MODULE 5 - Soil Physical Properties
dispersion, aggregation, adhesion, cohesion, adsorption, ion
Characteristics of an “Ideal Soil” as a medium for plant
growth
An “ideal soil” should be able to provide the plant the following:
Adequate supply of essential nutrients in their proper proportion
and forms:
• There are 16 essential elements for plant growth.
• This is primary concern of soil fertility and chemistry but the
rate of retention and release of nutrients (related to
availability) is a concern of soil physics.
• Adequate supply of available water to meet the large quantity
of water required by plants mainly to satisfy transpiration
• Plants need 300 to 500 ml of water to produce 1 gram of dry
matter.
NOTE: Soil water retention and release (related to supply of
available water to plants) is an important topic in soil physics
• Adequate amount soil air or O2 gas for root respiration O2
and CO2 gases exchange
Favorable environment for root growth
• favorable temperature
• free from toxic materials and pathogens
• firm but with low mechanical impedance to root or emerging
shoot growth
Soil Physics
• Branch of Soil Science that deals with the physical
properties of soils as well as their description,
measurements and control of the physical processes
occurring in the soils.
In practice, Soil Physics provides better tools for proper
management of soil by means of the following:
• Irrigation and Drainage
• Soil and Water Conservation
• Soil Tillage
• Soil Structure Maintenance and Improvement
• Soil Aeration Improvement
• Regulation of Heat
• Increasing Fertilizer Use Efficiency
• Soil Erosion Management
Basic Physical Properties of Soils
• Soil as a particulate porous material
• Soil is a three-phase system
• Soil is heterogeneous particulate system
• The solid phase is naturally aggregated but can be subdivided
(dispersed) into individual minute particles which together exhibit
porosity, and a very large specific surface area.
• As such, soils exhibit such phenomena as swelling, shrinkage,
exchange, etc.
Soil as a particulate porous material
• Water movement and retention
• Gas exchange
• Saturation
• Field Capacity
• Permanent Wilting Point
• Soil with small pores vs Small with large pores
Soil composition – 50% pore-space; 50% solid space
Soil Physical Components by Volume – (1) inorganic/mineral
matter; (2) organic material; (3) water; (4) air
Soil is a three-phase system
• In a soil mass, the solid, liquid and gas components coexist
together.
• The solid phase consists of soil particles (that form the solid
matrix) which vary in chemical and mineralogical composition as
well as in size, shape and orientation. The mutual arrangement or
organization of these particles determines the size and shape
characteristics of the pore spaces in which water and air are
retained or transmitted.
• The liquid phase is a solution containing dissolved substances.
• The gaseous phase is the soil air which has practically same
composition as atmospheric air, except CO2
• Mineral matter – composed of weathered rocks and minerals
• Organic matter (humus) – decayed plant and animal bodies
• Gasses – found in the pores and is composed of oxygen (20%),
nitrogen (78%), carbon dioxide and other gases (2%)
• Water – in the pores that contain dissolved gases and nutrients
Important physical properties: (texture, porosity, water
holding capacity/Hydraulic conductivity, color,
consistency, structure)
1. Texture
SOIL TEXTURE
• Soils are particulate and dispersible
•Primary particles are individual or discrete particle: Sand, Silt,
Clay
•Secondary particles clusters of primary particles: Peds,
Aggregates, Clods
•Particle-size groupings or scheme of classification (in mm unit) of
primary particles.
 • Also called Particle-Size Distribution
• A soil is composed of primary (individual or discrete) particles
which form the fabric or skeletal framework of a soil mass and
secondary (aggregates) particles which form the structure of a
soil mass
• Soil texture concerns the primary particles
• The word texture of a material refers to the sensation when
one rubs the material with the finger. It may feel soft, coarse,
smooth, powdery, sticky, etc. As such, soil texture is
qualitatively determined in the field by “feel” method
• Quantitatively soil texture is defined as the relative proportion
of the three soil separates in a soil mass or %sand, % silt and
% clay in a soil mass.
TEXTURE
• Determines many other physical properties of the soil:
porosity, water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity and
consistency
• Sandy: coarse-textured soils
• Clayey: fine textured soils
• Sandy: coarse-textured soils
• Better aerated due to the greater proportion of large pores
• Better drained but soil water travels in shorter distances
due to the breaks created by large pores
• Less fertile where parent materials are primary minerals
low in bases and more easily leached
• Clayey: fine textured soils
• Lesser total volume of pore spaces
• Water moves slowly and farther because the channels of
water movement are mostly through capillary pores
• Greater water holding capacity
• Often dictates the suitable crop for the soil
• Fine to medium-textured soils: Paddy rice; Water can
be impounded longer than in sandy soils
• Coarse to medium-textured soils: Upland crops e.g.
Root crops; Tubers can more easily develop
• Relative proportion of the various size fractions: sand,
silt and clay in the soil
SOIL TEXTURE
ISSS criteria
• Sand 2.0 – 0.02 mm
• Silt 0.02 – 0.002 mm
• Clay less than 0.002 mm
USDA classification on sand particles:
• Very coarse sand 2.0 – 1.0 mm
• Coarse sand 1.0 – 0.5 mm
• Medium sand 0.5 – 0.25 mm
• Fine sand 0.25 – 0.10 mm
• Very fine sand 0.10 – 0.05 mm
• More or less permanent soil property
• No amount of organic matter added can alter it since it
is determined by proportions of the inorganic
components: sand, silt and clay
It could change:
• When flooding deposits huge amounts of any of these
fractions in an area
• When volcanic eruption deposits huge amounts of sand-size
particles in an area
Textural Grades/Classes of Soils
• Sand – 85% sand or more (coarse, gritty, mostly primary minerals
such as quartz and feldspars, cubic to spherical in shape)
• Loamy sand – 75% to more than 50% silt
• Silt – 80% silt (smooth, powdery, mostly primary minerals such as
quartz, feldspars cubic to spherical in shape)
• Sandy loam – 43 to 52% sand
• Loam – less than 52% sand, 7 to 27% clay, 28 to 50% silt (a textural
class wherein the characteristics of sand, silt and clay are equally
manifested in the soil)
• Silt loam – less Clay loam
• Sandy clay loam
• Silty clay loam
• Sandy clay
• Silty clay
• Clay – 40% clay and more, less than 45% sand, less than 40% silt
(Sticky and plastic when moist mostly secondary minerals very high
specific surface area hence the most reactive component of the soil,
plate-like, or flake-like and some are tubular)
Determination of Soil Texture
Feel method
• Rubbing moist soil between the fingers and estimating the
characteristic “feel” of the dominant soil separate
• Sand soils: gritty and rough
• Silty soils: smooth and powdery
• Clayey soils: plastic sticky
Roll method
• The moist soil sample is kneaded into a rod and the texture
is approximated by the ability to form rods or of the rods to
remain intact when bent into a loop
• Sandy soils: do not form rods
• Medium textured soils (loam and silt loam): form rods but
which break easily when a loop is formed
• Clayey soils (silty clay, sandy clay and clay): form a
continuous rod and which can be molded into a ring without
cracking or breaking
Mechanical analysis (Stoke’s Law)
• States that settling velocity of soil particles in an aqueous
medium is directly proportional to the square of their
diameter multiplied by a constant
• V=KD2
where: V=settling velocity, cm/minute
K=constant to correct for variations in temperature and
viscosity of the soil suspension
D=diameter of the particles, mm
Mechanical analysis: Hydrometer method
• The bigger the particle, the faster is the settling velocity
Mechanical analysis: Pipette Method
• Samples of the suspension are drawn out by a volumetric
pipette from fixed depths at different times of sedimentation
• B=Q x A / P
where: B=total oven-dry weight of the particle group or soil
separate
Q=total suspension volume
A=oven-dry weight of the particles in the suspension sample
P=sample volume
 Separation of primary particles into size group
1. Sieving - use graded sieves down to particle diameter of
0.05 mm.
2. Sedimentation analysis - for the finer primary particles.
This makes use of Stoke’s Law.

