gas hydrogen storage made with the same material
[27]. This is mainly because tanks for liquid hydrogen storage are usu­
ally thin-walled pressure vessels surrounded by a thick layer of insu­
lation, with insulation mass not being very significant when compared
to the mass of the tank. In addition to weight concerns, tank materials
must be resistant to hydrogen embrittlement, impermeable to hydrogen
gas, and capable of effective structural performance under the thermal
loads imposed by liquid hydrogen storage. Considering these factors,
different from compressed gas hydrogen storage, liquid hydrogen tanks
are typically made from one material to be able to more effectively deal
with tank expansion and contraction movements due to thermal effects
[28].
Considering tank wall material further and accounting for physical
phenomena previously discussed; the material used for tank wall con­
struction must possess high strength, high fracture toughness, high
stiffness, as well as low density and low permeation to liquid hydrogen.
Fracture toughness is particularly important, especially because at
cryogenic temperatures many materials exhibit brittle characteristics
[44]. Historically aluminium and aluminium-lithium alloys have been
utilized as tank wall material for liquid hydrogen cryotanks due to their
minimal susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. In recent times
however, composite materials have been increasingly selected and used
as wall materials in liquid hydrogen cryotank design and construction
[43, 44] & [45]. In recent times improved lay-up design and tank liner
design combined with novel tank wall design has allowed for minimal
hydrogen permeability on par with aluminium alloys for composite
materials, particularly with CFRP. In [43] Northrop Grumman (see
Figure 10) designed a honeycomb sandwich tank wall concept. The
design utilised a perforated honeycomb core in a dual role to reduce
Figure 10. Northrop Grumman Composite Honeycomb Sandwich Concept for a
Liquid Hydrogen Cryotank [43]
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

weight, where the honeycomb core between the two structural face
sheets served as a structural stiffening member for cryogenic insulation.
With this novel design utilising CFRP, a clean tank gravimetric efficiency
of greater than 93% is achievable. Studies in [40] utilising this tank
design as a baseline, showed that vehicle endurances of greater than 5.5
days is achievable for High-Altitude-Long-Endurance Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (HALE UAVs) employing electrified propulsion systems. Key
design features identified driving ultra long endurance performance on
the simulated mission were high hydrogen energy content and the
increased amount of stored on-board hydrogen energy contnt due to
lower tank weigh fraction.
In addition to tank wall design and material selection, tank insu­
lation is a very important factor that typically must be considered for
effective liquid hydrogen storage. Tank insulation is necessary to reduce
the amount of boil-off from the storage tanks to within an acceptable
rate (ideally less than 0.4% for a typical long-range/long-endurance
mission) [28] & [38]. Without the insulation, the boil-off rate would
make the use of liquid hydrogen completely impractical. Also, insulation
greatly minimises frost build-up on tank and piping outer surfaces. The
primary requirements on insulation design must be that it is impervious
to air to eliminate the possibility of frozen air particles forming and it
must be capable of withstanding the extreme thermal cycling to which it
will be subjected. Also, for applications where weight savings are
important for economical mission performance such as in trans­
portation, any installed insulation system must be as light as possible.
Thus insulation systems must have low thermal conductivity, low
thermal diffusivity, and a low mass density [44].
At present, the two main types of insulation used for liquid hydrogen
cryotanks are vacuum-jacketed systems/multi-layer insulations (MLI)
and rigid closed-cell foams. MLI systems are characterised by lower
density and thermal conductivities than rigid closed-cell foams, how­
ever, they are more susceptible to catastrophic failures that cause dra­
matic increases in hydrogen boil-off rate [28] & [44]. In recent times,
however, new MLI configurations have been designed and tested that
greatly minimise the potential for catastrophic failure while improving
thermal performance. These are Integrated Multi-Layer Insulation
(IMLI) and Load-Responsive Multi-Layer Insulation (LRMLI) developed
in [46] and shown in Figure 11. They are innovative new technologies,
where polymer substructures are integrated with radiation barriers to
provide improved ultra-high thermal insulation systems. IMLI is made
up of layers of metalized polymer film separated by a polymer sub­
structure that allows for precise layer spacing control, as well as polymer
spacers that are intended for ultra-low heat conduction, resulting in
improved thermal insulation performance. The LRMLI dynamic system
compresses a dynamic beam under atmospheric pressure to support an
This structural robustness is what minimises the potential for cata­
strophic failure greatly aiding the choice of vacuum-jacketed blanket
insulation systems for liquid hydrogen storage in the future hydrogen
economy. Considering thermal performance, Table 8 shows the repre­
sentative insulation performance of LRMLI compared to MLI. For a 1 atm
case it can be shown that MLI is significantly thicker and heavier than
LRMLI for the same heat leak, with the LRMLI advantage increasing with
additional layers [46].
4.4. Cryocompressed Hydrogen Storage
A third form in which hydrogen can be stored is cryocompressed
hydrogen. This is a novel technology that combines compression and
cryogenic storage of hydrogen to produce cryocompressed hydrogen.
Cryocompressed hydrogen includes pressurized liquid hydrogen, cooled
compressed hydrogen gas, and two-phase systems of liquid hydrogen
with vapour in the headspace [30, 47] & [48]. Although this technology
is more sophisticated than liquid hydrogen and gaseous hydrogen
pressure tank technologies and allows for more novel system integration
options in several different applications. The inherent complexity of the
technology limits its use when bespoke high performance is needed, e.g.
the need for high tank gravimetric efficiency in Aerospace or the need
for high miles per gallon for automotive applications. This is because its
inherent complexity results in significant increases in manufacturing
cost, maintenance cost, fuel energy content loss, and design complexity
for only modest improvements in tank efficiency and capacity. For
aerospace applications where high tank gravimetric efficiency and high
fuel density are a must, liquid hydrogen cryotanks are better optimized
for this application where cryocompressed hydrogen tanks are bulkier,
heavier, and contain lower density fuel. All these penalties are present
for only a modest reduction in overall fuel energy content loss during the
liquefaction process. For the highly competitive automotive sector, the
likely use of fuel cells in synergy with hydrogen fuel means that any
improvement in fuel density is not enough to offset the significant in­
creases in tank costs and complexity with worse tank-to-well efficiency
for the typical driving ranges automotive vehicles undertake. In sta­
tionary applications such as power generation, cryocompressed
Table 8
Insulation Performance for 20 K cold side and 295 K hot side with one-
atmosphere pressure comparing LRMLI with MLI [46]
LRMLI LRMLI LRMLI MLI same LRMLI MLI same
layers Heat Leak thickness heat leak mass heat leak
(W/m2) (cm) thickness (kg/m2) mass (kg/
(cm) m2)

