PED05Learning Module 2023 2024

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PED05: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
PRELIMINARY TERM
Lesson 1
METACOGNITION
Overview
Metacognition is such a long word. What does it mean? You will find this out
in this module.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
 Explain metacognition in your own words.

 Apply metacognitive strategies in your own quest for learning
as a novice or an expert learner.
Discussion
ADVANCE ORGANIZER
It is the first lesson so you get to understand it and apply it from the very
beginning of this module.
Metacognition
“Thinking about Thinking”
Metacognition Metacognition Application of Learners who do not

and Development Knowledge Metacognition leads one use metacognition
Variables to be an expert learner Characteristics
remain of
to be novice
Novice Learners
learners
Teaching Strategies Person

to Develop Variables Characteristics of
Metacognition Expert Learners
Task
Variables
Answer the followingStrategy

questionnaire. * Put a check in the column that best describes
what is true to you. Variables
PART 1
First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

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Always Sometimes Never Your
(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I exert effort to find out why I need to do a
particular task.
2 I reward myself when I work.

3 I see to it that I give myself regular breaks
from work.
4 I am able to keep my concentration and does
not let my mind “drift away.”
5 I have ways of dealing with distractions.
6 I am willing to do the work I do not enjoy

because I see it as important.
7 I seek clarification from the teacher about her

expectations and standards.
8 I go to tutorials to improve my school work.
PART 2

(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I make a weekly timetable for the school
work I need to accomplish.
2 I make a review schedule for examinations.
3 I plan to get the necessary resources and

equipment prior to starting work.
4 I submit all my assignments on time.
5 I have a place to work where I won’t be
disturbed.
6 I have time for family commitments and
relaxation as well as studying.
7 I prioritize tasks which should be done first,

second and so on.
8 I make lists of things to do.
9 I make list of valuable references with
bibliographic details, page numbers of
quotes and so on.
10 I review my work before submitting it.
PART 3

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(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I discuss work assignments with other

students.
2 I share resources with other students.
3 I keep cuttings from newspapers and

magazines which may be of help to me.
4 I make sure I see TV programs which may be
useful.
5 I read the topic assigned before a session.
6 I ask questions and generally take part in

group discussions.
7 I listen out for key ideas when someone is

talking.
8 When I am listening to someone, I try to
anticipate what they will say next.
PART 4

(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I get so worried about assignments that they

make me feel ill.
2 This worry about assignments makes me feel

depressed.
3 I feel miserable about doing assignments.
4 I let these concerns about the work get on top

of me.
5 When I need to work, others always succeed
in persuading me to go out.
6 I have difficulty in talking to others about my
worries.
7 I ignore my personal fitness through worrying
about assignments.
8 The stress of assignments causes me to get
behind and I never seem to catch up.
PART 5

(10) (5) (0) Score

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1 My notes indicate the main ideas, rather
than merely repeat what has been said.
2 I listen for key ideas when listening to a
speaker.
3 I approach tutors for help.
4 I organize or file my notes regularly.
5 I re-write my notes under key ideas,
headings, using numbering or lettering
schemes.
6 I have a shorthand technique of my own.
7 I underline or highlight key ideas so they

stand out.
8 I decide before reading a book whether it is
vital or background reading.
9 I go over a book before diving into chapter
one.
10 I check the contents page for relevance
before reading a book.
11 I look for summaries at the end of chapters.
PART 6

(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I see to it that I understand what is really
being asked for in the assignment/project.
2 I read other references and read about the

topic.
3 I make an outline/plan before doing my
assignment/project.
4 I check for spelling mistakes.
5 My essay have clear introductions.
6 My essays have a conclusion.
7 I frequently check back to the title during the

writing of an essay.
8 My essay/research paper has a full set of
references and a bibliography.
9 I review project/assignment before
submitting it.
10 I request someone else to look at/read my
project/ assignment before submitting it.
Scoring:
The six parts of the questionnaire pertain to the following aspects of study habits:

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Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and planning your work
Part 3 Working with others; utilizing resources and feedback
Part 4 Managing school work stress
Part 5 Note-taking and reading
Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project
Use the scoring guide below
Scoring for Part 1 Motivation
Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 55 to 80 mean that you do not appear to have many problems in getting
down to work and keeping to it.
 Scores from 31 to 50 mean that you sometimes get down to work but you can be
distracted, you might not always be certain why you have to work. You probably
could benefit from learning some techniques that help you get down to work
consistently and keep at it.
 Scores of 30 and below signify that you really do have problems in getting down to
work. Unless you develop skills in this area you are likely to have many
unsatisfactory experiences as a student throughout your life. You need to take
action.
Scoring for Part 2 Organizing and Planning your Work
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 70 to 100 mean you are well-organized and plan ahead for your work.
 Scores from 40 to 65 mean you are not as well-organized as you can be. Your time
management may benefit from a closer analysis.
 Scores of 35 and below mean you have little organization, probably deal with things
as they happen, constantly doing things at the last minute, often not getting work
completed. You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 3

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5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 55 to 85 mean you make full use of resources available, listen well and
take an active part in seminars.
 Scores from 35 to 50 mean you probably collect resources, but you need to ask
yourself how to use them more effectively.
 Scores of 30 and below mean there are important resources around you that you
are ignoring. You may not be hearing much of what is being said. You need to know
what resources are available, and you need to find out where they are and what
they have to offer.
You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 4 Managing school work stress
Score: 10 for Never
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 65 to 80 mean that although you sometimes get stressed and worried
you have the skills of knowing how to minimize problems and look after yourself.
 Scores from 40 to 65 mean that you handle your anxieties and concerns moderately
well but could
Explore
My Score in the Study Habits Questionnaire
Aspect of Study Habits My Score Interpretation

Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and Planning Your Work
Part 3 Working with Others, Utilizing Resources and

Feedback
Part 4 Managing School Work Stress
Part 5 Note-taking and Reading
Part 6 Preparing an Assignment/Project
What did you discover about yourself using this questionnaire? What aspects are you strong
in? What aspects do you need to improve in?

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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Explain
What you just did while answering the questionnaire and analyzing your scores is an
exercise in metacognition. You stopped for a moment and thought about how you study and
learn. You were reminded of your strengths and weaknesses then you wrote what it is that
you can do to improve your study habits. Hopefully, this will help you start to learn more
effectively.
The most important goal of education is to teach students how to learn on their
own. The quotation on the side margin stresses this. It is vital that students acquire the skills
of how to learn; and that these skills enable them to learn not just while they are in school
but for a lifetime. This entails a deeper awareness of how one processes information, the
ability to evaluate his own thinking and to think of ways to make his own learning process
more effective. All these involve metacognition.
What is metacognition? This appears to be such a high-sounding word that some

people are confused about the even before they actually spend time to find out what it
really means. It is not at all that complicated. In fact, we do metacognitive activities so often
in our daily lives. When you sense that you are experiencing some difficulty with a topic you
are studying, and you try out different strategies to learn better, you are practicing
metacognition. The word maybe long, seems to be intangible but it is worth focusing on
because it can help your students to learn more efficiently and effectively.
The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979,
1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or
“learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness
and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive knowledge
refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes. Flavell further divides
metacognitive knowledge into categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables
and strategy variables.
Person Variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker.
Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and
process information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s own learning processes. For
example, you may be aware that you study more effectively if you study very early in the
morning than late in the evening, and that you work better in a quiet library rather than at
home where there are lot of things that make it hard for you focus and concentrate.
Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of
the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is
about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing
the kind of effort it will demand from you. For example, you may be aware that it takes more
time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational philosophy than it is for you to
read and comprehend a novel.

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Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the
strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If
you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of various strategies and try out
to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like meta-attention and meta-memory are
related to the strategy variables. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so
that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your
awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition. Omrod
includes the following in the practice of metacognition:
 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities

 Knowing what learning tasks can realistically accomplish within a certain
amount of time
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material
 Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension. In other words,
knowing when information has been successfully learned and when it’s not
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful
manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use
knowledge in planning how to do the homework: “I know that I (person
available) have more difficulty with my Science assignments than English and
find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable), so I will do my homework in
science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan. (Strategy
variable).” If one is only aware that about one’s cognitive strengths or
weaknesses and the nature of the task but does not use this to guide or
oversee his/her own learning, then no metacognition has been applied.
Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the
following types of questions:
 What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?

 Do I know what I need to know?
 Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
 How much time will I need to learn this?
 What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
 Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
 How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
 How can I spot an error if I make one?
 How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my
expectations/satisfaction?
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness was
evident in preschoolers and in students as young as eight years old. Children already have
the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their own learning. However, not many have
been taught and encouraged to apply metacognition.

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The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities that
would build the students’ capacity to reflect on their own characteristics as learners (self-
knowledge), the tasks they are to do (task knowledge). Remember, metacognition is like any
other thing you will teach. Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you and
your students can learn and master.
Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition: (Work

hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely be rewarding
learning experience for you.)
1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a student
monitor a peer’s learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.
TQLR – This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a
metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or presentation.
T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is
paying attention, and that he is ready to learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about
what he will soon learn.
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes
aware if he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.
R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was
learned.
PQ4R – This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards.
This strategy is used to study a unit or chapter.
P-Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the
objective. Look for outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about
the important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the summary of the chapter
first. (But please don’t stop at the summary alone. No. No. No. This is not a good
idea at all. Read the whole chapter!)
Q-Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions
about the topic.
R-Read. Check out sub-headings as you read. Pay attention on the words that are
printed in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you.
Use a marker or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases. (Do not
highlight the whole paragraph!)
R-Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R-Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in order to
understand better.
R-Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main
points you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you?
3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on
what they have read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important to have
relevant knowledge structures well learned.)
5. Have student develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what’s going
on around them (Have you asked a good question today?)

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6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/She must be able to self-monitor;
require students to show how they ae attempted to deal with the problem of their
own.)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other
situations or tasks.
Novice and Expert Learners
In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the distinctions among
learners in the manner they absorb or process information. They are able to differentiate
expert learners from novice learners. A very important factor separates these two types of
learners mentioned is metacognition. Expert learners employ metacognitive strategies in
learning. They are more aware of their learning process as they read, study and do problem
solving. Expert learners monitor their learning and consequently adjust their strategies to
make learning more effective.
The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an expert
learner.
Differences between Novice and Expert Learners
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners
Knowledge in different  Have limited  Have deeper

subject areas knowledge in the knowledge in
different subject different subject
areas areas because they
look for
interrelationships in
the things they learn
Problem solving  Satisfied at just  First try to
scratching the understand the
surface; hurriedly problem, look for
gives a solution to boundaries, and
the problem create a mental
picture of the
problem
Learning/thinking  Employ rigid  Design new strategies
Strategies strategies that may that would be
not be appropriate appropriate to the
to the task at hand task at hand
Selectivity in Processing  Attempt to process  Select important
all information they information to
receive process; able to
breakdown
information to
manageable chunks
Production of output  Do not examine the  Check their errors
quality of their and redirect their
work, nor stop to efforts to maintain
make revisions quality output

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Stop and pause a while. Are you a novice learner? Or an expert one? Strive to apply
the concepts of metacognition in your world of learning, and for sure you will be on your
way to be an expert learner, probably an expert teacher, too!
EXTEND BY APPLYING
1. Conduct a metacognitive observation based on the procedures below:

(Source: Prof. Joanna M. Grymes, Ph.D. of Arkansas State University)
Metacognitive Observation
1. Interview 3 different children: one age 4-6, one age 7-9, one age 10 or older.
These will be semi-structured clinical interviews. Record the questions you ask
and child’s answers. You do not have to ask the questions exactly as they are posed
below, but the questions should be very similar. Follow up with additional questions
when the children seem like they have more they can tell you. Remember to record
any follow up questions to ask. You do not have to rewrite the notes you take while
conducting the interviews, but you do need to hand them in.
Develop a list of 10 UNRELATED but common words. Take a familiar story (like a
fairy tale or fable) and rewrite it so it is OUT OF ORDER (it may help actually write
out the story so that you do tell it out of order).
For a child in kindergarten or younger, follow this procedure.
Tell child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to
remember the words and you’ll ask the child to repeat the list in a while. Remind the child to
listen closely, and the say the list slowly (about one word every second or two).
Ask the child the following series of questions:
How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do to
remember the words? Are you good at remembering?
Do some filler questions (what are your favorite things, what do you like to do… to
fill up about 5 minutes between giving the list and now).
Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record their list) Ask
the child what did they do to help them remember? Did it work?
Tell the child that you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them to
listen carefully and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you rewrote.
Bring a children’s book of appropriate age. Using the book, ask the child questions
like, “where is the title of the book” “where does it tell who wrote the book”, “where’s the
beginning and where is the end of the book”. {These are essentially filler questions}.
Ask the child to retell the story, reminding him/her that he/she should retell it in the
order you told it.
Thank the child for helping you.
For a child in first grade or older, do the following:

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Tell the child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to
remember the words and you’ll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while. Remind the
child to listen closely, and then say the list slowly (about a word every second or two).
Ask the child the following series of questions:
How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do to
remember the words? Are you good at remembering? What kinds of things do you do to
help you remember things? What different ideas has your teacher given you? Do you
remember some specific examples of thigs you have learned in school to help you remember
things? Do you use them? Do you think they are helpful?
How do you think you learn things best – by seeing it, by hearing it, or by doing it?
Does your teacher help you figure out how you learn things in school? What kinds of
activities do you do? Do you think they help?
Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record their list) ask
the child what they did to help them remember. Did it work?
Tell the child you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them to listen
carefully and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you rewrote.
Ask the following series of questions: Do you like to read, why or why not? Is there
something that could change at school that might make you like reading more (even more)?
What kinds of things do you read at school? Do you get to choose some of the things you
read at school? Do you read outside of school- if so, what do you like to read? Why do you
prefer to read those kinds of things/books? If you don’t read outside of school, why?
Do you think reading is important? Many people think that reading will help you do
better in school-do you? Why or why not?
What kinds of things do you do when reading to make sure you understand
what you are reading? Has your teacher helped you learn ways to help you read
better? To help you understand and remember what you read?
Ask the child to retell the story, reminding him/her that he/she should retell it
in the order you told it.
Ask the child to retell the story, reminding him/her that he/she should retell it in the
order you told it.
1. How accurate were the children in predicting how well they would remember
the world list? How well did they remember the list? Were they able to tell you what
they did to remember the words after repeating the list? Were there any differences
in age terms of how accurate their predictions or their lists were?
2. How well did the children do in retelling the story? Did the children tend to tell
the story in the “correct” order or in the order you told it? Were there age differences
in how they responded here?
3. Consider the older children’s responses to the questions about memory and
reading. Given their responses, how well do schools seem to support children
developing metacognitive strategies for memory and reading? Did the children have
a sense of which way they learn best? Do they seem to think that teachers help them

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with this? How effective do schools seem to be in creating/supporting an appreciation
of reading in children? Do the children seem to see teachers being helpful in these
areas?
(Retrieved from http: //

www.clt.astate.edu/grymesj/old%20courses/hglmetacogobs.htm)
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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EVALUATION
1. Whatever the subject area, a teacher can apply metacognitive strategies in
his or her class to facilitate learning more effectively. Watch this short video of
the author’s daughter sharing how her Grade 2 teacher taught them about
TQLR:
Title: TQLR metacognition in the primary grades
Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=IfXdWeAzgCo
Description: This shows a simple song that a primary grade teacher is using to prepare
children to listen and respond to a lesson or a selection. It is a very practical way of teaching
children to apply metacognition early on.
What did you learn from the video? How can you also apply this?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Make your own output: a song, chant, poster or question list on any of the seven
strategies discussed in the book. You may also create a video and upload it in Google
Classroom. Tell about its purpose, and describe the chant or song. Have a sharing in class.
Purpose:
Description of your output:
Explanation:

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Research Connection
Read a research or study related to Metacognition. Fill out the matrix below.
Title: ______________________________________________________
Problem Research Methodology
Findings Conclusions
Source (bibliographical entry format)
How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the lesson on Metacognition, I realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 2
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

Overview
You, the learner, are the center of instruction. The world of instruction
revolves around you. This module is focused on the fourteen (14) principles that run
through the different lessons of this module.
Learning Outcomes:
 Explain the 14 principles
 Advocate the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning
process.
Discussion
ADVANCE ORGANIZER
Examine the title, “Learner-Centered Principles”, Quickly, jot down at least 10

words that come to your mind.
LEARNER-
CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

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Do this activity before you read about the Learner-Centered Psychological Principles.
1. Examine the title, “Learner-Centered Psychological Principles”. Quickly jot down

at least 10 words that come to your mind.
2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word can be
associated with LCP.
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American

Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner
and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the
control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or psychological factors.
However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-
world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive,
(2) motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual
differences factors influencing learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our
educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
 There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit formation in
motor learning and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive
skills and learning strategies.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can
use to construct meaning from information, experiences and their own thoughts and
beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal-oriented, self-regulating and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-oriented.
 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally-relevant goals. Initially, students’

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short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening
their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
 Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between

new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The
nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to,
modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are
made or developed may vary in different subject area, and among students
with varying talents, interests and abilities. However, unless new knowledge
becomes integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding,
this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in
new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a
number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of
varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,

reasoning, problem solving and concept learning.
 They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations.
 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on
the methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided
instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate
models.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in
developing, applying and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations

facilitate creative and critical thinking.

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 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning
strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if
they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can
generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal).
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher
order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal
responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology

and instructional practices.
 Learning does not occur in vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive

role with both the learner and learning environment.
 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally
relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning and
ways of thinking.
 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for
learner’s level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and their learning
and thinking strategies.
 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is
nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student learning.
7. Motivational ad emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.

Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states,
beliefs, interests, and goals, and habits of thinking.
 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals and expectations

for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s
quality of thinking and information processing.
 Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of
learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influenced both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation
and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also
enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s
attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions
(e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g.,
worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing
punishment, ridicule or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from

19
motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low
performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learners’ creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.
 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major

indicators of the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in
large part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to
exercise personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they
believe they can succeed.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable
to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and
motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and
personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort
is unlikely without coercion.
 Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The

acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the
investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
with persistence over time.
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by
strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning
and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by
practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to
learn, and methods that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is
interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints

for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.

20
 Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their
developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and
interesting way.
 Because individual development varies across intellectual, social,
emotional and physical domains, achievement in different
instructional domains may also vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness-such as
reading readiness-may preclude learners from demonstrating that
they are more capable in other areas of performance.
 The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual
learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by
prior schooling, home, culture and community factors.
 Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the
quality of language interactions and two-way communications
between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas.
 Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among
children with and without emotional, physical or intellectual
disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others.
 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to

interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions that respect
diversity encourage flexible thinking and social competence.
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals
have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective taking that
may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social and moral
development, as well as self-esteem.
 Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust and caring
can increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-
acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in
self-motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with
optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a
particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex roles
expectations, and undue pressure to perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for
healthier levels of thinking, feeling and behaving. Such contexts help
learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning

21
Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and
talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have
acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the
pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not
always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
 Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences
and expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and
environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning
outcomes.
 Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general.
They also need to attend the learner perceptions of the degree to
which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying
instructional methods and materials.
13. Learning and Diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural and

social backgrounds are taken into account.
 The same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective

instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race,
beliefs and socio-economic status all can influence learning. Careful
attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued, respected and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation
and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting an appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
as well as learning progress - including diagnostic process and outcome assessment – are
integral parts of the learning process.
 Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher

at all stages of the learning process.
 Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive
strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is
important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of
difficulty.

22
 Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about
progress toward learning goals.
 Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment
provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and
across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
 Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about
the attainment of learning outcomes.
 Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students’ self-
appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into
five areas.
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all
future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning
specifically on how he represents new information, makes associations and
filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and
regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively
(metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within),
reasons for wanting learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all
have crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each
person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and
environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of society as well as within
the individual.
Evaluation
1. Read more on Learner-Centered Classrooms and make a poster about it.

23
2. Research Connection
Read a research or study related to Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles (LCP). Fill out the matrix below.
Title: ________________________________________________
Reflection
From the lesson on Learner-Centered Psychological Principles, I
realized that
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

24
Lesson 3
Review of Theories Related to the Learners’ Development
Overview:
The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking
researches tells that one can be effective facilitator of learning if one has a good
working knowledge of the learners’ development. Previously in your Child and
Adolescent Development course, the foundational theories related to the learners’
development were discussed. This lesson aims to help you think about and review
these theories that you have taken up and connects them to learning.
Learning Outcomes:
 Explain the salient concepts and principles of the major
development theories.
 Apply these theories to teaching-learning situations.
Discussion
Advance Organizer
Freud Erikson Piaget

3 Components of Personality 8 Psycho-social Stages of 4 Stages of
5 Psychosexual Stages of Development Cognitive
Development Development
Theories Related
To the Learners’
Development
Vygotsky Bronfenbrener
Kohlberg
 On Language Bio-Ecological
3 Levels and
 Zone of Proximal Systems
6 Sub stages of Moral
Development
Development
WHO SAID WHAT?
______ 1. “The teacher must orient his work not A. Sigmund

Freud

25
on yesterday’s development in child but on tomorrow’s.”
______ 2. “Healthy children will not fear life if B. Urie

Bronfenbrenner
their elders have integrity enough not to fear death. ”
______ 3. “Right action tends to be defined in C. Jean Piaget
terms of general individual rights and standards
that have been critically examined and agreed
upon by the whole society.”
______ 4. “The principal goal of education in the D. Lev

Vygotsky
Schools should be creating men and women who
are capable of doing new things, not simply
repeating what other generations have done.”
______ 5. “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats E. Lawrence

Kohlberg
with one-seventh of its bulk above water. ”
______ 6. “We as a nation need to be re-educated F. Erik Erikson
About the necessary and sufficient conditions for
making human beings human. We need to be G. Robert

Havighurst
reeducated not as parents-but as workers,
neighbors, and friends; and as members of the
organizations, committees, boards—that control
our institutions and thereby determine the
conditions of life for our families and their children.”
Challenge your stock knowledge! After answering the short exercise above, write
what you remember most about the ideas of the following theorists. Focus on what you
think are their most important ideas about the development of learners.
Sigmund Freud
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Erik Erikson
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

26
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Jean Piaget
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Lawrence Kohlberg
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Lev Vygotsky
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Urie Bronfenbrenner
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Did you get them all right? Well, we hope you did! The ideas of the theorists,
Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner remain to be foundational in the
teacher’s understanding of the learners’ development.
Let us recall highlights of their theories. Freud said, “The mind is like an iceberg, it
floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.” This is of course the very famous analogy
that Freud referred to when he explained the subconscious mind. He believed that much of
what the person is really about is not what we see in the outside and what is conscious, but
what is there hidden in the subconscious mind. As teachers, it is important that we
remember not be too quick in making conclusions about our students’ intentions for their
actions. Always consider that there are many factors that may influence one’s behavior.
Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s personality,
the id, ego and superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego, reality-centered and the
superego, which is related to the ego ideal or conscience.

27
Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of
development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. Each stage
demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in fixations.
Erikson said, “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity
enough not to fear death.” He believed in the impact of the significant others in the
development of one’s view of himself, life and of the world. He presented a very
comprehensive framework of eight psycho-social stages of development. It is Erikson who
described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a person goes through; the mal
adaptations and malignancies that result from failure to effectively resolve the crisis; and the
virtue that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis is attained.
Piaget said, “The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating
men and women who are capable of doing things, not simply repeating what other
generations have done.”
Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He described

four stages of cognitive development, namely the sensory-motor, pre-operational,
concrete-operational and formal operational stages. Each has characteristic ways of
thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive abilities develop.
Kohlberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual

rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed by the whole society.”
Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development (pre-conventional, conventional and
post-conventional) which are further subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget,
Kohlberg believed that one’s cognitive development influenced the development of one’s
moral reasoning.
Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s
development in the child but on tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of social
interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding is the systematic manner of providing
assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill. He believed that
guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner to a higher level of
performance then eventually becomes the learner’s actual performance when he works
independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal development, (ZPD) illustrates
this.
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems Theory

presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the
child’s environment. The model is composed of microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem and the chronosystem. Each layer is further made up of different structures.
The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts on his/her
development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To
study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate
environment, but also at the larger environment with which the child interacts.
What follow are graphic organizers that will help you review the principles of
these important theories. You may refer to any Child and Adolescent Development book or
other resources to complete them.
EVALUATION

28
Freud’s Components of the Personality
Review the three components and write important concepts about them in the
spaces provided.
Id Ego Superego
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development
Write the description, erogenous zone and fixation of each of the stages below.
ORAL
STAGE
ANAL
STAGE
PHALLIC
STAGE
LATENCY
STAGE
GENITAL
STAGE
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
Review the psycho-social stages and fill out the matrix below.