2. Structure
SOIL STRUCTURE
• Spatial arrangement of individual or primary soil particles into
secondary aggregates
• An important physical property of soils because it influences
water and air movement, heat transfer, bulk density and
porosity
• Subject to changes due to cultural management like
cultivation, drainage, fertilization and liming

Structure/Granulation
• Has much the same effect on aeration and water
relations
• Well structured or aggregated soil
• Good aeration and ease of water movement
• Dark colored soils
• Generally, more fertile than light colored soils
• Dark coloring due to abundant humus content or
parent materials (base-rich ferromagnesian
minerals)
• Dark bluish or grayish coloration (mottling): poor
drainage
• Reddish soils
• Generally very old soils, acidic and low in basic cations
• Red yellowish color in subsoils: indicates good drainage
SOIL STRUCTURE
• Is the pattern of arrangement of individual particles into
soil aggregates or peds and the arrangement of the
aggregates into a soil mass
• The shape that the soil takes based on its physical and
chemical properties
• Ped – each individual unit of soil structure
Structural Classes (Based on shapes of aggregates)
The cohesive forces within the aggregate (intra-aggregate) are
stronger than in between the aggregates (inter-aggregates) and
so if tillage is performed the soil will break nicely following the
weaker surface in between aggregates.
◆ The small sized pores (micropores) are formed within the
aggregate while the large-sized pores (macropores) are formed in
between aggregates.
◆ The micropores store water
◆ The macropores drain excess water, provide aeration and root
proliferation.
◆ As a medium for plant growth, a soil should have good
proportion of the micropores and macropores
• Soil structure is unstable property
• Deteriorates with poor soil and crop management
• Soil structure influence water transport, air transport and
mechanical impedance to seedling emergence and root growth

1. Prism-like/Prismatic (pillar-like with level tops) and

Columnar (rounded tops)
• Commonly occur in subsoils and in soils of arid and semi-
arid regions

2. Blocky/Block-like
• Cube-like and more or less sharp edges; rectangular faces
are distinct
• Subangular blocky: edges more or less rounded typically
in clayey subsoils of humid regions