integrated, thin vacuum shell and disconnects under vacuum to mitigate 1 76 0.25 9.83 1.75 3.00
heat leak through the spacer. For both IMLI and LRMLI, the use of 2 38 0.44 19.48 1.94 5.92
3 26 0.63 29.08 2.12 8.94
spacers bonded to each Mylar layer allows for precise spacing resulting
4 19 0.82 38.68 2.31 11.755
in a more structurally robust blanket than what is achievable with MLI.

Figure 11. Conceptual Drawings of Integrated MLI and Load Responsive MLI [46]

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B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

hydrogen may have limited use for certain niche applications such as needed to prevent excess pressurisation which can destroy holding
offshore gas turbines for pipelines but this can only be identified after a structures due to hydrogen vapour build-up during delivery, transfer,
detailed design analysis and design selection review. Cryocompressed and refuelling events. One such technology option for the off-board
hydrogen may also be used in general research facilities where both storage of liquid hydrogen is the use of ground storage Dewar vessels
liquid and gaseous hydrogen are needed for general research & tech­ employing a triple-jacketed construction [51]. These Dewar’s vessels
nology development needs in multi-use flexible test-beds. have inner shells which contain liquid hydrogen. The inner shell is then
surrounded by a vacuum space, a liquid-nitrogen-cooled radiation
shield, another vacuum space, and an outer shell. This structure, in
4.5. Large Scale Hydrogen Storage
addition to having several shells, must be able to resist a full vacuum at
least on the outer wall. Such a construction, although bulkier than
Before use in a power conversion device as fuel, hydrogen at times
typical lightweight composite cryotank designs used for on-board liquid
will need to be stored in off-board stationary reservoirs before fulfilling a
hydrogen storage [43], are characterised by significantly reduced
refuelling demand in an on-board system of interest (whether this is in a
boil-off rates and tank inactivity pressurisation that makes them suitable
car fuel tank or power generation facility fuel tanks). The refuelling
for long-term storage of liquid hydrogen.
facility can either be near the hydrogen production system of interest to
store excess hydrogen produced ahead of transport or at a fuelling sta­
5. Power Conversion
tion on a nationwide hydrogen network before automotive vehicle de­
mand. For storing hydrogen this way before use as on-board fuel, storage
5.1. Overview
requirements will be different as hydrogen may at times need to be
stored at single locations for extended periods of time before on-board
At the final point in the hydrogen cycle, consideration needs to be
demand. As such; fuel venting losses, fuel boil-off, energy expenditure,
made to the characteristics of the energy conversion technology used to
structural performance, and lifing concerns are of prime importance
provide power in a given system. Considering the most feasible options
when designing and building a large-scale hydrogen storage system.
at present, hydrogen can either be directly reacted with air (oxygen) in a
Considering these requirements of a large-scale hydrogen storage sys­
fuel cell to provide electrical power to a system; or hydrogen can be
tem, storing hydrogen in the compressed gas form is often the preferred
directly burned in an internal combustion engine instead of a fossil fuel.
alternative for minimised cost, reduced fuel energy content loss, and
The choice of which energy conversion device to use is heavily depen­
reduced volumetric footprint. However different from storage on-board
dent on the application for which power is needed. Fuel cells are electric
a vehicle or within a power generation unit, technologies other than
power generators that convert stored chemical energy in hydrogen
high-pressure tanks become attractive options when hydrogen is to be
directly to direct current (DC) electric energy. This “directly” means the
stored for a long period without fuel offtake. One such promising tech­
energy conversion is not carried out via a heat engine and thus fuel cell
nology option is the storage of compressed hydrogen in large under­
efficiency is not subject to the limit of Carnot efficiency [52]. With fuel
ground geological formations such as salt domes (see Figure 12). Salt
cells, theoretical maximum efficiencies can reach over 80% [53]. This
domes are extremely impervious to hydrogen, even under high pres­
far exceeds the theoretical maximums achievable with heat engine
sures, and effectively prevent leakage [31]. The technical feasibility of
thermodynamic cycles, where considering material temperature con­
utilising salt domes for large-scale hydrogen storage in Europe has been
straints, theoretical maximum efficiencies range from 40% to 50% not
investigated in recent times in [26, 49] & [50]. In Europe, the overall
considering combined cycle layouts [54] & [55]. As such, fuel cells have
technical storage potential is estimated at 84.8 PW, 27% of which
increasingly been considered for use as prime-movers in the automotive
constitutes only onshore locations.
sector [56, 57] & [58]. However, scalability concerns of present designs
In the aerospace sector, the increased need for liquid hydrogen
are limiting their consideration for use in the power generation sector
means that there is a greater need for large-scale off-board liquid
whereas lower power-to-weight ratios than what is achievable with gas
hydrogen storage infrastructure. As such, an appropriate liquid
turbines limit their applicability in the aerospace sector. Hydrogen can
hydrogen storage technology is needed different to on-board liquid
still be used directly as a fuel in these sectors, but directly in an internal
hydrogen tanks with very low fuel boil-off rates the main concern rather
combustion engine or hybrid internal combustion engine-fuel cell
thanconcerns over tank weight. Also, an appropriate venting system is