29
Stage Crisis Significant Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue
Person (include (includes (include
descriptions) descriptions) descriptions)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development

30
Sensory Motor Stage: Age Range:
Characteristics:
Key Teaching Strategies:
Pre-operational Stage: Age Range:
Characteristics:
Concrete Operations Stage: Age Range:
Characteristics:

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Formal Operations Stage: Age Range:
Characteristics:
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Review the moral stages and identify and describe each using graphic organizer below.

31
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Define or describe the words below.
More Zone of Proximal Scaffolding

Knowledgeable Development (ZPD)
Others (MKO)
Interpret Vygotsky’s views about the teaching and learning process by drawing
a diagram showing the relationships of MKO, ZPD, and Scaffolding.

32
Brofenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory
Describe each of the systems in the theory.
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research or study related to child development. Fill out the

matrix below.

33
Title: _____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the review of theories related to learners’ development, I realized that
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Lesson 4

34
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Overview:
You’ve probably heard someone says, “Everyone is unique.” Though it
sounds really like a cliché, one cannot ignore the truth in it. As a facilitator of learning,
the teacher is tasked to consider the individual differences among the students in
planning for effective instruction.
Learning Outcome:
 identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the
classroom, and
 demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an
enriching element in the learning environment, and
 come up with teaching strategies that consider student
diversity.
Discussion
Factors that Bring about Student Diversity
In all learning environments, individual interact with others who are in some
ways different from them. Recall how these differences were shown in your
class tally – gender and racial, ethnic or cultural background (nationality,
province, language. This diversity also comes from other factors like the
following:
1. Socioeconomic status – The millionaires’ lifestyle differ form that of the
middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/Learning Style – Some of you learn better by seeing
something; others by just listening; and still others by manipulating
something.
3. Exceptionalities – In class there may be one who has difficulty in
spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

A teacher may be “challenged” to handle a class with students so
diverse. There may be students having different cultural background, different
language abilities, different attitudes and aptitude and behavior. Some
teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet
a more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to
learn not just for her/his students, but for herself, as well. A wise teacher may
choose to respect and celebrate diversity! Read on to discover the benefits
and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to your classroom.
1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with
diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their

35
awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different, students are
given reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of
their own attitudes, values and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The opportunity to gain
access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the
instructor only may be especially important for promoting the cognitive
development of learners. Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brennan said: “The
classroom is peculiarly the ‘marketplace of ideas.’ The depth and breadth of student
learning are enhance by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student
diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied
approaches to the learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: “The more affects
we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one
thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of

society. Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for
instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity: “the capacity to imagine
situations or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of
diversity”. Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just
theory given by the teacher in the lecture. With student diversity, the classroom
becomes a ‘public place’ where community can be practiced.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into
the classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting
harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse
students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another on
learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on the diversity of
backgrounds.
Some tips on Student Diversity
1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
Students will be made to realize that they have something in common with the rest.
They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’

multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
 You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are aimed
at promoting diversity awareness. These activities could be held to coincide
with already scheduled national weeks or months which are designated for
appreciation of diverse groups: Disability Awareness Week, Linggo ng Wika,
Indigenous People Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse
backgrounds (foreign students or students from other ethnic/racial groups).
These students of different racial and ethnic origin serve as source of first-
hand information on topics related to their culture. This can also provide
opportunity for interaction among student who may otherwise never come
in contact with each other.

36
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have students “visit”
foreign countries and “talk” to natives of those countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or
discrimination, and have them share these experiences with other members
of the class.
3. Ask from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.
Cylde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a lifetime studying
human diversity across different cultures, concluded from his extensive research
that, “Every human is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some humans,
and like no other human” (cited in Wong, 1991). His observation suggests a paradox
in the human experience, namely: we are all the same in different ways. It may be
important to point out to students the biological reality that we, human beings,
share approximately 95% of our genes in common, and that less than 5% of our
genes account for the physical differences that exist among us. When focusing on
human differences, these commonalities should not be overlooked; otherwise, our
repeated attempts to promote unity along the diversity, is to stress the universality”
of the learning experience by raising students’ consciousness of common themes
that bind all groups of people - in addition to highlighting the variations on those
themes.
 Periodically place students in homogenous groups on the basis of shared
demographic characteristics (e.g., same-gender groups or
same-race/ethnicity groups), and have them share their personal views or
experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised of
representatives from each group who will report their group’s ideas. You can
serve as moderator and identify the key differences and recurrent themes
that emerge across different groups, and students who are not on the panel
can be assigned this task.
 Try to form groups of students who are different with respect to one
demographic characteristic but similar with respect to another (e.g., similar
gender but different with respect to race/ ethnicity, or similar in age but
different in gender). This practice can serve to increase student awareness
that humans who are members of different groups can, at the same time, be
members of the same group- and share similar experiences, needs or
concerns.
 After have students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g.,
learning style inventories or personality profiles), have them line up or move
to a corner of the room according to their individual scores or overall profile.
This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how members of different
student populations can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles
or personality profiles, i.e., students can see how individual similarities can
often overshadow group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.

 Make conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse groups
by using effective questioning techniques that reliably elicit student
involvement. In addition to consciously calling them in class, other strategies

37
for “drawing in” and involving students include: (a) assigning them the role
of reporter in small-group discussions. i.e., the one who reports back the
group’s ideas to the class, and (b) having them engaged in paired discussions
with another classmate with stipulation that each partner must take turns
assuming the role of both listener and speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-
student conferences with them from outside the classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that you
may have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early
personal rapport with them which can later serve as a social /emotional
foundation or springboard for encouraging them to participate.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning

styles.
 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and
present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial
representations, or “hands on” experiences).
 Diversify instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
Use formats that are student –centered (e.g., class discussions, small
group work) and teacher-centered (e.g., lecturer demonstrations).
Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-and-error discovery

learning) and structured (e.g., step-by-step instructions).
Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g.,

independently completed projects, individual presentations) and
interdependent learning (e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or small
groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple
contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are relevant
to their varied backgrounds include the following:
 Have students complete personal information cards during the first week of
class and use this information to select examples or illustrations that are
relevant to their personal interests and life-experiences.
 Use ideas, comments and questions that students raise in class, or which they
choose to write about to help you think of examples and illustrations to use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts based on experiences
drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is
relevant to their lives (e.g., “how would you show respect to all persons in your
home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them
personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn
and how they will learn it.

38
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning tasks: (a)
promotes positive student attitudes toward the subject matter, (b) fosters more positive
interactions among students, and (c) results in students working more consistently in lesser
teacher intervention. Also, when individuals are allowed to exert some control over a task,
they tend to experience less anxiety or stress while performing that task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with your
teaching, but also varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning. In addition
to the traditional paper-and-pencil tests and written assignment, students can demonstrate
their learning in a variety of performance formats, such as: (a) individually delivered reports,
(b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d) dramatic vignettes- presented live or
videotape. One potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their
learning is that the variety of options exercised may be a powerful way to promote student
awareness of the diversity of human learning styles. You will have more of assessment in
your courses on Assessment of Learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You

can form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural
background, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student progress to a more
advanced stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may promote this
cognitive advancement because: (a) the instructor is removed from center stage,
thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the ultimate or absolute
authority; and (b) students are exposed to the perspectives of other students, thus
increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and different approaches to
learning.
EVALUATION
Describe/present the concept on individual differences by means of the following:
(You may choose one only.)
Song Poem
Jingle Slide presentation Powerpoint presentation
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Research Connection

39
Read a research or study related to individual differences or student diversity.
Fill out the matrix below.
Title: _____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the lesson on individual differences, I realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Lesson 5

40
LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Overview
One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles.

Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will always
be different learning characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of processing
information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they work with their hands
than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a topic.
Students, likewise, have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts, feelings and
ideas. Some would prefer to write, others would draw or even dance and sing. These
preferences involve thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.
Learning Outcomes

 Describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple
intelligences,
 Pinpoint your own learning/thinking styles and multiple
intelligences, and
 plan learning activities that match learners’ learning/thinking
styles and multiple intelligences.
Discussion
Learning/Thinking Styles
Learning/Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes

information. They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or
problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar
dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking style would lie at a point in
a continuum. Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to
behave in a certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality
dimension which influences your attitudes, values and social interactions.
There are several perspectives about learning/thinking styles. We shall focus

on sensory preferences and global-analytic continuum.
Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types

of sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types:
Visual Preferences. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and
facial expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to
prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view. They may think in
pictures and learn best from visual aids including diagram, illustrated
textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During
a lecture or classroom discussions, visual learners often prefer to take
detailed notes to absorb the information.

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Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:
Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested
in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays or pictures in order to solidify
learning. They usually have good picture memory a.k.a. iconic imagery and
attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better than to read a
book.
Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable

with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word.
They would prefer to read a book that a map and would like to read about
things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do
not require practical means of learning.
Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions,

talking things through listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners
interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice,
pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning
until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and
using a tape recorder. They can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken
word easily into the written word, and are not easily distracted in their
listening ability.
Auditory learners also fall into two categories:
The “Listeners”. This is the more common type. Listeners most likely
do well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and
make the information their own. They may even carry on mental
conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in
their heads what they heard others say.
The “Talkers”. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They
often find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when
the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers)
tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive
and may not even realize that they need to talk.
Tactile/ Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a hands-on approach,

actively exploring they physical world. They may not benefit so much from the
discussion or the written materials, and may become distracted by their need
for activity and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward
active, sensorimotor learning. They tend to prefer “learning by doing,”
preferring the use of psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They
tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination.
Global- Analytic Continuum
Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step process of learning.
They tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers.”
They are more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.

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Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole
pattern rather than particle elements. They are the “forest seers” who give attention only to
the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
Several theories have tied he global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain

continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry’s model, the left-brained dominant individual is
portrayed as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the right-brained
person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences.
Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies in an individual,
one side may be more dominant than the other. The left-brain is regarded as analytic in
approach while the right is described as holistic or global. A successive processor (left brain)
prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format, beginning with details leading to a
conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn
beginning with the general concept and then going on specifics. See the comparison on the
next page:
LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information 4. Processes information in varied
linearly order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music while

studying
11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying studying
Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in
Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that
allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or more
cultures”. Gardner believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities-a
person can be low in one domain area but high in another. All of us possess the intelligences
but in varying degrees of strength.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of
intelligences. In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that
match these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are:

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Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see” things
in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and written word.
This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments
of intelligence and achievement.
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) –learning through reasoning

and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are
asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) – learning through interaction with one’s

environment. This intelligence is the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes
not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses.
Intrapersonal (Self-Smart) – Learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a

decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on what they
learn and take ownership for their learning.
Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with others. Not the
domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence promotes
collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning through classification, categories and

hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not
simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
Existential (Spirit Smart) – learning by seeing the “big picture”: “Why are we here?”
“What is my place in my family, school and community?” this intelligence seeks connections
to real world understanding and application of new learning.
It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/ learning style and
multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively.
While researches on these typologies continue, it is clear that the teachers can no
longer just teach the text book. It is sensible practice to teach each child according to his/her
thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.
Teaching strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence
1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling
factual information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews,
advance organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with
the new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both
the right-and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.

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6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. (Write
directions on the board and give them orally.)
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing
summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.)
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The example you’ve provided
is an excellent one to point the concept of … ”).
(From Cornett, C.E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning styles.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation).
EVALUATION
Applying What You Have Learned
1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization.