3. Spheroidal • Some soils may be described as structureless

• Consists of rounded porous aggregates • Soil structure can be classified into classes depending upon
• Characteristic of surface soils with high OM content the size of the aggregates formed:
• Granular: less porous; Crumb: more porous • Very fine or very thin
• Fine or thin
4. Platy/Plate-like • Coarse or thick
• Disc-like aggregates commonly found in virgin soils and • Very coarse or very thick
subsoils
• Make the soil poorly drained
 Soil Aggregate
• The cementing or binding together of primary soil particles into
a secondary unit, aggregate or granule
• Water-stable aggregates which will not disintegrate easily are of
significant importance to soil
• Several factors may influence aggregate formation:
• Wetting and drying intervals
• Freezing and thawing
• Activities of roots and soil animals
• Decaying OM
• Adsorbed cations and soil tillage
• The major agent in soil aggregation is organic matter which
binds soil particles together and increases soil porosity
• Slime formed from decay-causing microorganisms
encourages crumb development and exerts stabilizing properties
to soils
• The influence of adsorbed cations on soil aggregation
depends upon the relative amounts of the cations in soils e.g. if
Na is predominant, the particles are dispersed and an
undesirable structure results; Ca encourages granulation or
flocculation.
• Activities of earthworms, termites, ants and other
macrofauna may directly affect soil structure and aggregation
• Differences in aggregate stability are related to the
presence or absence of certain binding agents, types of clays,
and the presence of iron oxides, kaolinite (non-expanding)
dominated granules are usually more stable than soils where
montmorillonite (expanding) pre-dominates. Iron oxides have
cementing properties hereby giving rise to stable granules
5. Porosity
Soils are made up of materials in 3 different states:
• Solid, Liquid, Gas
• Liquid and gaseous constituents occupy the pore spaces
between the solid and particles of a soil mass
• Soil density is represented in 2 ways:
• Particle density
• Bulk density
• Pore space is related and therefore can be computed from
bulk density and particle density
Particle Density (PD)
• Refers to the mass or weight of a unit volume of the solid
particles of soils
• Expressed as the ratio of the total mass of the solid particles
to their total volumes excluding pore spaces between
particles
• Interrelationships of porosity, bulk density, air space and
rates of sedimentation of particles in fluids depend on PD
• Calculated from two measured quantities:
• Mass of the sample – determined by weighing
• Volume – calculation from the mass and density of
water displaced by the sample
Particle density
• Particle density of soils is the mass (dry weight) per unit
volume of soil excluding the pore spaces within that soil
volume.
❖ Particle density (2.65 g/cm³ on the average) indicate the
mineral ancestry of the soil.
• A high particle density (greater than 2.70 g/cm³) may mean
that the soil could have been derived from heavy minerals
like iron bearing minerals
• A low particle density (less than 2.50 g/cm3) may indicate
that the soil is high in humus.
❖The equation for determining particle density is:
• PD = Ws/Vs
where:
PD = particle density in gm/cm³
Ws = oven-dried weight of soil in gm
Vs = volume of soil solids in cm³
Bulk Density (BD)
• Is the ratio of the mass to the bulk or volume of soil particles plus
pore spaces in a sample
• Mass is determined after drying to constant weight at 105oC
• Volume is determined by the samples taken in the field
• Needed for converting water percentage by weight to content by
volume, for calculating porosity when the PD is known and for
estimating the weight of a volume of soil too large to be weighed
conveniently
• Varies with structural condition of the soil, particularly that related
to packing
• Expressed in gram per cubic centimeter g/cm3
SOIL DENSITIES and POROSITIES
Bulk Density
> Bulk density (BD) of the soil is the oven dry weight per unit
volume of soil.
• a measure of the degree of compaction of the soil
an indicator of soil porosity.
"The more compact the soil, the greater is the bulk density value
and the less porous it is"
The formula of bulk density is:
• BD = Ws/Vt
where:
BD = bulk density in gm/cm³
Ws oven-dried weight of soil in gm
Vt = total volume of soil in cm³
➢ Bulk density is affected by soil texture, structure, organic matter
content and location in the profile affect of soils
• Sandy soils have higher bulk density because the particles tend to
lie closer together.
• Fine-textured soils such as silt loam, clay loam and clay are
generally well aggregated and hence have large pores between
granules or aggregates giving low bulk density values.
• Soils in the deeper horizons have higher bulk density due to their
lower organic matter content, less aggregation, less root
penetration and greater compaction due to the weight of the
overlying layers. Subsoils also tend to be clogged with fine clay, thus
reducing bulk density.
Techniques of determining Bulk Density
• Paraffin Coated Clod
• Soil Core Sample
Pore Space (PS) / Porosity
• The volume percentage of the total bulk of the soil not occupied
by solid particles
• Related to PD and BD
• PS (%) = 1– BD x 100/PD
• The amount of PS significantly influences the storage and
movement of water and gases, the development of root systems by
plants, the flow and retention of heat, and in investigations of soil
strength
➢ Soil Porosity, bulk density and particle density relationships
• The higher the bulk density of soils, the lower is its porosity.
• Percent Porosity (% PS) is calculated using the equation:
• % PS = [1 - BD / PD] * 100
6. Water holding capacity and Hydraulic conductivity (ease of water
movement)
Accounts for innumerable chemical, physical and biological
processes occurring in the soil. It acts, as solvent and carrier of
plant nutrients and also functions as a nutrient itself.
The capacity of the soil for storage of available water is determined
by its texture, porosity and rooting volume of the vegetation. The
rate of water movement into and through the soil is important in
determining the effectiveness of the soil as a reservoir of water for
plants. Soil water uncontrolled greatly induces loss of soil fertility
through erosion and leaching.
Tensiometer
• A device which measures tension with which water is held by the
soil. The instrument consists of a porous clay cup connected by a
water-filled tube to a mercury well.
Neutron Scattering
• Hydrogen atoms contained in soil water collide with fast moving
neutrons emitted by the source at high speed
Water Movement
• Soil-water relation and some practical significance e.g. in the
conservation of soil and water resources.
• Soil erosion as a result of run-off and slow rate of downward
movement of water is becoming a serious soil problem in the
country.
• It is therefore desirable to have rainwater enter the soil and
percolate to the lower layers of the soil profile rather than have run
off the surface.
• Through percolation nutrients are removed but through run off
both soil and nutrients are carried away.
• The importance of aggregate stability in encouraging the entry of
water into the soil cannot be over-emphasized.