Figure 12. General hydrogen distribution network utilising large-scale storage in salt domes/caverns [26]

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B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

configuration rather than via a standalone fuel cell stack. recirculation mode; in addition to the fuel cell stack, a practical PEM fuel
cell generator consists of a hydrogen supply subsystem, cooling sub­
system, airflow subsystem, and a power conditioning module (see
5.2. Fuel Cells
Figure 14). For a PEM fuel cell generator, the airflow subsystem provides
filtered, conditioned air to the fuel cell stack. A cathode air filter, a
5.2.1. Overview
cathode air blower, and a humidifier are the main components of the
There are several different fuel cell types with the main difference
airflow subsystem. The air filter removes volatile gas and solid con­
being the nature of the electrolyte. However, the basic operating prin­
taminates from the process airstream by chemical absorption using
ciple of all types is the same (see Figure 13). At the anode, a fuel such as
activated carbon media and mechanical filtration. The cathode air
hydrogen is oxidised into protons and electrons, whilst at the cathode,
blower has a variable speed motor controlled by a separate motor
oxygen is reduced to oxide species, and then these react to form water.
controller. A hollow-tube membrane humidifier transfers heat and hu­
Depending upon the electrolyte either protons or oxide ions are trans­
midity from the fuel cell stack exhaust to the inlet airstream. Temper­
ported through an “ion-conducting”, but electronically insulating elec­
ature control is performed with a pump to circulate coolant to remove
trolyte, while electrons travel around an external circuit delivering
the heat generated in the fuel cell stack. The heat is removed from the
electric power [53]. A fuel cell stack is several individual cells combined
coolant through a fan-radiator assembly. The power conditioning
in series to provide the requisite voltage for a given application. The two
module provides the proper interface between the stack power and the
main types of fuel cells considered for application in the hydrogen
external load with components that include a bidirectional DC/DC
economy are solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and proton exchange mem­
converter, a secondary battery, a programmable electronic load, and a
brane (PEM) fuel cells. SOFCs have a higher theoretical maximum effi­
power controller.
ciency over 80% they can achieve [53] compared to a theoretical
For a PEM fuel cell generator, an adequate hydrogen supply sub­
efficiency of up to 68% for PEM fuel cells [56]. However considering an
system is needed to provide the fuel cell stack with fuel at an appropriate
application for the automotive sector, SOFCs operated at significantly
pressure and quality to achieve the requisite performance and system
higher temperatures than PEM fuel cells, conventionally between 800◦ C
reliability. Figure 15 shows the schematic drawing of a recirculation
- 1000◦ C. In addition to being more expensive, the elevated tempera­
mode hydrogen supply subsystem [59]. The major components of a
tures present significant thermal management challenges for vehicular
supply subsystem are solenoid valves, pressure regulators, check valve,
applications. For large-scale stationary electric power generation, this is
mass flow meters, gas/liquid separator, pressure sensors, current sensor,
not as much of an issue as SOFCs can be integrated as either standalone
voltage sensors, purge orifice, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) pump,
devices for more efficient electricity generation or hybrid SOFC-internal
and a microcontroller. The anode for the PEM fuel cell system is supplied
combustion engine configurations for combined heat and power (CHP)
with hydrogen from a high-pressure source (e.g. 200+ bar compressed
generation with efficiencies exceeding 80% [53].
hydrogen gas pressure vessel) which is reduced to 4.0 bar - 7.0 bar by a
directly operated pressure regulator in the hydrogen inlet pipeline. Two
5.2.2. PEM Fuel Cells
normally closed hydrogen inlet isolation solenoid valves allow the
PEM fuel cells typically operate between 40◦ C - 80◦ C [8] & [59] and
hydrogen to flow into the system which is actuated by solenoid coils.
as such are more attractive for vehicular, residential, distributed power
The solenoid valves are part of a safety loop and shut off the flow of
generation and portable electric applications [57] & [59]. Key reasons
hydrogen in the event of a safety sensor trip. Additionally, these valves
for this include their high power density, low emissions, and
are plumbed in series to provide redundant protection. Furthermore, a
low-temperature operation. Practical energy conversion efficiencies of
pressure matching regulator valve is installed on the hydrogen inlet
conventional PEM fuel cells reach between 50%-60% [56] & [59] which
pipeline, which ensures that the pressure of the incoming hydrogen is
is markedly higher than the 30%-40% achievable with piston engines
comparable to the cathode inlet pressure. The motivation for this is
[60] and hence why PEM fuels cells have increasingly been considered
enhanced durability of the membrane-electrolyte assembly in the fuel
as a potential replacement for internal combustion engines in trans­
cell by balancing the pressures across the electrolyte membrane.
portation [57]. Despite these advantages, key development challenges
Hydrogen that is not consumed in the anode is circulated back to the
facing PEM fuel cells include fluid flow management and thermal
anode via a hydrogen recirculation passage. An EGR pump is used to
management across the fuel stack and these factors result in the need for
recirculate the unused hydrogen from the anode exit to the anode inlet.
emergent systems and components integrated around the fuel cell stack
This recirculation circuit also has two additional functions. First, a
for effective power system operation. To improve PEM fuel cell dura­
gas-liquid separator is installed in the recirculation passage to separate
bility and stability in commercial applications, advances in the design
the liquid water from the unused hydrogen that prevents the build-up of
and control of reactant flows across a PEM fuel cell stack are essential.
liquid water in the stack channels. Then, through an orifice and a purge
Studies in [59] considered architecture options for the advanced systems
valve, inert gases (such as nitrogen) and limit hydrogen are exhausted
integration of a PEM fuel cell generator. Considering three hydrogen
supply schemes of a flow-through mode, dead-end mode, and