2. Think of at least ten learning activities relevant to the topic you picked.
3. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences that each learning
activity can address. Remember, a learning activity may address both
thinking/learning style and multiple intelligence.
Topic Learning Activity Learning Style/Multiple

Intelligence
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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Research Connection
Read a research or study related to learning/thinking styles or multiple
intelligences. Fill out the matrix below.
Title: _____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the lesson on learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences, I
realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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MIDTERM
Lesson 6
Learners with Exceptionalities
Overview
One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in

learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with
exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or
“average”. The term “exceptional learners” includes those with special needs related
to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments,
emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners require a lot of
understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if they
are to reach their full potential of development.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the basic categories of exceptional learners,

 define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap, and
 demonstrate “people first” language when referring to exceptional
learners and advocate for its use.
Discussion
Advance Organizer
Learning Mental
Disabilities Retardation
Exceptionalities Sensory
Impairments
Emotional and
Behavioral
Physical Disabilities and
Disorders
Health Impairments
Autism

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Watch any of the following films:

The Rain Man
I am Sam
Son-rise a Miracle of Love
The Life of Helen Keller
Answer the following questions after you watched your chosen movie.
1. Describe the main character in the movie you watched.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________
2. What his/her exceptionality? Describe.-
______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
3. What problems/difficulties did the main character experience?
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
4. Who provided support? What support did he/she get from his/her environment?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
From the movie you watched you saw the challenges that confront a person
with special needs. The person’s adjustment entails the support of the people around
him. As a future teacher, you would probably encounter learners with special needs,
more so if special education is your major. It is therefore necessary that you have
both the right information and proper attitude in dealing with special learners. This will
help you perform your task to facilitate learning. Let us begin by differentiating the
words disability and handicap.
Disability. A disability is measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes
with a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a
physical, sensory, or mental condition” (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word
disability has become the more accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in
federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive service and support for
exceptional learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2,
uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and
out-of-school youth with training…
Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability.
A handicap is disadvantage that occurs as a result of disability or impairment. The
degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the
adjustment made by both the person and his environment. Therefore, the extent to
which a disability handicaps and individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have
the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they
both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while

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the other cannot. The first individual would have not as much as handicap as the
second one. Another example, two persons who move around on a wheel chair, the
one studying in a school campus with wheelchair accessibility in all areas would be
less handicapped than one in a school without wheelchair accessibility.
Categories of Exceptionalities.
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special
Education practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For this short
introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in Omrod’s
Educational Psychology (2000).
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific
cognitive processes like perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not
due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or
sensory impairments. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading),
dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both
of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken language
including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds… correctly, stuttering,
difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom
performance.
Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social
interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals
with Autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable environment.
Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average
intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities
of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately in social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states
like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably
disturb learning and performance in school.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions
(usually long –term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength,
(2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control.

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Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more
different types of disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of
disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more
specialized educational programs.
Sensory Impairments
Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the
eyes or optic nerves that prevent the normal vision even with corrective lenses.
Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves
that hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.
Giftedness
Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.
There is unusually development. There is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or
more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity,
visual or performing arts or leadership.
People-First Language
What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply, this language
trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person with disability,
not a disabled person). Thus, people –first language tells us what conditions people
have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is similar to saying
“person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions for referring to those
with disabilities include:
• avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the
mentally retarded);
• emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is
preferable to confined to a wheelchair);
• avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as
condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a disability; and
• avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio
victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis)
(Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute,
1996).
Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to
have a more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities.
The presence of impairments requires them to exert more effort to do the things that
others like us find quite easy to do. They are learners who may turn to you for
assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of compassion (not of pity or
ridicule), will make you a more effective teacher, one with the hand and the heart
who can facilitate their learning adjustment.

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EVALUATION
I. Make a collection of teaching guidelines or tips on how to work with

students with exceptionalities. Follow the categories shown I this
module. Present your guidelines/tips in bulleted form.
II. Surf the internet for the Son-Rise Program for autism. It is based on
the life-changing experience of Ron Kauffman who had autism but
recovered. Most practitioners believe that autism is incurable, but the
son-rise program has another approach. Read about it and write a
reaction paper on it.
III. Research Connection. Read a research related to Learners’
Exceptionalities. Fill out the matrix below.

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Reflection:
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins… Now!
From this module on Learners with Exceptionalities , I learned that…..

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 7
Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner
Overview
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and

measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through
conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment) it does not give much
attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov,
Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
Learning Outcomes
 Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.

 Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
 Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.
Advance Organizer
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
Evaluation Connection Operant Conditioning
(Pavlov/Watson) (Thorndike) (Skinner)
Primary Laws Reinforcement
Law of Shaping of
Effect Behavior
Law of
Exercise
Law of
Exercise

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Activity 1
1. Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in elementary or high

school.
2. Are there things that when you encounter at present (see, hear, touch,
smell) make you “go back to the past” and recall this teacher? What are
these things?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What kinds of rewards and punishments did she/he apply in your class?
For what student behaviors were the rewards and punishments for?
Student Behavior Reward/Punishment

1.
2.
3.
4.
Activity 2
1. What makes this teacher unforgettable for you?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________
2. Why do your answers in no.1 make you recall this teacher? Describe the connection
these things have on your past teacher.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________
3. Were the rewards and punishments given effective? Please elaborate.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________

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Discussion
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in
classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved
meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study
digestion. This is when stumbled upon classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus)

caused no response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog
initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few
seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell
(conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical
conditioning. See illustration below:
Stage 1 – Before conditioning
Bell
No response
(neutral stimulus)
Stage 2 – During conditioning
Bell
(neutral stimulus )
Paired with
Meat (unconditioned Salivation (unconditioned

stimulus) response)
Stage 3 – After conditioning
Bell (conditioned Salivation

stimulus) (conditioned response)

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Classical Conditioning
Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with

your teacher. So at present, when you encounter the objects with your teacher. So at
present, when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an
example of classical conditioning.
Pavlov also had the following findings:
Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in
response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time,

but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and
discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with
food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as light may be flashed at the same time that
the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of
the bell.
Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike’s connectionism theory gave us the original S-R
framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book
entitled Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that
learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and Responses (R). Such
associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of
the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained
without considering any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three
primary laws:
Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the
stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later
on, revised this “law” when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily
weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily
motivate performance.
Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-repose) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However,
like the law of effect, the law of exercise had to be revised when Thorndike found that
practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.

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Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to
a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if
the teacher says, ‘’Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.”
And suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready
to respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at
all ready to respond to a stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For
instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the
question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will
be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say the question first,
and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.
Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
John Watson. John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s
ideas. He too was initially involved in animal studies. Then later became involved in human
behavior research.
He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love
and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through
conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said if he is given a
dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them to be, basically
through making stimulus response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning

Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but
Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was
frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later,
the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small
animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat
without the loud noise.
Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless, his work did
clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain
stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the
stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in
observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind.
Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian society based on the operant
conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out
how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as
government, law, religion, economics and education.

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Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied
operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, this
theory came to be known as Operant Conditioning.
Operant conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a

result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a
consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a
particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is positive reinforce and a negative reinforcer.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An
example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to
children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new
cellphone for her son who gets good grades. Still, other examples include verbal praises, star
stamps and stickers.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response
when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact it is a
reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5
for the two grading periods will no longer take the final exam, which we realize is a form of
reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5.
A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a

consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who
always comes late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment)
and, therefore, loses points for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the
response of repeatedly coming to class late.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced
are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish
that behavior.
Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out the
pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations
of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and
the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the
direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and
final for pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The
animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be
applied to a child being taught to a tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement
(rewards) until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned.
Reinforcement schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,

reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully
through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement
schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.

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Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer)
every 10 minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the but the
amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given
food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every ten minutes.
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it
presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3
times, then after 10 times, then after 4 times, so the bird will not be able to predict how
many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food again.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more
persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement
will come although they know that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why
people continue to buy lotto tickets even when an almost negligible percentage of people
actually win. While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in a while
somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when the jackpot can be
gotten (variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of response).
Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed

instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames
which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate
feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response always correct and
hence, a positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers
such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is

particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be
reinforced (‘’shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”)
producing secondary conditioning.
Looking back at the activity at the beginning, try to look into the
rewards and punishments that your former teacher used in class. Connect them with
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. Can you now see why your teacher used them?

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EVALUATION
I. Read more about classical and operant conditioning. Find out about their
similarities and differences. Prepare a concept map or graphic organizer to
highlight these similarities and differences.
II. Observation
a. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions – such as in a
mall, in church, at the playground, etc. Spend one hour observing such
Adult-child interactions. Focus your attention on the stimulus-response-
consequence patterns you observe.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or scribble the
details on the spot or as soon as you finish your observation).
c. Answer the questions:

1. What kinds of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you observe?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What kinds of behavior on the part of children elicit reinforcement and

punishment consequences from the adult?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What kinds of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the

children?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. What kind of reinforcement and punishments seem to be the most
“successful”?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant
conditioning? Do you think children reinforce and punish adults as
adults reinforce and punish them? How might the two be
interdependent?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
III. Thorndike’s Connectionism

a. Choose a topic you want to teach.

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b. Think of ways you can apply the three primary laws while you teach the
topic.
Topic_____________________________________ Grade/year level

____________________
Primary Law How I would apply the Primary Law

Law of Readiness
Law of Effect. Indicate specially how

you will use positive/negative
reinforcements (rewards)
Law of Exercise
II. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Piaget’s Theory. Fill
out the matrix below.

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the module of theory of behaviorism, I realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Learning Module 8
Neo behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Overview
With the new researches, explanations provided by the basic principles of
behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into
view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded others, and
added new ideas which later came to be associated with the cognitive views of
learning. The neo-behaviorists, then were a transitional group, bridging the gap
between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.
Learning Outcomes
 explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism,

 explain Bandura’s social learning theory,
 give specific applications of each theory in teaching.
Advance Organizer
Neo Behaviorism
Tolman’s Bendura
Purposive Behaviorism Social-Learning Theory
Goal-Directedness Principles

Cognitive Maps Modeling
Latent Learning Four Conditions for

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Discussion
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Usually, people use worked on the maze activity which you just did would say
they found the second maze easier. This is because they saw that the two mazes
were identical, except that the entrance and exit points were reversed. Their
experience in doing maze A helped them answer Maze B a lot easier. People create
mental maps of things they perceived. These mental maps help them respond to
other things or tasks later, especially if they see the similarity. You may begin to
respond with trial and error (behavioristic), but later on your response becomes more
internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what neobehaviorism is about. It
has aspects behaviorism but it also reaches out the cognitive perspective.
There are two theories reflecting neobehaviorism that stands out. Edward
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
Both theories are influenced by behaviorism (which is focused on external elements
in learning), but their principles seem to also be reflective of the cognitive perspective
(focused on more internal elements).
Purposive Behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory
and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s
theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists
and those of John Watson, the behaviorist.
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves
forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing
that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to
a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the
organized aspect of learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by
just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a
tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationship, which
finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.”
Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli
rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes
associated with already meaningful stimulus (the significance) through a series of

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pairings; there is no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your
maze activity, the new stimulus or “sign” (maze B) became associated with already
meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A).So you may have connected the stimuli,
maze A and maze A; and used your knowledge and experience in maze A to learn to
respond to maze B.
Tolman’s Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted the
learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism
acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than
merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and
they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of rats
was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the
same location. Another group of rats had the placed in different locations which
always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The
group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other
group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a
specific sequence of turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified the rats
somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also
found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a
goal.
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to
school every day, he requires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when
transportation re-routing is done, he still figure out turns to make to get to school the
shortest or easier way.
Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays
with the individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly, manifested at
once. According to Tolman, it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated
this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze” by forming
cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when
they needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the
t.v. remote control and observes how the t.v. is turned on or how channel is changed,
and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first time
that their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows, which buttons to
press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand,
even though she has never done them before.
The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are variables
that are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that
learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations,
needs and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his experiments
with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that
reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for
performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of