Soil Water Soil Moisture Tension (SMT)

Soil Water = Soil Moisture = Soil Solution - A measure of the energy state of water in the soil
A. Importance • Soil moisture that surrounds soil particles is held at varying
1. Large amount of water is required by plants for transpiration. degrees of tenacity or energy. The farther away the moisture film
One (1) hectare of corn requires 4 - 6 million liters of water from from the surface of the soil particle, the weaker is the energy of
planting to harvest attraction between soil and water. The energy state of water in the
2. Water is a reactant in photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O CHO
soil is sometimes called Soil Moisture Tension (SMT). Commonly
3. Water is a universal solvent.
used unit of SMT is BAR
4. It is a chemical reactant in many important chemical reaction,
like hydrolysis and hydration - Demonstration using Sponge
5. It facilitates tillage operation acting as lubricant which makes
plowing easy Soil Moisture Constants
- Maximum water holding capacity
Soil Moisture Content (θ) - Field capacity
> The amount of water that is present in the soil - Wilting capacity
> Three ways of expressing moisture content - Hygroscopic coefficient
1. Gravimetric Moisture Content (% θm) or Moisture Content by Soil Moisture Coefficients
weight or mass basis 1. Saturation (SAT)
% θm = 100 [(FW - ODW) / ODW] x 100 • Moisture Content when pore spaces are fully filled-up with water.
➢ FW Weight of moist soil • SMT = 0 bar. (the water in the soil is loosely held by the particles
➢ ODW = Oven dry weight and it easily drips with the action of gravity)
2. Field Capacity (FC)
2. Volumetric Moisture Content (%0v) • Moisture content of a previously saturated soil, allowed to drain
θV = Vw/Vt cm³ H₂O/cm³ Soil until downward movement is practically zero.
➢ Vw = volume of water • FC is the upper limit of available water.
• SMT = 1/3 bar
➢ Vs = Volume of soil
3. Permanent Wilting Coefficient (PWC)
% θv = % θm x BD/Dw
• The moisture content when turgid plants begins to wilt
➢ BD = Bulk Density, g/cm³ permanently.
➢ Dw = Density of water, g/cm³ PWP is the lower limit of available water.
• SMT= 15 bars
3. Soil water Depth (Hw) 4. Hygroscopic Coefficient (HC)
Hw = θv *Hi • Air dry soil moisture content which is highly dependent on the
Ht = total depth of soil relative humidity of the atmosphere.
• Water is held at very energy that it is not available for plant use.
Methods of Soil Moisture Determination • SMT => 31 bars
Gravimetric method 5. Oven Dry (OD)
• Soil is oven-dried to a constant weight of 105oC. Loss in weight • Oven drying condition involves putting the moist soil in an oven at
represents the moisture content of soil and is expressed as % of 105-110 °C for 24 hours
the oven-dry weight of the soil used
• Gypsum (CaSO.2H O) block
• Ca++ and SO= ions carry electric current. The liquid in the block is
saturated with these ions.
Important Soil Moisture Calculations
1. Gravitational Water (GW)
• computed by getting the difference between moisture
content of soil at SAT and at FC(1/3 bar SMT) as shown
below:
• GW = Sat - FC
where:
GW = gravitational water
SAT = Saturated Moisture Content
FC = field capacity moisture

2. Available water capacity (AWC)

• computed by getting the difference between moisture
content of soil at FC (1/3 bar SMT) and at PWP (15 bars
SMT) as shown below:
• AWC = FC-PWP
where:
AWC = available water
FC = field capacity moisture
PWP = permanent wilting point

7. Consistency
SOIL CONSISTENCY
• The property of soil that determined their resistance to
crushing and their ability to be molded or changed in shape
• In the field, usually described as loose, friable, firm, soft,
plastic and sticky. These limits are indices of the workability or
firmness of soils as affected by the content of water in the
mixture
• The 3 limits were first described by Atterberg who developed
them to measure the plasticity of clays. They are now used in
measuring water holding properties, shrinkage, swelling, 8. Color
compressibility, permeability and strength of soils SOIL COLOR
• The manner in which forces of cohesion and adhesion are • Munsell Soil Color Chart - standard color comparison chart
manifested in soils at various soil moisture content • Hue –the dominant spectral color
• A soil behaves differently at different soil moisture content. • Value – darkness or lightness of a color
• It is hard when dry, friable when moist, sticky and plastic when • Chroma – gradation of purity of color or the intensity or
it is wet and viscous (it flows like liquid) when super saturated brightness of a color
• Liquid limit
• Plastic limit
• Sticky limit

• Liquid limit
The water content at which soil becomes semi-fluid (like
softened butter). In the laboratory, it is the water content at
which a trapezoidal grove of specified shape cut in moist soil in
a special is closed after 25 taps on a hard rubber plate. The soil
in the cup is cm deep; the grove is 2mm wide at the bottom and
slopes outward at a 60o angle from the horizontal

• Plastic limit
Water content at which soil begins to crumble on being rolled
into a thread 3mm in dm. it represents the lowest waters content
at which soils can be deformed readily without cracking. The
difference between the liquid and plastic limits gives the plastic
index which dictates the “clayeyness” or plasticity of a clay