Figure 13. Schematic diagram showing the general operating principles of a

fuel cell [54] Figure 14. Schematic drawing of the fuel cell generator [59]

13
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
Figure 15. Details of hydrogen recirculation mode of the fuel cell generator [59]
into the cathode inlet before reintroducing the unused hydrogen back
into the main hydrogen passage. The use of high-quality hydrogen from
a non-fossil fuel source in the anode limits any harmful effects on the
PEM fuel cell electrodes. A microcontroller controls decision-making in
the hydrogen supply subsystem to ensure proper operation of the PEM
fuel cell generator with data extracted from installed sensors and mass
flow meters.
PEM fuel cells are particularly attractive for power levels ranging
from low (less than 1 kW) to intermediate (up to 50 kW), and for ap­
plications requiring rapid start-up and quick response to load changes.
The electrolyte in the PEM fuel cell is an ion-exchange polymer mem­
brane. The only liquid in the cell is water, which keeps corrosion
problems minor. The fuel cell must operate under conditions where
water output does not evaporate faster than it is produced to avoid
membrane dehydration [57]. The emergent systems in the fuel cell
generator such as the hydrogen supply subsystem, cooling subsystem,
airflow subsystem, and power conditioning module are specified to
ensure this is not the case for effective water management in the
membrane to ensure high performance.
5.2.3. Recent Industrial Development Efforts
In recent times, several companies have advanced their fuel cell
development efforts for ever more increases in system performance and
reductions in manufacturing cost. A company called Ceres has devel­
oped a SOFC called the “SteelCell®” which is a fuel cell that has multi-
fuel capability allowing it to operate on several different fuels from
natural gas to hydrogen allowing for a smooth transition to a hydrogen
economy from a fossil fuel one. Key advantages include the
manufacturing of steel to allow it to be cost-effective, robust, and scal­
able [61]. In CHP configurations, claimed efficiency of the fuel cell is up
to 90% which is better than conventional SOFCs. Another organisation
called Bramble Energy has developed a novel PEM fuel cell called the
printed circuit board fuel cell (PCBFC). The key advantage of this
approach is the design of the fuel cell on a printed circuit board which
allows for a reduced number of fuel cell stack components allowing for a
more affordable fuel cell. The PCBFC has 3.8x fewer components than a
traditional fuel cell. Additionally, the cost of manufacturing a printed
circuit board is significantly reduced compared to the manufacture of
components of a traditional fuel cell [62].
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
5.3. Internal Combustion Engines
5.3.1. Piston Engines
Considering automotive application, fuel cell technology although
promising with the offer of higher efficiencies than what is achievable
with piston engines, is still a long way from being competitive with
piston engines on an economic basis. With hydrogen being able to be
directly used in piston engines as fuel, the use of piston engines as a
prime mover in the hydrogen economy is a feasible option as a transition
technology up until the time fuel cell technology becomes cost-
competitive against piston engines. An additional advantage of using
piston engines in the hydrogen economy is that the level of technology
maturity is much higher than what is currently the case with fuel cells,
this means that operational system safety and reliability issues are most
likely to be lower with hydrogen piston engines than what is the case
with hydrogen fuel cells at present. Considering spark-ignition engines,
hydrogen can be added either through manifold induction or by the
direct introduction of hydrogen into the cylinder. With hydrogen added
to the cylinder for combustion purposes, the very wide flammability
limits of hydrogen (see Table 3) means that hydrogen engines can
operate at extremely lean mixtures when compared to other conven­
tional spark-ignition engine fuel options such as gasoline. As a result
hydrogen piston engines achieve slightly higher efficiencies than gaso­
line ones at a cost of slightly increased wall heat losses. The main
challenge though of operating hydrogen engines is architecting them to
avoid abnormal combustion and backfiring problems associated with
the very low ignition energy of hydrogen [60]. Table 9 shows a summary
of the benefits and challenges of utilising hydrogen as a fuel for piston
engines along with identified ways of improving engine performance
and reliability [60] & [63].
5.3.2. Gas Turbines
For large-scale power generation, today gas turbines and diesel en­
gines are the main options for use as a powerplant. Although lower
specific fuel consumption (SFC) values are achievable with diesel en­
gines compared to gas turbines; disadvantages to their use include lower
power-to-weight ratio, lower power-to-volume ratio, worse emissions,
higher maintenance costs, higher vibration levels, and lack of multi-fuel
capability. Thus in recent times, the gas turbine has become a major
player in the power generation market. Additional contributing factors
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