65
the way through a maze, i.e. to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of
reinforcement.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
1. Read the following news article.
10-Year-Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself
After Watching Saddam Execution
The Associated Press
HOUSTON Jan 4, 2007 (AP)
Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by hanging
himself from a bunk bed was apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi
leader Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the
Houston-area city of Webster., said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico’s mother
told police he had previously watched news report on Saddam’s death.
“It appears to be accidental,” Claunch said. “Our gut reaction is that he was
experimenting.”
An autopsy of the fifth-grader’s body was pending.
Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said the boy was a happy and curious child.
He said Sergio had watched TV news with another uncle on Saturday and
asked the uncle about Saddam’s death.
“His uncle told him it was because Saddam was real bad,”Gustavo said. “He
(Sergio) said, ‘OK.’ And that was it.”
Sergio’s mother, Sara Pelico DeLeon, was at work Sunday while Sergio and
other children were under the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children
found Sergio’s body in his bedroom.
Police said that boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while on a bunk bed.
Police investigators learned that Sergio had been upset about not getting a
Christmas gift from his father, but they don’t believe the boy intentionally killed
himself.
Clinical psychologist Edward Bischof of California said children of Sergio’s
age mimic risky behaviors they see on TV such as wrestling or extreme sports
without realizing the dangers. He said TV appeared to be stimulant in Sergio’s case.
I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to act out
without having the emotional and psychological maturity to think the thing through
before he acts on it,” Bischof said.
Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the apartment
complex activity center. Gustavo said the family is trying to put together enough
money to send Sergio’s body to Guatemala for burial.
“I don’t think he thought it was real,” Gustavo said of Saddam’s hanging.
“They showed them putting the noose around his neck and everything. Why show
that on TV? (retrieved from www.abcnews.go.com)
Activity 2: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

1. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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What facts made them give this reason?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people
(preschool to college)? Cite specific examples.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as
observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico
did watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have imitated it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this
theory.
General principles of social learning theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of
those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that
learning has to be presented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast
social learning theorists say that because people can learn through
observation alone, their learning may or may not result in a behavior
change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning
theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human
learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or
punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling
People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who
changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood
of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be
modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class

67
leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the
observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many
behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.
For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra
work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra
work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior
vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the
model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an
increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students
watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children
saw the model of being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the
group of children began to also hit the doll.
Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have
indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual
exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that
promote learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and
attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would
be, when the teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next
is not on the test. Students will not pay attention because they do not expect
to know the information for a test.
Cognitive factors in social learning
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually
operant factors).
1. Learning without performance: bandura makes a distinction between learning
through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This
is similar to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: social learning theorists contend that
attention is a critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations: as a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about
the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect
certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The
learner needs to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and
response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the
learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the
person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each
other.
5. Modeling: there are different types of models. There is the live model, an
actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic
model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium,
such as television, videotape, computer programs.

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Behaviors that can be learned through modeling
Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling.
Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can
watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in
a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates
that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent
models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and
modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in
part, develop through modeling.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual
can successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention- the person must pay attention to the model.
2. Retention—the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has
been observed. One way of increasing this using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction- the third condition is the ability to replicate the
behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer
has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner
who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little
children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation- the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is
motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different
people will reproduce the same behavior differently.
Effects of modeling on behavior:

1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a
student might see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football
because he is not tall enough for basketball.
Educational implications of social learning theory
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve
discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various
behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can
provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To
promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential
conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that
they do not model inappropriate behaviors.

69
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This
technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.
Evaluation
1. How are Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s Social Learning theory able
to bridge behaviorism and cognitive theory?
2. Read this article about Bandura’s views about television and violence, Albert
Bandura Lecture—Bing distinguished Lecture Series “The power of Social Modeling:
The effects of Television Violence” by Christine Van De Velde (at http://
www.stanford.edu/dept/bingschool/rsrchart/bandura.htm). Make a reaction paper.
Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Neo behaviorism .


70
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the module on Neo behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura , I realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Lesson 9
Gestalt Psychology
Overview
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served
as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and
mechanistic focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products
of perception.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the different gestalt principles,

 list ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process, and
 demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of the gestalt principles in
the teaching-learning process.
Discussion
ADVANCE ORGANIZER
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Principles Insight Learning Lifespace (Lewin)
Inner Forces
Law of Proximity
Outer Forces
Law of
First Semester, Closure
A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education
Law of Good
Continuation
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Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It

emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual
perception. The term gestalt means “form” or “configuration”. Psychologists Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded the
perceivers (or learners) are not passive but rather active. They suggested that
learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure
data in order to understand it. This is perceptual process. Factors like past
experiences, needs, attitudes, and one’s present situation can affect their perception.
One may have difficulty perceiving both words “you” and “me” in the first
picture in the activity if one is trying to forget an ex-sweetheart who caused pain; or
simply because he was looking on the foreground and not the background.
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are
guided by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see
or make of things or situations we meet.
Gestalt Principles

72
Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will be perceived as

coherent object. On the left, there appears to be three columns, while on the right,
there appears to be three horizontal rows. When objects we are perceiving are near
each other, we perceive them as belonging together.

73
Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the
same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square. We link similar elements
together.
Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive.
We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.

74
Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency to continue
contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People
tend to draw a good continuous line.

75
Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as good figure
as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity. The
figure is perceived as a square overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several
complicated shapes. Based on our experiences with perception, we “expect” certain
patterns therefore perceive that expected pattern.
Insight Learning
Gestalt Psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place discovery or

insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which
he described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as
tools to solve problems. In the box problem a banana is attached to the top of
chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on
and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler’s apes (Sultan) could solve this problem.
A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced
by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack one box on another, and master
gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks
which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler’s very intelligent ape, was
able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in
order to reach the food. In each of these problems, the important aspect learning was
not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of
materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.
Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the characteristics of
objects under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when the
individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes
these elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. This could occur
without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training or investigation is
necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person.
Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process
The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact
on learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt Psychology.
His theory focusing o “life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology. He said that an
individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his learning.
Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may
include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All these forces
interact and impact on the person’s learning. Mario Polito, an Italian Psychologist,
writes about the relevance of Gestalt psychology to education.
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here
and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It
takes interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but
accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates learning as experience and
the experience as a source of learning. It appreciates the affections and meaning that
we attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous organization

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and rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and meanings. It
asserts that learning is not accumulation but remodeling or insight. Autonomy and
freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time necessary for
assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodeling is respected. The contact
experience between teachers and students is given value: an authentic meeting
based on sharing ideas and affections.
Evaluation
I. Identify the gestalt principle applied in each of the following learning

activities. Discuss your answer with a learning partner.
________ 1. The teacher relates a new topic with something the student already
knows.
________ 2. Topics with commonalities are taught next to each other.
________ 3. The most important words in the paragraph are written in bolder fonts.
________ 4. The teacher slows down her pace and varies her tone of voice to
emphasize a point.
________ 5. Teachers remind children to keep their numbers in straight columns

when doing math operations.
II. Formulate 5 items like the ones you went through then exchange
work with your learning partner. Your learning partner answers the 5
items you prepared while you also answer what your learning
partner made.
III. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Gestalt Psychology.


77
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the module of Gestalt Psychology, I realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 10
Information Processing
Overview
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that
focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory.
It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong
implications on the teaching-learning process.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving

knowledge, and
 cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.
Advance Organizer
Information
Processing Theory
Types of Knowledge Stages Executive Control

Processes
Encoding
General/Specific
Storage
Declarative
Retrieval
Procedural
Episodic
Conditional
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Activity
Form groups of about 3-5 members each.
1. Brainstorm on how you can liken man’s cognitive processes, like acquiring
information, putting them to memory, remembering, etc., to that of the
functioning of a computer.
Questions:
1. In what ways are our cognitive processes like the functioning of a computer?
2. In what ways do our cognitive processes differ from the functioning of a
computer?
3. Can a computer perform all our cognitive processes? Explain your answer.
Discussion
Information Processing Theory
Relating how the mind and the computer is a powerful analogy. The terms
used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those
who program and design computers aim to make computers solve problems through
processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on how to know more about IPT.
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature
of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an
external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we
receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a person
thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All these
notions comprise what is called information processing theory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines
whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the
short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors would also determine
whether the information will be retrieved or ‘”remembered” when the learner needs it.
Let us go into the details.
We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

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“Types” of Knowledge
 General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is used in my

tasks, or only in one.
 Declarative- this refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how
things are. They may be in the form of word or an image. Examples are your
name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of
your crush.
 Procedural- This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include
making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common
denominator.
 Episodic-This includes memories of life events, like your high school
graduation.
 Conditional- This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or
procedural strategies.
Stages in the Information Processing Theory
The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register,
short-term memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three
primary stages in the progression of external information becoming incorporated
into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame,
mental model, etc.)
These three primary stages in IPT are:
 Encoding-Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage-The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of
time, depending upon the process following encoding.
 Retrieval- the information is brought back at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective
memory.
What made IPT plausible is the notion that a cognitive process could be described in
a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is
taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most
theories of information processing revolve around the three main stages in the
memory process:
Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief
time.
 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than
what our minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely
brief period-in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more
persistent than visual.
The role of Attention

81
 To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention
to it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that
pass through our attention “gate”.
 Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in
the material; when there is conscious control over attention, or when
information involves novelty, surprise, salience and distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information.
This means that until that point, the learner has not established a
determination of the categorical membership of the information. To this point,
the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is
perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the
stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that
the stimulus was ever encountered.
Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)
 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information sometimes

described as 7+/-2. It is called working memory because it is where new
information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM
maintains information for a limited time, until the learner ha adequate
resources to process the information, or until the information is forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance
rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active in STM, like
when you repeat a phone number just given over and over.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It
holds the stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

 Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite
Executive Control Processes
The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is
referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information
through the system, help the learner make informed decisions about how to
categorize, organize or interpret information. Example of processes are attention,
rehearsals and organization.
Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.
There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
 Decay- information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very
prevalent in Working Memory.
 Interference- new or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in
question.
Methods for increasing Retrieval of Information

82
 Rehearsal- this is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
 Meaningful Learning- this is making connections between new information
and prior knowledge.
 Organization- it is making connections among various pieces of information.
Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled.
 Elaboration- this is adding additional ideas to new information based on what
one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery- This means forming a “picture” of the information
 Generation-Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear’
 Context- Remembering the situation helps recover information.
 Personalization- it is making the information relevant to the individual.
Other Memory Methods
 Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – you will remember the
beginning and end of a ‘list’ more readily
 Part Learning- Break up the ‘list’ or ‘chunk’ information to increase
memorization.
 Distributed Practice- break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once (Massed Practice)
 Mnemonic Aids- these are memory techniques that learners may employ to
help them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the
loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association
techniques, among others.
Executive Control Processes (including Metacognition)
Rehearsal, Elaboration,
Maintenance Rehearsal Meaningful Learning,
Organization, Visual
Imagery, Generalization
Sensory Short Term Long Term

Senses Perception
Memory Memory Memory
Decay Forgetting Retrieval
The Information Processing Model

83
Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory
for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes
to the STM and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent
to the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes
applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when
needed later.
Evaluation
1. Read more on specific mnemonic techniques and write about how you can
use it to make information processing more effective in yourself and your
future students.
2. Does forgetting go with advancing in age? What do experts say?
3. As a small group, cite a teaching implication of the information process given
in the Table below. One is done for you.
Process Teaching Implication/s

1. Information is received through 1.1 Be sure that the learners’ senses
the senses. are functioning well.
1.2
2. If information is not relevant, it 2.1

decays.
2.2
3. If information goes to the Short 3.1

Term Memory and if given
attention and is found to be
relevant, it is sent to the Long- 3.2
Term Memory.
4.1
4. If information is not properly 4.2

encoded, forgetting occurs.
5.1
5. There are methods to increase 5.2

retrieval of information when
needed (see methods on page
112.)
Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Information

Processing. Fill out the matrix below.