• Sticky limit
The water content at which soil no longer sticks to a steel spatula
drawn over its surface. The minimum value of the sticky limit The color of a soil indicates some chemical conditions
occurs in fine sand at about 16. The sticky and the liquid limit
are often nearly the same a. Dark or black color indicates high organic matter

b. Reddish brown color indicates that the soil is high in oxides

of iron.
 c. Yellowish brown color indicates that the portion of lowland
soil is at oxidized state
d. Moist soil is darker than dry soil.
e. Paddy soil is bluish indicating that it is at reduced state.
MODULE 6 – The Chemical Properties of Soil
Soil Colloids
• minute soil particles which are considered as the most
chemically active fraction of the soil, on the surfaces of these
colloidal particles occur ion exchange reactions between the
soil solution and plant roots
• sites within the soil where most of the essential mineral
elements are held and protected from excessive loss by
percolating rain or drainage water
General Properties of Soil Colloids
1. Size
• Colloidal particles are so minute (<1 um) that they can be seen
under a power of microscope.
2. Surface area
• Because of their small size, soil colloid expose a large external
surface area. Some of them, especially some silicate clays,
have extensive external surface as well. These external surface
s occur between plate like crystal unit
3. Surface charges
• Soil colloidal surfaces, both internal and external carry
negative and/or positive charges. Most colloids especially the
silicate clays have net negative charges.
4. Absorption of cations and water
• Because the charges of the surfaces of soil colloids, oppositely
charge ions are attractive to this surfaces. Thus, the ionic
double layer is formed usually consisting of an inner layer of
negative charges on the surface of soil colloids and an outer
layer of swarm of adsorbed cations. Similarly, water molecule
attracted to the adsorbed cations are associated with soil
colloidal particles. These water molecules are important
determinants of soil physical and chemical properties
• In humid regions, the cations Ca, Al and H are by far the most
numerous whereas in arid region soil, Ca, Mg, K and Na
predominate. The order of strength of absorption of cation by
soil particles are in the order Al3+ > Ca2+ > K+ NH4+ >Na1
5. Flocculation and dispersion
• When soil colloids are dispersed, each particle is surrounded
by water. Dispersed clays move with water movement, tend to
clog pore spaces, and cement neighboring aggregates
together, thus reducing infiltration, drainage and aeration in
the soil.
6. Shrinking and swelling
• Soil colloids predominated by 2.1 expanding type silicate clays
exhibit swelling when wetted and shrinking when dried. This is
brought by the admission of water molecules between clay
units.
7. Cation exchange capacity
• Cation exchange is the process whereby cations are exchanged
between the surface of soil colloids and the soil solution or the
surface of plant roots. Cation exchange capacity is the sum
total of increases with amounts of organic matter and amount
and type of and clay in the soil.
Types of Soil Colloids
Soil colloids may be:
• Inorganic: considering of silicate, iron and aluminum oxide clays,
and allophanes and associated amorphous clays
• Organic: consisting of humus
Inorganic Soil Colloids
A. Silicate clay
1. Structure
• Silicate clays are crystalline, layer – like structures made up
basically of alumina and silica sheets. The basic buildings blocker
for the silica sheet is the silica tetrahedron. It is four-sided figure
composed of silicon (Si) atom surrounded by four oxygen (O)
atoms.
• The aluminum (Al) or magnesium (Mg) octahedron is an 8-sided
structure made up of an Al or Mg ion surrounded by six OH or O
atoms. The tetrahedral or octahedral sheets are bound together
within the crystal by shares oxygen atoms into different layer.
2. Charges
• Silicate clays have two kind of net charges - the permanent
charge and the pH dependent charge. Permanent charges are
produced through isomorphous substitution.
• Isomorphous substitution is the process where a centrally –
placed cation is replaced by another cation of different valency,
without charging the structure of the mineral but which results
to a net charge-positive or negative. This can happen in both
the tetrahedral or octahedral sheets.
3. Types
On the basis of the number and arrangement of tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets in their crystal units or layer, silicate clay are
classified into 3 groups:
a) 1:1 type
• The 1:1 types mineral are made up of one Si sheet: 1 Al Sheet
held together by tightly by mutually shared O atoms. These
layers are turn are held together by strong H bonding which fixes
the distance clay units. Thus, no expansion occurs when the clay
is wetted, and cations and water do not enter between the clay
units.
• Thus, it has only external surface and low capacity of cations.
Example of 1:1 type of silicate clays are kaolinites, halloysite,
nacrite, and dickite.
b) 2:1 type
• The 2:1 type minerals are made up of an Al sheet sandwiched
between 2 Si sheets. They may be expanding clays. In the
former, weak oxygen to oxygen bonds allow attraction of water
and cations into interlayer spaces causing swelling or expansion
when this clays are wetted. Thus, they have internal aside from
the external surface and have the capacity to absorb more
nutrients.
• 2:1 expanding silicate clays are the smectites composed of
montmorillonite, beidellite, nontronite and saponite. In non-
expanding clays, isomorphous substitution of Si4+ by Al3+
produces net negative charges that attract the K ions into
interlayers units of the clay. This K ions binding agent which hold
clay units together, preventing their expansion when wetted.
Examples of this types of clay are vermiculite and illite a clay
with high K-fixing capacity.
 c) 2:1:1 type Clay Colloids or Inorganic Colloids
• The 2:1:1 type is made up two Si tetrahedral sheets one Al
octahedral sheet plus one Mg dominated octahedral sheet. Broadly grouped into:
No expansion occurs when the clay is wetted because the • Crystalline silicates
extra octahedral sheet lightly bind the 2:1 layers together.
An example of this type of clay is chlorite. • Crystalline Fe/Al oxides
B. Hydrous oxides of Fe and Al • Amorphous silicates
• These clays are dominated in highly weathered red and • Amorphous Fe/Al oxides
yellow soils of the humid tropics. They may be crystalline or
amorphous and not sticky and plastic as the silicate clays at • Structurally grouped into:
high pH values.
• Crystalline
• The micelles carry a net negative charge, but at low pH, Fe
& Al oxides are positively charged and attract anions instead • Amorphous (Non-crystalline)
of cations.
Chemical composition:
C. Allophanes and other amorphous materials
• Silicates
• These maybe amorphous or crystalline but lack ordered
crystalline structure to be detected by X-rays. • Non-silicates or iron/aluminum hydrous oxides (Fe/Al
• The most important member of the group is allophane which sesquioxides)
is present in soils development from volcanic ash.
Crystalline Silicate Clays
Organic soil colloids
•Composed of sheet-structured aluminosilicates of various types
1. Humus depending on the ratio of silica sheet to alumina sheet in the
• The colloidal organization of humus is similar to clay in crystal structure
that it is a highly charged micelle surrounded by cations.
– 1:1 type (kaolinite and halloysite)
Humus colloids are basically composed of carbon,
– 2:1 expanding type or smectites (montmorillonite)
hydrogen and oxygen. Its negative charge are due to the
– 2:1 limited expansion type (vermiculites)
partially dissociated enolic (-OH), carboxyl (-COOH) and
– 2:1 non-expanding type (illites)
phenolic groups. With a rise in pH, hydrogen ions
– 2:2 type (chlorite)
dissociate from these groups to produce excess negative
charges. Each type does not occur in pure form in the clay fraction of soil.
Of common occurrence is an intimate mixture of different clay
Soil Colloids
minerals in a given soil.
• Very small particles of matter whose size ranges from 0.2 μ to 1
Amorphous Silicates
μ
• Represented by allophane and imogolite while amorphous non-
• Too small to be seen by the naked eye
silicates occur as amorphous hydrous oxides of Fe/Al
• Smallness, tremendous surface are per unit amount plus
• In the Philippines, they are usually associated with relatively
presence of electrical charges on their surface make them
young soils derived from volcanic ash and characteristically
chemically reactive
containing high OM
• Seat of chemical activities or reactions in soils
• Properties of inorganic soils generally depend on the kind of
• Organic: humus dominant clay mineral present. For instance, montmorillonitic
clayey soils exhibit high swelling and shrinking capacities upon
• Mineral or inorganic: silicate and non-silicate clays wetting and drying
• The colloidal particles in soils include the organic (humus) and • In contrast, kaolinitic clayey soils exhibit relatively low shrink-
inorganic (sand, silt, clay) colloids which are composed of various swell capacity
clay types such montmorillonite, kaolinite, illite, vermiculate, etc.
Silicate and Non-silicate clay minerals
• The chemical reactivity of colloids is due to their large specific
surface area (area per unit amount of colloid) which rises from – Silicate clays: basic chemical structure made up of silicon and
their extremely small particle size, and to their presence of electric aluminum
charges, both positive and negative
Kaolinite; Montmorillonite; Vermiculite; Illite
• Various properties and behavior of soils such as retention of
– Non silicate clays
nutrients, swelling and shrinking, and stickiness may be attributed
to their differences in the amount and type of colloids dominant Hematite; Goethite; Limonite; Boehmite; Gibbsite