Table 9 conventional propellers for aircraft propulsion beyond Mach 0.6+ is

Key characteristics of hydrogen use for piston engines infeasible due to the onset of significant propeller wave drag and thus
Benefits of hydrogen for Developmental challenges Identified ways of the use of a fuel cell-propeller combination is not possible. Secondly is
engine application of utilising hydrogen for improving the operation that even if a ducted fan is used as the propulsor option, the use of fuel
engine application of spark ignition cells will require the inclusion of further power electronics and electric
hydrogen engines
motors which will reduce the overall powerplant thrust-to-weight ratio
Because of the associated There are serious Use of uniquely even further than is the case with turbofan engines.
high-burning rates, potential operational compatible and specially For both aerospace and large-scale power generation applications,
hydrogen engines are problems associated with designed turbochargers.
more suited to high- the uncontrolled pre- Carefully monitored
the multi-fuel capability of gas turbines means that the use of liquid
speed operation. ignition and backfiring controlled cooling of hydrogen as a fuel is a feasible option. As far back as 1984 [68], studies
Moderately high into the intake manifold exhaust gas recirculation explored the use of hydrogen for aviation use and large stationary gas
compression ratio of hydrogen engines. for knock avoidance and turbines. From the studies, the effects on overall gas turbine system
operation is possible Appropriate material control.
performance and design were assessed. For both large stationary gas
with lean mixtures of selection is needed in the Optimizing the duration,
hydrogen in the air. engine design process to timing, and pressure of turbines and jet engines, the effect of hydrogen on combustion was
This permits higher avoid hydrogen the fuel injection process assessed. For aero gas turbines however, assessment considered the use
efficiencies and embrittlement. for the avoidance of pre- of liquid hydrogen stored on-board the aircraft due to the volumetric
increased power Hydrogen has very low ignition and backfiring. sizing benefits of using hydrogen in the liquid form versus the gaseous
output. ignition energy, which Incorporation and
The high burning rates can lead to uncontrolled optimizing of variable
form for aero application. For both aero and large stationary gas turbine
associated with pre-ignition problems. valve timing for better application, In addition to combustion assessment, a design assessment
hydrogen engines make There is an increased control of exhaust gas was made on the effect of liquid hydrogen on heat exchangers, pumps
engine performance potential for undesirable recirculation. and fuel systems. Similar to hydrogen storage tanks, these components
less sensitive to changes corrosion and lubricating
have to be designed to withstand hydrogen embrittlement while main­
in the shape of the oil contamination due to
combustion chamber, exhaust water vapour taining fuel flow rates.
level of turbulence, and condensation. Considering the combustion performance of hydrogen-fuelled gas
the intake charge turbines, in addition to wide flammability limits and a high degree of
swirling effect. ignitability due to low pre-ignition energy, hydrogen has a few more
The gas is highly
unique properties that result in subtly different combustion mechanics
diffusive and buoyant
which makes fuel leaks when compared to fossil fuel combustion. Hydrogen has low flame
disperse quickly. This emissivity due to the absence of carbon particles; high gas temperature
has the effect of at stoichiometric conditions due to the absence of dissociated products;
reducing the fire and
high diffusivity; and low ignition delay times of its mixture with air. The
explosion hazards
associated with major effect these properties have on combustor design is on the char­
hydrogen engine acteristics of fuel injection. Compared to kerosene, hydrogen is typically
operation. injected into a gas turbine as a gas (if using liquid hydrogen, hydrogen is
pre-heated in either an oil-fuel heat exchanger or fuel-exhaust gas heat
exchanger) and this means that fuel atomisation is not needed. For
to success include the large reserves of natural gas present in the world
aviation use this reduces combustor design complexity since the use of
which has a high hydrogen gravimetric content and produces less carbon
kerosene as a fuel has an atomisation requirement but for industrial
dioxide than other fossil fuels. The other factor is thermal efficiency,
power generation, there isn’t a significant change in design since natural
which for combined cycle powerplants approaches 60%. The final
gas is the typical fuel choice. As such the use of hydrogen allows for
advantage of employing gas turbines is the wide range of power levels
improved combustion efficiency when compared to the use of kerosene
they occupy, up to 300 MW per engine for a simple cycle and 500 MW in
as gas turbine fuel. For natural gas, this isn’t necessarily the case but the
a combined cycle [55]. Fuel cells today are still not economically viable
use of heat exchangers for fuel pre-heating before entry into the com­
against gas turbines at these power ratings and operational reliability at
bustion chamber allows for slightly increased overall cycle thermal ef­
MW power ratings is still largely unknown. However, there is scope to
ficiency. This is because either a more optimal gas turbine cycle layout
incorporate fuel cells in hybrid configurations with high-temperature
can be employed and/or energy lost in hydrogen from the liquefaction
fuel cells such as SOFCs. Studies indicate that system efficiencies as
process can be recovered during gas turbine operation. The main stated
high as 80% can be achieved for large-scale distributed power genera­
challenges of utilising hydrogen combustion at the time in [68] were the
tion where heat from the SOFC is used to drive a gas turbine to produce
difficulties Rolls-Royce had in cooling the injector face due to the rapid
more electricity [53].
burning reaction rate of hydrogen. At the time the appropriate gas tur­
For aerospace application, particularly military and civil transport
bine waste heat recovery in hydrogen before heat injection was
aircraft, use of aero gas turbines (jet engines) are often the only viable
mentioned as a design solution to mitigate this. Thus this proposal
option for fuel-efficient economic flight. Key advantages that arise with
although researched and studied [68] & [69] with overall reductions in
using jet engines include low SFC for high Mach number flight, low
SFC up to 5.7% obtained in thermodynamic cycles with fuel waste re­
frontal area for reduced powerplant drag, and high thrust/power-to-
covery against the thermodynamic cycle with no hydrogen fuel waste
weight ratios for overall aircraft weight reduction [55]. Fuel cells at
heat recovery. The key development challenge is appropriately sized
present still have lower power-to-weight ratios than what is achievable
heat exchangers implemented at the appropriate point in the gas turbine
with jet engines. The latest state-of-the-art fuel cells achieve
at minimum weight.
power-to-weight ratios between 2 kW kg− 1 – 4.0 kW kg− -1 [64, 65] &
In addition to studies in [68], GE completed experimental programs
[66]. Considering flight speed from Mach 0.4 – Mach 0.6, turboshafts
involving turbofans employing liquid hydrogen in [70]. Tests they un­
and turboprops achieve power-to-weight ratios up to ~6.0 kW kg− 1 [55]
dertook demonstrated that a control system arrangement consisting of
& [67]. For higher flight speeds (Mach 0.7+), for current in-service
liquid fuel pumping, gasification of pump discharge flow at supercritical
aviation propulsor technology, a further limitation to fuel cell use is
pressure, and gaseous metering can be made acceptably stable and
that an electric coupling via power electronics and an electric motor
responsive. Air-to-fuel heat exchangers also demonstrably were able to
would be needed between the fuel cell and the propulsors. With this
fully gasify the engine fuel flow without air side freezing. For industrial
arrangement there are two main issues, the first is that the use of
gas turbines, GE has engine families that already have demonstrable