84
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the module on Information Processing, I realized that
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

85
Lesson 11
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Overview
In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of
learning. He stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for
each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also
provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction.
Learning Outcomes
 explain Gagne’s conditions of learning,

 make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s
instruction events, and
 articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.
Advance Organizer
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
Categories of 9 Events of Instruction

Learning
Event 1
Gaining Attention
Verbal
Information
Event 2
Informing the Learner of the Objectives
Intellectual
Skills
Event 2
Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning
Cognitive
Strategies
Event 4
Presenting the Stimulus
Attitudes
Event 5
Motor Providing Learner Guidance
SkillsA.Y. 2022-2023
First Semester, * College of Teacher Education
Event 6
Eliciting Performance
Event 7
86
ACTIVITY
1. Before reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the nine steps in
lesson presentation (instructional events) in their proper order. Read and
arrange the steps by numbering them. Form groups of 5 for this activity.
_______ 1. Guidance of students’ performance
_______ 2. Recall prior learning
_______ 3. Enhance retention and transfer
_______ 4. Gain attention
_______ 5. Provide feedback
_______ 6. Assess performance
_______ 7. Present stimulus
_______ 8. Elicit performance
_______ 9. Identify the objective
2. Each group writes its arrangement on the board for comparison and
discussion. Each group explains and justifies the arrangement. For
discussion, the teacher asks the class: “which of the arrangements presented
on the board is correct? Why?
Discussion
Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the
theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all
domains. In the earlier version of the theory, special attention was given to military
training settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional technology in
learning.
Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne’s
theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning.
Furthermore, the theory implies that each different type of learning calls for

87
different types of instruction. Gagne named five categories of learning:
verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills
and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are required for each
type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there
must be an opportunity for problem solving; to learn attitudes, the learner
must be exposed to credible role model or arguments that are convincing and
moving. Below are the categories of learning with corresponding learning
outcomes nad conditions of learning:

Category of Learning Example of Learning Outcome Conditions of Learning
Verbal Information Stating previously learned 1. Draw attention to

materials such as facts, concepts, 88
distinctive features by
principles and Facilitating
PED05: procedures, e.g.,
Learner-Centered variations
Teaching in print or
listing the 14 learner-centered speech.
psychological principles 2. Present information so
that it can be made into
chunks.
3. Provide a meaningful
context for affective
encoding of information.
4. Provide cues for effective
recall and generalization
of information.
Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: Distinguishing
Discriminations, Concrete objects, features or symbols, e.g.,
Concepts, Defined distinguishing an even and an odd
Concepts, Rules, Higher number
Order Rules
Concrete Concepts: identifying
classes of concrete objects,
features or events , e.g., picking out
all the red beads from a bowl of
beads
Defined Concepts: classifying new

examples of events or ideas by
their definition, e.g. noting “she
sells sea shells” as alliteration
Rules: Applying a single relationship

to solve a class of problems, e.g.
computing average monthly
income of a company
Order rules: Applying a new

combination of rules to solve a
complex problem, e.g. , generating
a balanced budget for a school
organization
Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways to guide 1. Describe or demonstrate

learning, thinking, acting and the strategy.
feeling, e.g., constructing concept 2. Provide a variety of
maps of topics being studied occasions for practice
using the strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or originality of
the strategy or outcome.
Attitudes Choosing a personal actions based 1. Establish an expectancy
on the internal states of of success associated
understanding and feeling, e.g., with the desired attitude.
deciding to avoid soft drinks and 2. Assure student
drinking a least 8 glasses of water identification with an
everyday admired human model.
3. Arrange for
First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education or
communication
demonstration of choice
of personal action.
4. Give feedback for
89
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and
a sequence of instruction. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for
intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:
stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application and problem
solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites
that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are
identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning
hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the

conditions of learning. These events should satisfy or provide the
necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing
instruction and selecting appropriate media. The theory includes nine
instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
1) Gaining attention (reception)

2) Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4) Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6) Eliciting performance (responding)
7) Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8) Assessing performance (retrieval)
9) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the
events of instruction.
Example 1 Lesson: Equilateral Triangles
Objective: for students to create equilateral triangles
Target group: Grade 4 pupils
1. Gain attention- show variety of computer-generated triangles.
2. Identify objective-pose question: “what is an equilateral triangle?”
3. Recall prior learning-review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus- give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create an equilateral triangle
6. Elicit performance- ask students to create 5 different examples.
7. Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance-provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer-show pictures of objects and ask students
to identify equilaterals
Example
Objective: students to create presentations using Microsoft PowerPoint
Target Group: this lesson is geared for education students (pre-service teachers)
with basic computer skills.

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Event of Instruction Lesson Example/Conditions Rationale

of Learning
1. Gaining Attention Teacher tells learners how she Giving background
has used Powerpoint in the information creates validity.
classroom. Shows an example
of a powerpoint Asks learners The use of multimedia grabs
questions about using the audience’s attention.
powerpoint.
Asking questions in the
beginning creates an
interactive atmosphere.
2. Informing the Learner Teacher says, “Today we are Make learners aware of what
of the Objective going to work on using a to expect so that they are
multimedia presentation aware and prepared to
software, Microsoft receive information.
Powerpoint
3. Stimulating Recall of For this particular group of When learning something
Prior Learning learners, they have learned new, accessing prior
previously about Microsoft knowledge is a major factor I
Windows, particularly the process of acquiring new
Microsoft Word. Teacher information.
associates this knowledge
with lesson at hand.
4. Presenting the Teacher gives students hands- The goal is information
Stimulus on, step-by-step tutorial on acquisition, therefore,
using Microsoft Powerpoint. stimulus employed is written
content and the actual
software program.
5. Providing Learner Teachers demonstrates how Teacher use “discovery
Guidance to create a presentation. learning” because learners are
Teacher moves around and adults and it gives them the
shows students how to use freedom to explore. Teacher
the tools to type in text, add facilitates the learning process
links, add symbols and clip art, by giving hints and cues when
insert videos and diagrams, needed. Since the audience
use sounds, etc. learners are are pre-service with some
allowed to try the tools basic level of technology skills
demonstrated in partners on and the software program is
their computers. easy to follow and
understand, guidance is
minimal.
6. Eliciting Performance Teacher asks students to Requiring the learner to
demonstrate Powerpoint produce based on what has
tools. been taught enables the
learner to confirm his/her
learning.
Regular feedback enhances

learning.

91
7. Giving Feedback Teacher give immediate

feedback to learners after
eliciting responses.
8. Assessing Assign a practice activity- Independent practice forces

Performance create an electronic story students to use what they
book using Microsoft learned and apply it. Assessing
Powerpoint. Teacher checks such gives instructors a means
work. of testing student learning
outcomes.
9. Enhancing Retention Teacher asks learners to Applying learning in real-life
and Transfer create activities using situations is a step towards
Powerpoint presentation for Mastery Learning.
6th grade pupils. Teacher also
assigns learner to teach
another learner how to make
powerful presentations
Evaluation
I. Discuss what you perceive as the advantages and disadvantages of using

Gagne’s instructional events in lesson planning.
II. Choose a topic with a particular lesson objective in any grade or year
level. Make a teaching sequence applying Gagne’s nine instructional
events. Use the table provided for you.
Topic:
_____________________________________________________________________
Event of Instruction Lesson Example/Conditions of Learning
1. Gaining
Attention
2. Informing the
Learner of the
Objective
3. Stimulating
Recall of Prior
Learning
4. Presenting the
Stimulus
5. Providing
Learning

92
Guidance
6. Eliciting
Performance
7. Giving
Feedback
8. Assessing
Performance
9. Enhancing
Retention and
Transfer
III. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Gagne’s

Conditions of Learning. Fill out the matrix below.

93
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
From the module of Gagne’s Conditions of Learning , I realized that…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Learning Module 12
Pre-natal Development
Overview
Learning Outcomes
 trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process of human

beings;
 explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development; and
 become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in
an anti-abortion stand.
Activity
Discussion

94
Evaluation
II. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas
on pre-natal development. Fill out the matrix below.

95
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection
Look at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cells of your lips are at your
lips. Your mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe normally. Did it ever occur to
you that it could have been otherwise? Any feeling of gratitude? Write down your
reflections here.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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96
FINAL TERM
Lesson 13
Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

Overview
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall
continue to trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who
is just born up to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal or
antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and
toddlerhood span the first two years of life.
Learning Outcomes
 trace the physical development that you have gone through

as infants and toddlers;
 identify factors that enhance / impede the physical development of
infants and toddlers;
 present your own or others' research on the physical development of
infants and toddlers; and
 draw implications of these principles and processes to child care,
education and parenting.
Activity
Take a learning partner and together study the Figures below. Look
closely at the changes in the sizes of the human body parts as a person
grows.

97
Guide
Questions:
1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts
of the body as a person grows?
2. Does physical development begin from the top or below? from the side to
the side? Explain your answer.
Discussion
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
As you learned in Module 2, the cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth

from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than the body. This
cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also
applies in the first months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs before
their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of
the head - the eyes and the brain - grow faster than the lower parts sych as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when
the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first
months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular control of the trunk
and arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When referring to motor
development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from
the center of the body outward.
Height and Weight
• It's normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight
within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby's adjustment to neonatal
feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.

98
• Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first
six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed
babies.
• In general, an infant's length increases by about 30 percent in the first five

months.
• A baby's weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the
second year of life.
• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress
along a natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
• Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life
are the spreading connections of dendrites to each other. Remember neurons,
dendrites, axon, synapses? You discussed them in your General Psychology class.
(You may wish to review on them.)
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered

and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. The
process of myelination or myelinization increases the speed at which information
travels through the nervous system.
At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the
second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
Shortly after birth, a baby's brain produces trillions more connections between
neurons than it can possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that are seldom
or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant's brain is literally waiting for experiences
to determine how connections are made.
A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the

brains of rats that grew up in the enriched environment developed better than the
brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains of the
"enriched" animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more neuronal
connections and had higher levels of neuro- chemical activity. Such finding implies
that enriching the lives of infants who live in impoverished environments can produce
positive changes in their development (Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a

depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).
Motor development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from
reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
The newborn has some basic. reflexes which are, of course automatic, and
serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many

99
reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the
baby grows and matures.
There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the
roof of an infant's mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure
they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some
infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for Comfort.
Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant's cheek is
stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch
and opening their mouth for feeding.
Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight 'in their
grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant
respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby's foot is stroked,
the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by

throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will
usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their bodies.
Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle or lower
back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her
body toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: 'The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
placed on their abdomens, Whichever side the child's head is facing, the limbs on
that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.
(http://www.mamashealth.com/ child/inreflex.asp)
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in

the infant's first year of life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies
unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off the cabinet, to chase
the ball and to walk away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles
controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of these skills allows one
to be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise
eye-hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes more
refined during the first two years of life. Initially, infants show only crude shoulder and
elbow movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and
coordination of

100
What are some research findings regarding newborns' visual perceptions?
Can newborns see?
The newborn's Nision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision,
By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant's vision
approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002)
Infants look at different things for different lengths Of time. In an experiment

conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that
infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than
at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that "pattern perception has
an innate basis" (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things that babies learn to
recognize is their mother's face, as mother feeds and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the of the baby.
When in the womb, the baby hears his/ her mother's heartbeats, the grumbling of
his/her stomach, the mother's voice and music. How soothing it must have been for
you to listen to your mother's lullaby.
Infants' sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which
means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult.
Can newborns differentiate odors?
In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) "young infants who were

breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother's breast pad when they
were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were only two days
old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to recognize their mother's
breast pad odor."
Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator
of stress) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by
Santrock, 2002).
Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on motor

development, you learned that a newborn automatically sucks an object placed in
his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the newborn turn his/her head toward
the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?
In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made diffefeni
facial expressions when. they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and
Oster, 1988, cited by Sanfrock, 2002).
When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near- term fetus,
increased swallowing was observed. This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be
present before birth.