• Sesquioxides

• Oxides and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum

 • Allophanes Cation Exchange Capacity

• Non crystalline volcanic materials • Ability of the soil to adsorb and exchange cations with those in
the surrounding soil solution as well as with plant roots
• Colloidal in size and contribute to chemical properties of soils
• Sum of negative charges of the soil colloids
• Are silicates but are non-crystalline or amorphous
• Negative charges of the soil will attract cations, sum of all
How clay minerals form? adsorbed cations per unit amount of soil
1. Clay minerals • Milliequivalent per 100 gm of soil (me/100 gm) to a high value
• Most reactive components of the soil of 30 me/100 gm or higher

• Secondary minerals formed by weathering and alteration of Percentage Base Saturation (% BS)
existing primary minerals or by alteration of secondary minerals • Degree by which the exchange sites in the colloids are occupied
Sources of negative charges of silicate clays by basic cations (Ca++, Mg++, K+, Na+, NH4+, etc.)

• Arise mainly from exposed hydroxyl groups at the broken
edges of crystals and from isomorphous (same size)
substitutions of ions in the silica or octahedral sheets
• Exposed O2 contributes negative charges
• Arise when the H of the hydroxyl dissociates at high or alkaline
environment
Positive charges of soil colloids
May arise due to the following mechanisms:
• Protonation or addition of H+ to OH groups on the edge of
minerals
• Calculated by taking the ratio of the bases with CEC
• % BS = meq of bases/ CEC x 100
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)
• Degree by which the exchange sites of colloids are occupied by
sodium ions
• High ESP values (greater than 15%), soil becomes highly
dispersed which leads to poor aeration and drainage or
permeability to water
• Sodic soils: soils with excessive amounts of soluble sodium

• Exchange of OH- groups for other anions • Computed by taking the ration of the me of Na+ and that of CEC

Organic Colloids • ESP = meq Na+/CEC x 100

• Also inherent constituent of soils How sodic soils are reclaimed?