15
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
experience of operating with hydrogen in both simple and combined
cycle layouts [71]. Thermal efficiencies of up to 43% in simple cycle and
64% in combined cycle configurations are achievable with their engine
families for power ratings between 290-571 MW. Companies like Mit­
subishi Power Systems, Siemens Energy, and Ansaldo Energia also have
gas turbine product ranges that can run on liquid hydrogen [72].
For aircraft applications, the assessment of hydrogen cannot be
limited to only assessment at the powerplant level. The fact that liquid
hydrogen is used as gas turbine fuel means that assessment needs to
account for the storage of fuel onboard the aircraft. As previously stated,
liquid hydrogen has a volumetric energy density of about 3.6 times
lower than kerosene (see Table 1). Additionally, liquid hydrogen needs
to be stored in specially designed cryotanks while kerosene can be stored
in the easily-to-install lightweight bladder or integral tanks on a given
airframe. As a consequence, for a conventional tube-and-wing aircraft
design, the use of hydrogen is characterised by the installation of larger
and heavier tanks. Figure 16 shows a Boeing 737-sized airplane designed
to use liquid hydrogen [39]. The heavy cryogenic fuel tanks increase the
operating empty weight (OEW) of the aircraft by 13% above what is the
case for the kerosene-fuelled aircraft. However, due to the higher
gravimetric energy density of the fuel compared to kerosene, the total
fuel mass is lighter and thus take-off weight is lighter. Engine down­
sizing is possible with reduced take-off weight and fuel mass and this
engine size-reduction allows for slightly smaller wings. Significant wing
size reduction is limited by the need for the wing to generate enough lift
to carry the additional weight from installed cryotanks. Because of the
tanks, for a 500 n.mi mission, a relatively short mission range, about the
distance from London to Milan, overall mission energy consumption is
increased because the aircraft does not have a sufficient amount of time
to fully utilize the energy content of the fuel on board to offset cryotank
dead-weight penalties. From studies in [39], this represented a 28%
increase in energy consumption over a 500 n.mi range mission. How­
ever, as the mission range increases, the discrepancy in energy con­
sumption between a kerosene-fuelled aircraft and a hydrogen one
reduces. For the airplane in Figure 16, at 3000 n.mi range, about the
distance between London and New York, this difference reduces to only
2%. In studies for larger aircraft flying longer ranges, total energy
consumption reduction of up to 10.4% is possible for an Airbus
A340/Boeing 777 sized aircraft modelled with a hydrogen-powered
turbofan over a kerosene-powered turbofan with the same thermody­
namic cycle over a 4000 n.mi mission [73]. Modelling was carried out
with NASA’s FLOPS simulation tool and Gasturb.
5.3.3. Enabling Turboelectric Distributed Propulsion
In civil aerospace, there have been additional targets and technology
goals set in addition to the Paris Agreement for new aircraft concepts
and propulsion system technologies for greener aircraft operation.
Figure 16. Hydrogen-powered airplane design and performance compared to a
kerosene fuelled aircraft on a 500 n.mi mission [39]
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
Organisations such as NASA and the European Union have set highly
ambitious targets of up to 75% reduction in CO2 emissions, 90%
reduction in NOx emissions, and a 70% reduction in fuel burn for
aviation technologies with entry-into-service (EIS) for the 2035-2050
timeframe compared to typical to state-of-the-art aircraft in 2000 [74]
& [75]. The use of liquid hydrogen as a fuel for jet engines brings into
play the potential for novel revolutionary engine system architectures
beyond its use as an engine fuel that can enable aviation technologies to
meet these targets. This is primarily due to the cryogenic nature of the
hydrogen storage on-board an aircraft and engine; liquid hydrogen can
act as a highly effective heat sink which allows for the synergistic
integration of several novel technologies that can significantly increase
propulsion system performance. This is despite the system penalties that
arise from its use such as increased storage penalties, fuel cost, and fuel
energy content loss from the liquefaction process. A key technology that
has been proposed to meet these targets is turboelectric distributed
propulsion (TeDP), a novel electrified propulsion system concept that
synergistically takes advantage of liquid hydrogen for significant in­
creases in integrated aircraft-propulsion system performance.
TeDP is a radical novel propulsion system technology that electri­
cally decouples the gas turbines from the main propulsor units (either a
fan or a propeller) in the place of a mechanical transmission. The electric
transmission is typically achieved through an electrical network that
consists of motors, generators, and power electronics (see Figure 17)
[76]. Physically, this means that different from conventional jet engines
is that propulsors can be situated anywhere on an airframe instead of
fixed to the gas turbine because the mechanical coupling has been
eliminated. With propulsors electrically decoupled from core gas tur­
bines, multiple smaller and lighter propulsors can be utilized to provide
an equivalent amount of thrust as 2-4 large propulsors (due to an area
sizing effect). Also, the expanded aircraft-engine design space allows for
designs that take advantage of novel aerodynamic phenomena such as
boundary-layer-ingestion (BLI) and propeller-wing slipstream lift
augmentation for dramatic improvements in integrated
aircraft-propulsion system performance such as an increase in aircraft
aerodynamic efficiency, increase in propulsion system propulsive effi­
ciency, reduction in wing size, reduction in aircraft tail size, reductions
in gas turbine size, reductions in gas turbine weight, elimination of
aircraft control surfaces and an overall reduction in aircraft weight.
Focusing on the propulsion system level and propulsion-airframe
boundary, the below are stated benefits of employing TeDP technol­
ogy over conventional jet engines:
• Significant increase in engine effective bypass ratios (eBPRs) for a
significant increase in propulsive efficiency due to the option to
install a larger number of propulsors on the aircraft with reduced
weight and drag penalties.
• Reduced gas turbine noise due to increased electric power offtake
and increased eBPR
• Symmetric thrust in the event of a gas turbine or generator failure.
All propulsors can continue to operate at a reduced but symmetric
thrust with electric power output from the remaining turbogenerator
using a common bus network
Figure 17. A typical TeDP architecture showing electric power distribution
network [76]
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172