101
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants
capable of intermodal perception?
Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information

about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing. In a. study
conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early as at 3 1/2
months old, infants looked more at their mother when they also heard her voice and
longer at their father when they also heard his voice. This capacity for intermodal
perception or ability to connect information coming through various modes gets
sharpened considerably through experience.
Evaluation
l. Observe one 1) 0-6 months infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13- 18 months
infant and 4) 19-24 month old infant. Refer to "What Infants and Toddlers Can Do
Physically" based in the Philippines Early Learning and Development Standards
(ELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council now merged with Early
Childhood Care and Development (ECCD). Put a check (V) on those items that you
observed the infants/toddler demonstrated.
A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Physically Domain: Physical

Health, Well-Being and Motor Development
PHYSICAL HEALTH
Standards 1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head

circumference).
Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily

activities.
O - 6 months
_____ Startles to loud sounds
_____ Visually follows a moving object from side to side
_____ Visually follows a moving object up and down
_____ Reacts to pain by crying
_____ Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot
_____ Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact with something cold
_____ Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/she tastes

something delicious
_____ Reacts by making a face/ frowns/grimaces when he/she tastes

something he/she does not like
7 - 12 months
_____ Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice

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_____ Reacts by making a face when he/she smells something foul
Standards 3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities.
_____ Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.g., chairs, large
boxes)
_____ Walks without tiring easily
13 - 18 months
_____ Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates
_____ Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19 - 24 months
_____ Sustains physical activity (e.g., dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for
at least 3-5 minutes
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKILLS)
Standards 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements

involving large muscle groups.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or

performed by a child on the specified age?
O - 6 months
_____ Holds head steadily
_____ Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object
_____ Rolls over
_____ Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs
_____ Sits with support
_____ Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this
7- 12 months
_____ Sits alone steadily without support
_____ Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
_____ Stands without support
_____ Stands from a sitting position without any help
_____ Squats from a standing position with ease

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_____ Stands from a standing position with ease
_____ Bends over easily without falling
_____ Stands from a bent position without falling
_____ Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or fumiture (cruises)
_____ Walks with one hand held
13 - 18 months
_____ Walks without support
_____ Walks backwards
_____ Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
_____ Walks down the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
_____ Jumps in place
_____ Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g., bed, adult chair or
bangko, etc.)
_____ Kicks a ball but with little control of direction
_____ Throws a ball but with little control of direction
_____ Throws a ball but with little control of speed
_____ Runs without tripping or falling
_____ Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines)

without assistance
_____ Moves with music when he hears it
_____ Can move body to imitate familiar animals
_____ Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19 - 24 months
_____ Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help
_____ Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help
_____ Kicks a ball with control of direction
_____ Throws a ball with control of direction
_____ Throws a ball with control of speed
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS)
Standards 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger
movements. Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on
and/or performed by a child on the specified age?

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0-6 months
_____ Hands open most of the time
_____ Brings both hands together towards dangling object/toy
_____ Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects
_____Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a fiat

surface
_____ Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference
emerging)
7-12 months
_____ Pulls toys by the string
_____ Bangs 2 large blocks together
_____ Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers
_____ Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand
_____ Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand
preference established)
13 - 18 months
_____ Puts small objects in/out of container
_____ Unscrews lids
_____ Unwraps candy food
_____ Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped
around pencil)
____ Scribbles spontaneously
19 - 24 months
____ Colors with strokes going out of the lines
II. TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is

TRUE? — Analysis
The cephalocaudal growth pattern shows _________________________.
A. development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs
B. development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
C. simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs
D. development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers

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2. As a normal infant and toddler, which physical development did you go
through? — Application
A. Development of motor skills from the body outward to the center
B. Development of motor skills from the center of the body outward
C. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
D. Simultaneous development of the limbs and trunk body
3. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development

of infants and toddlers? — Understanding
A. Depressed environment
B. Early brain stimulation
C. Being the only child
D. Being a member of a big family
4. For healthy physical development of a toddler which should parents do? —

Application
I. Encourage your child to sit when eating.
Il. Encourage free play as much as possible to develop
motor skills.
Ill. Check toys for loose or broken parts.
A. 11 and 111
B. 1 and 111
C. 1, 11
D. 1, 11 and 111
II. Research Connection. Read a research on physical development of infants

and toddlers. Fill out the matrix below.

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Reflection
Having learned the physical development of infants and toddlers and

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, as a future parent or as caregiver of children, reflect on:
What you should do more often for infants and toddlers?

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What you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and
development?
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Lesson 14
Cognitive Development of
Infants and Toddlers
Overview
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby
thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills.
Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering' learning to
talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.
Learning Outcomes
 trace the cognitive development of infants and toddlers;

 identify factors that enhance/impede the cognitive development of
 present your own or others' research on the cognitive development of
 draw implications of cognitive development concepts to child care,
education and parenting.

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Activity
Read the story of Laurent, Lucienne and Jacqueline, three children of Piaget whom
he observed. After reading and re-reading, make a summary outline of the behaviors
of the three children separately. Don't forget to indicate the age of each child. This
can help you in the next activity.
Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline The following provide a glimpse of Piaget's
observations of his children's cognitive development in infancy (Piaget, 1952). These
are lifted from Santrock (2002).
• At 21 days of age, Laurent finds his thumb after three attempts; once he
finds his thumb, prolonged sucking begins. But, when he is placed on his back, he
doesni know how to coordinate the movement of his arms with that of his mouth; his
hands draw back, even when his lips seek them.
During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less importantto Laurent
because of new visual and auditory interests. But, when he cries, his thumb goes to
the rescue.
Toward the end, Lucienne's thrusts her feet at the doll and makes it move.
Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot for a second, then kicks at the doll again.
She has no visual control of her foot because her movements are the same whether
she only looks at the doll or it is placed over her head. By contrast, she does have
tactile control of her foot; when she tries to kick the doll and misses, she slows her
foot movements to improve her aim.
• At 11 months, while seated, Jacqueline shakes a little bell. She then pauses
abruptly so she can delicately place the bell in front of her right foot; then she kicks
the bell hard. Unable to recapture the bell, she grasps a ball and places it in the
same location where the bell was. She gives the ball a firm kick.
• At I year, 2 months, Jacqueline holds in her hands an object that is new to
her: a round, flat box that she turns over and shakes; then she rubs it against her
crib. She lets it go and 'tries to pick it up again. She succeeds only in touching it with
her index finger, being unable to fully reach and grasp it. She keeps trying to grasp it
and presses to the edge of her crib. She makes, the box tilt up, but it nonetheless
falls again. Jacqueline shows an interest in this result and studies the fallen box.
• At I year, 8 months, Jacqueline arrives at a closed door with a blade of grass
in each hand. She stretches her right hand toward the doorknob but detects that she
cannot turn it without letting go of the grass, so she puts the grass on the floor, opens
the door, picks up the grass again, and then enters. But, when she wants to leave the
room, things get complicated. She puts the grass on the floor and grasps
thedoorknob. Then she perceives that, by pulling the door toward her, she
simultaneously chases away the grass that she had placed between the door and the
threshold. She then picks up the grass and places it out of the door's range of
movement.
Summary Outline of the Behaviors of the Three Children
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Discussion
Sensorimotor stage
An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's

cognitive development shows that development begins from reflexive
behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive
development of infants evolves in orientation from becoming focused on
themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is action-
based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not involve much of
coordination of schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity
and from a thinking that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
Piaget's substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior
to the world involves repeated actions. Circular reactions are attempts to
repeat an event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building
blocks for intelligence (Pasek, P and Golinkoff, R, 2003).
Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant's own body,
whereas secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the environment
including others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she
doesn't know how to do it again. She waves her hand around and, after many

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attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to
do it at will (Pasek, K ånd R. Golinkoff, 2003).
Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve
recreating events which 4-10 month old babies observe outside of their own
bodies, such as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K
and R.Golinkoff, 2003).
Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is
when a baby does things over and over again, just a little differently each
time. e.g. When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over
again in many different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in
events. Piaget described the baby at this stage as "the scientist." When
parents don't understand their child's behavior, they see this act as abusive
and get frustrated.
From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby
discovers a pattern "objects fall down --- not up." They create the patterns with
their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern
seekers (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
"Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most
important accomplishments, according to Piaget." Object permanence is the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are not
immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant's acquisition of
the sense of object permanence, the principle that applies is "out of sight, out
of mind."
There are some criticisms of Piaget's theory on cognitive development.
One criticism from other developmental theorists is his fundamental
assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of
discontinuous spurts across task domains, tasks, and contexts. Many
theorists (e.g. Brainerd, 1978) believe that cognitive development occurs as a
continuous process rather than in discontinuous stages of development.
Recent studies in the cognitive development of infants support the view that
Piaget underestimated young infants' cognitive ability. Furthermore, Piaget's
methods of research were said to be quite loose, the fact that he simply
observed his three children and a few others which were limited only to
European children.
Learning and Remembering
Do infants learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning
have been proven to apply to infants. We'll ask you to research on researches
that prove this.
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that
happened when we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally, we can
remember little or nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5
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years, and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many memories before
age 3 years. Reports of childhood memories usually involve memories of
significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the death of a parent; Fivush and
Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults have recalled their own
hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far back as age 2 years, and the death of
a parent or a family move may be recalled from as far back as age 3 years (Usher
and Neisser, 1993).
I have 'vivid memories of my childhood as early as age 3. I remember the
deaths of a baby brother and a baby sister in a row. Before age 3, I have a vivid
picture of my father carrying me home in his arms after he was informed that I was
chilling due to very high fever in my grandmother's house.
Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic

environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have
remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus,
Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997, 1999 cited by Stemberg,
Robert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through the
following stages in producing language (Sternberg, 2003):
1. Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most

people's ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from different
language groups sounds very similar
3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels and
the consonants they utilize (Ingram, 1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with

continuing vocabulary acquisition
The infant utters his /her first word- followed by one or two more, and soon
after, yet a few more. The infant uses these one word utterances termed holophrases
—to convey intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words are nouns
describing familiar objects that the child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants
(e.g. Mama, Dada)
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words

(Siegler, 1986). Because the young child's vocabulary is very limited at this point in
the development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his/her
existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word is lacking. For
example the general term for any kind of four-legged animal may be "doggie." In
linguistics this is called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single
words to produce two-word utterances. These two word or three-word utterances

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with rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as
telegraphic speech.
Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about
2 years of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years of age. At about 4 years,
incredibly children acquire the foundations of adult syntax and language structure
(Stemberg, 2003).
It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of

telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acquisition of language comes
in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling, to one-word utterances, to two - or
three-word utterances or even more but without articles and prepositions thus called
telegraphic speech.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have an
innate language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a "metaphorical organ that is
responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this
language acquisition device is preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the
language community children find themselves in."
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be

ready to acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an
implicit understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well as for applying
those rules to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why
children are said to learn language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New

Hampshire and her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded that "by 5
months of age, babies are already specializing by using the left side of their brains for
language sounds and the right side for expression emotion.... We all speak out from
the' right side of our mouths. ...Babies babble out from the right side of their mouths."
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the
left side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the
brain are contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right side of their mouths for
babbling, then babbling is a language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
Evaluation
I. Observation Checklist
1. Observe one 1) 0-6 months infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13- 18 months
infant and 4) 19-24 month old infant. Refer to "What Infants and Toddlers Can Do
Cognitively" from Childhood Care and Development (ECCD). Put a check (V) on
those items that you observed the infants/toddler demonstrated.
2. Share your observations. What did you observe that they can do? cannot
do? Why so?

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A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively DOMAIN:
LANGUAGE, PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH LANGUAGE (RECEPTIVE
LANGUAGE)

O - 6 months
_____ Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her
7 - 12 month'
______ Understands "No"
______ Points to family member when asked to do so
13 - 18 months
_____ Points to 5 body parts on him/herself when asked to do so
_____ Follows one-step instructions without need for gestures
19 - 24 months
______ Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
Standards 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his
thoughts and feelings.

O - 6 months
______ Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
______ Uses gestures (e.g., stretching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what he
Ishe
wants
7 - 12 months
_____ Repeats sounds produced by others
_____ Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
_____ Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.g., meow-meow for cat)
_____ Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment (e.g.,
boom for thunder)
13 - 18 months
_____ Speaks in single words

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_____ Says "yes" and "no" appropriately
_____ Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
_____ Responds to simple questions with single words
19 - 24 months
_____ Uses pronouns
______ Uses possessive pronoun'
______ Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
______ Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)
Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes,
symbols.

7 - 12 months
_____ Able to match 2 identical objects (e.g., 2 spoons, 2 balls)
19 - 24 months
_____ Matches identical objects
_____ Matches identical pictures
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING)
Standards 1.2: The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in
sequence.

19 - 24 months
_____ Counts from 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
Domain: Cognitive Development
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age-expected levels.

O - 6 months
_____ Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g., rattle, dangling toy)

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7 - 12 months
_____ Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.g.,
pulling apart)
_____ Looks with interest at picture books
_____ Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13 - 18 months
_____ May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
_____ Resists interruption while engaged in play
II. Essay
1. You have learned that past events recalled as early as two are those that
had personal significance. Does this apply even after age 2? What do you think? If
you think yes, what does this imply to your future teaching?
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III. Research Connection. Read a research related to cognitive development

of infants and toddlers. Give a summary of the research by filling out the matrix
below.