• Biological decomposition of organic residues in the soil yields
simple products (CO2, H2CO3, simple organic acids, mineral
nutrients, etc) as well as complex, high molecular weight organic
products (commonly called humus or soil OM) which are relatively
stable to further biological action
• Such organic complexes occurring in colloidal form constitute
organic colloids
Organic colloids contribute to chemical properties of soils
• Humus are colloidal in nature and also possess negative charges
• By replacing Na+ in the exchange sites of colloids with Ca++
(source: Gypsum) and then washing out the Na+
Soil pH
• Degree of acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of the soil
• Soil reaction and is determined by the relative concentration of
H+ and OH ions
• pH = - log (H+) or log 1/(H+); pH equals the negative logarithm
of hydrogen ion concentration

• Main source of negative charges is the dissociation of H+ from How soils become acidic?
carboxylic and phenolic functional groups at high pH • When the bases are leached out and are replaced by H+ ions
• Enables the soil to have greater ability to adsorb and exchange • Hydrolysis of aluminum
ions
• Decomposition of organic matter
What is the importance of the presence of negative
charges in the soils? • Nitrification of ammonium
Factors affecting adsorption of cations in soils Active acidity vs Reserve acidity
• Valence – greater valence, stronger adsorption • Due to H+ ions in soil solution
• Ionic size – smaller ionic size, higher ability of cation to closely • Due to H +
and Al +++
ions adsorbed on colloid surfaces
approach the colloidal surface
Buffering Capacity
• Hydration size – smaller hydration size, stronger adsorption
capacity • Resistance of soil to drastic changes in pH

• Concentration of cations – greater concentration of particular • Greater buffering capacity of an acid soil, greater amount of lime
cation in a solution, surrounding the colloids, strongly adsorbed needed to neutralize acidity
cations will be left or will continue to persist in the soil
• Higher CEC, greater buffering capacity
• Sandy soils have generally lower CEC, lower buffering capacity
• More lime is needed to raise the pH of acidic clay soils than acidic
sandy soils
Lime
• Any material containing calcium or magnesium or both which
when added to the soil can neutralize acidity
• Common agricultural lime materials: oxides, hydroxides and
carbonates of lime
• Commercial lime: limestone – calcite or dolomite
• Burned lime or quick lime (CaO/MgO) is made by igniting calcium
or magnesium carbonates
Relative Neutralizing Power (RNP) of a liming mineral
• Strength or effectiveness in correcting soil acidity compared to
calcium carbonate
• Calcium carbonate equivalent
• Computed from the ration of the molecular weight of calcium
carbonate and that of the liming material
Effects of lime on the soil
• When lime is applied to the soil, it reacts with carbonic acid to
form bicarbonates which subsequently dissociate with Ca
replacing H in the exchange sites
o Beneficial effects: The H+ ion concentration decreases,
and soil acidity is reduced
o There is an increase in the availability of nutrients: Ca,
Mg, K, P and M
o It reduces the toxicity of Al, Fe and Mn
Acidity and Lime Requirement of Soils
What causes soil acidity?
1. Soil reaction
• Refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil (H+
concentration of its solution)
• A greater concentration of hydrogen results in a lower
pH, meaning greater acidity
• The pH of a soil will often determine whether certain
plants can be grown successfully
• AcidityCommonly expressed in terms of soil pH
• Soil pH= - log [H+] in the soil or log 1/ [H+] in the soil
2. Determination of soil pH
a. pH meter method (Electronic) (Potentiometric method)
– used to determine pH in the laboratory and is the most
accurate method of determining soil pH
• H+ concentration is balanced against a standard H+
electrode
b. Dye method (Colorimetric) – when dye comes in contact
with the soil the former (unbuffered) tends to assume the
pH of the soil (high unbuffered) under test. As soon as
the equilibrium has been attained, some of the dye may
be pulled out and it could compared with a standard color
chart from which soil pH is estimated
Universal Indicator
• Chemical indicators change color based on pH, with universal
indicators being sensitive to a large range due to the use of
multiple indicator chemicals.
pH scale (potential of hydrogen)
Soil acidity adjustment
• Maintenance of specific soil acidities is important in soil
management because it controls the adaptation of various crops
and native vegetation to different soils.
• The ordinary procedure for correcting excess soil acidity is the
application of lime in the form of limestone, dolomitic limestone,
or burnt lime.
• When lime is added, the hydrogen of the complex soil colloid is
exchanged for the calcium of lime.
• Acid soils are found predominantly in regions of high rainfall; in
arid regions, the soil is usually alkaline
Lime
• Any calcium or magnesium compound which is capable of
neutralizing soil acidityCalcium oxide or burned lime (CaO)
• Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2
• Limestone: calcic (CaCO3) and dolomitic (CaCO3.MgCO3)
• By products of the shell industry
• Calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) or Relative Neutralizing
Power (RNP) is an expression of the strength of a liming
material in terms of CaCO3
• 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑅𝑁𝑃) =
100
× 100
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Fertilizers
• Materials applied to the soil or directly on the plant to provide
essential elements for plant utilization
• Chemical fertilizers, manures, compost and other materials
• Application is a logical silvicultural practice following the
demonstration of nutritional response in various tree species
Composting and organic waste
• Composting is a process where waste from gardens,
yards, and tables is condensed and reused as fertilizer. It
involves layering waste in a pile, adding nitrogen, and
covering it. Over time, the waste decomposes into
nutrient-rich compost, which is applied to plants.
Properties of fertilizer materials

o Solubility

o Capacity of fertilizers to dissolve in water - Highly soluble,

moderately soluble and insoluble

o Hygroscopicity - Capacity of fertilizers to absorb moisture from

the atmosphere

o Color and size

o Shape of particles

Basic fertilizer computations

• Amount of fertilizer materials needed to supply the

corresponding amount of nutrients
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 =
% 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