• The potential for the use of differential thrust for aircraft yaw control Table 10
in novel flight modes Comparison of the power densities and efficiencies of conventional state-of-the-
• The incorporation of an energy storage device (e.g. battery, flywheel, art electric machinery to superconducting & cryogenic machinery for TeDP
etc.) allows for hybrid modes of operation in a hybrid electric application
distributed propulsion (HeDP) system architecture for increased Power Density
engine SFC Component State-of-the-art Conventional Superconducting & Cryogenic
(kW/kg) (kW/kg)
• Depending on the TeDP architecture configuration of choice, the
decoupling of gas turbines from propulsors allows for both devices to Generator 8.22a [79] 41.6c [77]
run at their optimal rotational speeds throughout a given flight en­ Motor 8.22a [79] 22.0d [77]
Power Converter 16.4 [78] 32.9e [78]
velope for maximum off-design system efficiency
Transmission 18.3b 227.1f [78]
Lines
Some major challenges associated with practical implementation of Transmission Efficiency
TeDP are (1) the effective management of increased system complexity; Component State-of-the-art Conventional Superconducting & Cryogenic
(kW/kg) (kW/kg)
(2) the weight increase to the overall propulsion system (in addition to
Generator 95.0%a [79] 99.98%c [77]
the gas turbine) from integrating motors, generators, and power elec­ Motor 95.0%a [79] 99.97%d [77]
tronics to the overall propulsion system for the power levels required for Power Converter 95.0% [78] 99.93%e [78]
propulsion; and (3) electric transmission loss minimisation. Studies for Transmission ≈ 100%b ≈ 100%f [78]
the N3-X aircraft, a Boeing 777-200LR class-sized aircraft that has a Lines

novel blended-wing-body (BWB) airframe employing TeDP, show that
power ratings for electrical machines can reach up to 40 MW [77] &
[78]. As such, the use of fully-superconducting machinery and cryogenic
power electronics have been identified as key enabling technologies for
TeDP. This is because they allow for significant increases in component
power densities and transmission efficiencies compared to current-day
state-of-the-art electric machines. Superconducting machines are built
with materials that lose all their electrical resistance below a critical
temperature which allows them to carry a significantly large amount of
current in small wires. This leads to light-weight, compact, very efficient
motors and generators. Operating temperatures when using
high-temperature-superconducting (HTS) materials for superconducting
machines range between 20 K and 65 K [75]. Machines with power
ratings up to 35 MW and 15,000 rpm have been designed and tested. The
higher-performance machines are aimed at military applications, but
commercial prototypes are starting to emerge. A major development
challenge today is the production of machines with both fully super­
conducting rotor windings and stator windings. Today most of the
state-of-the-art machines considered superconducting are made with
only the rotor windings being superconducting. The stator windings,
that are the high-power windings that cause the majority of the losses,
are made of copper and run at room temperature. From known studies,
only a few small experimental machines have been made with super­
conducting stator windings.
For power converters, it has been shown that higher power density
and higher efficiency can be achieved when the devices are operated at
cryogenic temperatures. This results from decreased forward resistance
in the transistors of more than an order of magnitude, higher switching
speeds, lower resistance in interconnections, and some cases improved
heat transfer from the components to a cooling medium. The higher
switching speed reduces the mass of the capacitors required for filtering
and reduces the switching losses. Table 10 shows a comparison of the
power density and efficiency goals set for superconducting machines
and cryogenic electric machinery versus typical values for current-day
state-of-the-art [78]. To achieve the performance goals for electric ma­
chinery necessary in a TeDP architecture, an appropriate cooling system
is needed. Cryocoolers are devices that typically reduce ambient con­
ditions to cryogenic temperatures and they have been suggested as a
method to cool TeDP systems. However present-day state-of-the-art
cryocoolers today only have power densities of about 55 W/kg and their
efficiencies reach up to 30% of Carnot efficiency. Thus their use imposes
additional weight penalties and power transmission losses on a TeDP
system leading to lower than expected aircraft fuel savings. As such
liquid hydrogen was proposed initially as a more lightweight solution
for system cooling due to installed liquid hydrogen cryotank systems
being lighter than present day state-of-the-art cryocoolers for the same
thermal load. However, since liquid hydrogen is already being stored
on-board the aircraft for cooling, the same liquid hydrogen used for
a) Halbach array architecture assumed – not accounting for power scaling effects
b) Assuming material used for transmission lines is copper
c) Use of MgB2 for stator and rotor material – 22 MW machine
d) Use of MgB2 for stator and rotor material – 3 MW machine
e) Operation at cryogenic temperature
f) HTS transmission
cooling can then be subsequently used as an engine fuel for an
improvement in integrated aircraft-engine performance. The use of
liquid hydrogen use allows for powerplant operation with reduced SFC
and ultimately a reduced fuel mass stored on the aircraft. Studies in [77]
for the N3-X aircraft, a Boeing 777-200LR class aircraft employing a
TeDP system with aggressive technology assumptions showed that
mission fuel burn could be reduced by 70%-72% compared to the more
conventional Boeing 777-200LR-like aircraft without compromising
payload, range, or cruise speed.
6. Concluding Remarks
Public concerns over climate change has grown in recent times, and
as such, more initiatives such as the Paris Agreement are being adopted
by more and more by Governments, organisations and institutions
around the world. This coupled with concerns over the sustainability of
fossil fuel use in the long-term have brought to the public view the need
to invest-in and develop low carbon technologies for continued global
security. An attractive fuel option that has been proposed in recent times
for the realisation of a green economy is hydrogen. Hydrogen is a fuel
that has a gravimetric energy content about 2.5 to 3 times greater than
most fossil fuels and its combustion produces zero CO2 emissions. Other
benefits of utilising hydrogen as a fuel include its attractive combustion
characteristics such as its very low flashpoint (-231◦ C) and its wide
flammability range (4%-75%). Considering the benefits further,
hydrogen as a fuel can also be produced from surplus electricity gen­
eration from renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, geothermal,
etc. for significantly reduced carbon footprints when accounting for
well-to-wheel transmission. As such a hydrogen economy centred on the
production, distribution, and storage of hydrogen as a fuel for power
generation purposes has been proposed as a significant step in the shift
to a low-carbon economy.
Considering hydrogen technologies in more detail, the major systems
in the hydrogen economy that need to be developed and/or deployed in
the hydrogen economy are production infrastructure, the distribution
network, storage technologies and power conversion device technolo­
gies. Each one of technology areas have already been developed to high
levels of maturity with proof-of-concept commercial prototypes already
developed as is the case with proton exchange membrane fuel cells that
via electrolysis combine hydrogen and oxygen. The major challenge
though with the uptake of key enabling systems and technologies in the

17
B.C. Tashie-Lewis and S.G. Nnabuife
hydrogen economy is well-to-wheel costs from production to end-use
power conversion. However, there are technologies being developed
across the hydrogen lifecycle that either dramatically increase system
performance and/or have the potential for a significant reduction in fuel
production costs. Power conversion technologies such as PEM fuel cells
are relatively mature with theoretical power conversion efficiencies
predicted to reach up to 60% power which is significantly greater than
the 30-35% achieved with piston engines. In aerospace turboelectric
distributed propulsion is a power conversion technology that has been
proposed as a solution for aircraft flying the 2035-2050 timeframe to
achieve ambitious performance targets from organisations such as NASA
and the European Union. Preliminary studies have in fact indicated that
mission fuel burn for future aircraft employing turboelectric distributed
propulsion could potentially be reduced by up to 70-72% compared to
year 2000 conventional state-of-the-art aircraft without compromising
payload, range or cruise speed. For hydrogen production techniques,
promising novel approaches such as hydrogen production via photo­
electrochemical reactions in sea-water, and dehydrogenation of waste/
non-food biomass offer up the potential for low-cost highly efficient
hydrogen production.
Considering economic concerns to realising the hydrogen economy,
the biggest unknown is what the true cost will be to implementing the
hydrogen network from well-to-wheel. Although storage technologies
exist that can store hydrogen despite volumetric penalty concerns (even
in liquid form hydrogen’s volumetric energy density is still about 3.6
times less than kerosene), material thermal performance concerns and
hydrogen embrittlement issues; the effect on a macro scale of imple­
menting a full hydrogen distribution network has still only been
modelled at a theoretical level. More practical experience and research
is needed in this area.
7. Future Outlook
The key factor limiting widespread hydrogen as a fuel in a hydrogen
economy as previously stated is the high costs associated with its use
when compared to fossil fuels. However as mentioned in this review, a
host of innovative concepts and technologies have been proposed that
can reduce overall fuel costs such as storage of hydrogen in large salt
domes and photoelectrochemical production of hydrogen from sea
water. These technologies, in addition to more mature system options
should hydrogen burning internal combustion engines, liquid hydrogen
cryotanks, the burgeoning progress of fuel cell development and the
increasing integration of renewable energy into power grids around the
world should accelerate the shift from a fossil fuel based economy to a
low-carbon hydrogen one. One country that is already ahead of the
curve in driving the shift to a hydrogen economy is Japan which has
identified hydrogen as one of the key components of its shift to a low
hydrogen economy with companies such as Honda and Toyota already
at the forefront of delivering hydrogen-powered solutions in the auto­
motive sector. It is expected as the benefits of utilising hydrogen become
more recognised, that more and more countries will increasingly invest
in hydrogen technology so that appropriate economies-of-scale can be
achieved that will make hydrogen more cost competitive against fossil
fuel use. One unknown though lies in how safe and reliable the hydrogen
distribution network will be in a hydrogen economy. Concerns over
leakage, thermal effects, embrittlement and flammability will be of even
more concern when hydrogen is being transported over large distances
within national borders and as such this is an area that needs to be
increasingly investigated in the next few years. Additionally considering
hydrogen production technology, the most technologically ready
“green” hydrogen production technology is the electrolysis of water
from various power sources, and as such it is expected further research
will be undertaken on improving the hydrogen production process from
water electrolysis in order to reduce costs.
18
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 8 (2021) 100172
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