• Weight for nutrient contained in a given amount of fertilizer

materials

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 𝑋
× % 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

Mixed fertilizers

• Mixing two or more fertilizers should not result to caking or

hardening

• Addition of one component should not reduce the availability

of any of the others
Biogeochemical cycles
• In order to be sure that the percentage composition of
fertilizers is correct, use small quantities of filler • chemical elements are required by life from the living and
nonliving parts of the environment.
EXAMPLE:
• These elements cycle in either a gas cycle or a sedimentary cycle
A tree farmer wishes to make 1000 kg of 8-12-12 mixture. He has
ammonium sulfate (20-0-0); triple superphosphate (0-45-0) and • In a gas cycle elements move through the atmosphere.
muriate of potash (0-0-60). How would he prepare the desired
mix? • Main reservoirs are the atmosphere and the ocean.

Find the weight of N, P2O5and K2 • Sedimentary cycle elements move from land to water to sediment

• N needed = 0.08 x 1000 = 80 kg Carbon cycle

• P2O5 needed = 0.12 x 1000 = 120
• K2 needed = 0.12 x 1000 = 120
Find the weight of each corresponding material needed to provide
1000 kg of the mixture
• Ammonium sulfate needed: 400 kg
• Triple super phosphate needed: 266.6 kg
• Muriate of potash needed: 200 kg
• Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants, animals, soils,
and oceans through photosynthesis, food chains, decay, respiration,
and burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere through respiration, while the majority is absorbed by the
oceans. Burning fossil fuels releases 5.5 billion tons of carbon
annually, with 3.3 billion tons remaining in the atmosphere and most
remaining dissolved in seawater. The carbon is then absorbed by the
oceans, contributing to the global warming crisis.
• The carbon cycle is the natural process of reusing carbon
atoms, which travel from the atmosphere to Earth's organisms and
then back to the atmosphere repeatedly.

Carbon facts

• Every year there is a measurable difference in the

concentration of atmospheric CO2with changes in the seasons.
Nitrogen facts Sulfur cycle

• Nitrogen (N) is an essential constituent of protein, DNA, RNA,
and chlorophyll.
• Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere.
• Nitrogen must be fixed or converted into a usable form.
Nitrogen cycle
• The nitrogen cycle is a process where nitrogen moves
through the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals, and
bacteria. It exists as a gas in the atmosphere and as
nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide in soils. Nitrogen can
be processed into fertilizers like ammonia nitrate. The
cycle has five stages: fixation, mineralization, nitrification,
immobilization, and denitrification. Fixation involves
microbes turning nitrogen gas into volatile ammonia,
while leaching occurs when nitrogen dissolves in water,
potentially polluting waterways.
Oxygen cycle (photosynthesis)
• The sulfur cycle describes the movement of sulfur through the
geosphere and biosphere. Sulfur is released from rocks through
weathering, and then assimilated by microbes and plants. It is
then passed up the food chain and assimilated by plants and
animals, and released when they decomposed
• Component of protein
• ▪Cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle.
• ▪The source of Sulfur is the lithosphere (earth's crust)
• ▪Sulfur (S) enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion, volcanic, eruptions, gas exchange
at ocean surfaces, and decomposition.
• ▪SO2and water vapor makes H2SO4 (a weak sulfuric acid), which
is then carried to Earth in rainfall.
• ▪Sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots and
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine. It then travels
through the food chain and is eventually released through
decomposition.

• The entire cycle can be summarized as, the oxygen cycle
begins with the process of photosynthesis in the presence
of sunlight, releases oxygen back into the atmosphere,
which humans and animals breathe in oxygen and
breathe out carbon dioxide, and again linking back to the
plants.
Sources of oxygen:
• Photosynthesis and respiration
Summary
• The building blocks of life: Water, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide,
Phosphorus, Sulfur
• Continually cycle through Earth's systems, the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere, on time scales that
range from a few days to millions of years.
• These cycles are called biogeochemical cycles, because they
include a variety of biological, geological, and chemical processes.

• Photo disassociation of H2O vapor

• CO2 and O2 circulates freely throughout the biosphere.

• Some CO2combines with Cato form carbonates.

• O2 combines with nitrogen compounds to form nitrates.

• O2 combines with iron compounds to form ferric oxides.

• O2 in the troposphere is reduced to O3 (ozone).

• Ground level O3(ozone) is a pollutant which damages lungs.

Phosphorus cycle

• Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil and

sediments and organisms. Over time, rain and weathering
cause rocks to release phosphate ions and other minerals.
This inorganic phosphate is then distributed in soils and
water. Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil
•
• Component of DNA, RNA, ATP, proteins and enzymes
• Cycles in a sedimentary cycle
• A good example of how a mineral element becomes part of
an organism.
• The source of Phosphorus (P) is rock.
• Phosphorus is released into the cycle through erosion or
mining.
• Phosphorus is soluble in H2O as phosphate (PO4)
• Phosphorus is taken up by plant roots, then travels through
food chains.
• It is returned to sediment