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Reflection

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Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and the first year of pre-operational
stage of cognitive development, reflect on how you as a future mother or nursery
teacher can:
1. enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development or
2. impede infants and toddler’s cognitive development
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Lesson 15
Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
Overview
Simply put, socio-emotional development has something to do with
the development of a person's ability to master one's emotions and the ability to
relate to others. It necessarily includes temperament, attachments and social skills.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.

 identify factors that enhance/impede the socio-emotional development
of infants and toddlers.
 present an abstract of others' or your own research related to the
socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.

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 draw implications of socio-emotional development concepts to child
care, education and parenting.
ACTIVITY
Read Nolte's poem then answer the following questions:
l. Do you agree with D. Nolte's poem?
2. Which line of the poem is most meaningful to you? Explain.
Children Learn What They Live
If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn...
If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight...
If a child lives, with feår, he learns to be apprehensive...
If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for himself…
If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy…
If a child lives with jealousy, he learns to feel guilt
But...
If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient…
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns to be confident…
If a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative…
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love…
If a child lives with honesty, he learns to what truth is…
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice...

If a child security, he learns to have faith in himself and those about him…
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place in which to
live..
With what is your child living?
Dorothy L. Nolte, Trained Family Counselor
Analysis
1. Based on Nolte's poem, which plays a very important role in the socio-
emotional development of children?
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2. From what kind of home environment do children who are well adjusted
most probably come? What about maladjusted children?
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3. State in a sentence what the poem is saying about a child's socio-
emotional development.
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Discussion
The Formative Years
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human
development. They are so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other
caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the
development of infants and toddlers.
As the poem "Children Learn What They Live" expresses, the kind of home
and school environment that parents and teachers produce determines to a very
great extent the quality of the development of children.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome
socio-emotional development of children.
Attachment
For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an

enduring emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain

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closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social
phenomenon of attachment.
According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings
of attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby's life with a variety of built-in
signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her
mother's eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her degree
of attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any stranger
whom she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have experienced. (See
quote below the title of this Module).
The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of
responsive interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and R.Golinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive
on social interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us
know when they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver's response to the
baby is important.
Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K.Pasek and R.

Golinkoff, (2003) in their book "Einstein Never Used Classcards" are given below:
• What is absolutely central to babies' emotional well-being is not so much

feeding but the consistent involvement of caregivers. Being fed by your mother is
not what attached you to her. .1t is consistent, close nurturing that matters in early
relationships.
Children who have good attachment relationships as infants make better

adjustments in a number of areas in future life. But remember, having a good
attachment in infancy gives you a great start but can't carry you through life. You
have to be treated sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you are to develop
favorably.
Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are developing emotional
relationships with multiple caregivers at once.
• Even when chifdren are in child care for more than 30 hours per week, the
family contributes more to child's social and cognitive well-being than does the child
care arrangement. Parents matter and children are attached to parents even when
children are in child care.
• Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by working with
them and by serving as their models.
Temperament
1. Another factor related to the infant's socio-emotional development is

temperament. Temperament is a word that "captures the ways that people differ,
even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention span,
persistence, and ability to regulate their emotions" (K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
Every 'baby expresses personality traits we call temperament. How a child responds
emotionally to objects, events, and people is a reflection of his individual
temperament.

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2. Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different
temperament categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-
Toddler Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
Activity level
Mood
Threshold for distress
Rhythmicity
Intensity of response
Approach-Withdrawal
Distractibility
Adaptability
Persistence
To determine a child's temperament, make the following observations:
Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about
a lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched
carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely
attached emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more
solemn or unhappy.
Child's threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive They
become upset very easily when stressed. Other babiescan more comfortably wait
when they need a feeding or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly

regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate or have
bowel movements at times, and get hungry at different times. They are hard to put
ona "schedule."
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby's threshold for

distress has been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a
little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed.
They shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reactingto happy or
challenging situations.
Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious.They are wary
and fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a
new setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new play
possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy of surrounding bustle or

noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.

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Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange a difficult
situations with distress, but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with
difficulty or after a very Iong period.
Child's attention span. Some children have a long attention span. They
continue with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity to another.
Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and

Stella Chess studied babies' temperament and clustered temperaments into 3 basic
types: 1) the easy child;2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow-to-warm -up Child and
those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The "easy child" easily readily
establishes regular routines, \is generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new
experiences The "difficult child" is irregular in daily routines, is slow. to accept new
experiences and tends to react negatively intensely fo new things while the "slow-to
warm-up-child" shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental changes, negative in
mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences.
The development of emotions
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler's emotional development
and social development:
Early infancy (birth-six months)
It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using

adult facial expressions as the standard, simply superimpose their own
understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by
other pleasure-indicative actions and sounds, including cooing and mouthing. This
social smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in

response to a wider variety of contexts. They may smile when they see a toy they
have previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or four months,
requires a level of cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child can
recognize incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that deviate from
the norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver playing peek-a-boo.
Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others, laughter promotes social
development.
Later infancy months (7-12)
During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust,
and anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed by
crying, a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants respond to
distressing events with sadness, anger is more common.
Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an
unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear
responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult stranger, a
fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is

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called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the
mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is

significant in the infant's acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional display,
teaching them how to express their emotions, and the degree of acceptability
associated with different types of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants
begin to recognize the emotions of others, and use this information when reacting to
novel situations and people. As infants explore their world, they generally rely on the
emotional expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety or
appropriateness of a particular endeavor.
Toddlerhood years (1-2)
During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or

embarrassment and pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults
contribute to their development.
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are leaming
to Verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is during early
toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills.
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional
states. If they are uncomfortable they may be able to communicate this state by
crying, but have little hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their

emotions with the emergence of language providing an important tool to assist in this
process. Being able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a regulatory effect in
that it enables children to communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping
them manage their emotional state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate,
using soothing language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in

toddlerhood, usually by age two. The development of empathy requires that children
read others' emotional cues, understand that other people are entities distinct from
themselves, and take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the.
position of another). (Source: http://psychology/jrank.org).
Erikson's Psychosocial theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person's psychosocial development)
apply at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed
below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
• Virtue: Hope

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The first stage of Erik Erikson's centers around the infant's basic needs being
met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for
food, sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and
society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents
expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of
the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment
and to meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik
Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other
people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are
consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others
are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the
infant instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable,
and possibly a dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Main Question: "Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?"
• Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they
begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security
from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and
encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however,
are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new
challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become

capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash
and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient
behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy- a sense of being able to handle
manyproblems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to
let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts 'at self-
sumciency, children may instead develop shame' and doubt about their ability to
handle problems (en.wikipedia. org.wiki.Erikson's-stages-of-psychosocial-
development-)
Evaluation
1. Observe one l) 0-6 months infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13- 18 months
infant and 4) *19-24 month old infant. Refer to "What Infants and Toddlers Can Do
Socio-emotionally" from Childhood Care and Development (ECCD). Put a check (V)
on those items that you observed the infants/toddler demonstrated.
A Summary of What Toddlers and Infants Can Do Socio-emotionally
Domain: Social and Emotional Development
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION)
Standards 1.1: The child expresses different basic emotions.

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O - 6 months
_____ Cries in different ways to express different needs (e.g., hungry, sleepy, wet)
_____ Shows excitement or pleasure by moving arms, kicking, moving the entire
body and the face lighting up
_____ Smiles or laughs in response to a pleasant experience (e.g., caregiver singing

to him/her)
_____ Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements without objects (e.g.,
rolling back and forth)
_____ Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements with objects (e.g.,
shaking, rattle)
_____ Likes playing with water
_____ Enjoys going to the park
_____ Shows fear and hesitation towards unfamiliar persons
7 - 12 months
_____ Has a favorite toy
13 - 18 months
______ Smiles/laughs when happy or amused
______ Cries when sad, angry or scared
______ Shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions
Standards 1.2: The child demonstrates ability to self-regulate feelings/emotions and

follows schedules as well as rules and regulations.
0 - 6 months
_____ Stops crying almost immediately when need is met
_____ Eventually gets used to anhrritating experience (e.g., honking horn) and
calms down
13 - 18 months
_____ Able to stop an undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so (e.g.,

going out to street)
_____ Can calm down or stop tantruming with help from adults
______ Can follow simple rules
19 - 24 months

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_____ Can wait his/her tum
_____ Shows ability to contain his/her expression of anger or frustration when

source is removed
_____ Shows ability to contain one's expression of anger or frustration in a public

place
when asked by parent/ caregiver
_____ Tries to control his tears when in pain or scared
Standards 1.3: The child comprehends and displays self-appraisal emotions (shame,
pride, guilt).
7 - 12 months
_____ Smiles or claps his hands when he/she displays a learned behavior (e.g.,
close-open)
13 - 18 months
_____ Recognizes and is able to label self appraisal emotions such as shame, pride,
guilt, envy, jealousy
_____ Will do something that gets him/her praised (e.g., doing a task properly,
singing, etc.)
19 - 24 months
_____ Shows interest in doing things that are his lher own creation
_____ Says "sorry" when he/she has made a mistake or has hurt someone
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (RECEPTIVITY TO OTHER'S EMOTIONS)
Standards 1: The child is receptive to the different emotions of other people and
shows
empathy.

7 - 12 months
_____ Can mimic people's facial expressions
13 - 18 months
_____ Demonstrates appropriate/acceptable responses to other people's emotions

(e.g., does not laugh at someone who is crying)
19 - 24 months
_____ Identifies feelings in others
_____ Shows respect for rights and properties of others (e.g., asks permission, does
not deliberately destroy others' things)

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II. TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. What does the social phenomenon of attachment mean in an infant's and

toddler's healthy socio-emotional development?
— Understanding
A. The infant/toddler wants to interact with people and the world
B. understands that mother continues to exist even if she is not seen
C. needs to establish an enduring emotional bond manifested in a tendency

to
maintain closeness to a specific figure
D. thrives on social interaction
2. Which is/are TRUE of the infant and toddler socio- emotionally? —

Analysis
I. Can Self-regulate feelings/emotions
Il. Capable of empathy
Ill. Develops healthy attachments to significant adults
A. 1 and 11
B. 11 and 111
C. 1 and 111
D. 1, 11 and 111
3. Which does an infant learn when caregivers are neglectful or even

abusive?
— Understanding
I. Learns mistrust
Il. Learns trust
Ill. Learns that the world is hostile
A. 1 and 111
B. 11 and 111
c. 1, 11
D. 1, 11 and 111
II. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to socio-emotional

development of infants and toddlers. Fill out the matrix below.

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129
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Reflection
Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents about your
first two years in the world, reflect on the kind of micro system as explained by
Brofenbrenner that you have had as an infant and as a child. How has it affected
you?
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Lesson 16
Preschoolers’ Physical Development

Overview
The preschooler years is commonly known as "the years before formal
schooling begins." It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the
years before formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school
years. The preschool years is very important as it lays foundation to later
development. At this stage, preschoolers achieve many developmental milestones.

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As such, pre-service teachers who might be interested to teach and care for
preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be fruly an intentional and
effective teacher. This Module on the physical development of preschoolers focuses
on the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition
and sleep, and what teachers and caregivers should do to maximize the
preschoolers' development.
Learning Outcomes
 describe preschool children's physical growth.

 identify the different gross and fine motor skills.
 draw implications of these concepts on physical development on teaching
preschoolers.
ACTIVITY
Examine the pictures below. Think about the physical characteristics of
preschoolers. Put a caption for the pictures.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________
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Discussion
From the activity, you were able to see a glimpse of preschoolers' physical
development. They love to move. They enjoy being active. They are also interested
to work with their fingers, like with blocks. They have a more balanced stance than
toddlers. Read on and you will learn more about the typical physical development of
preschoolers, the important concerns and issues, and how teachers and caregivers
can help maximize the preschoolers' growth and development.
Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.
2. The preschoolers' physical development is marked by the acquisition of

gross and fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and

development of preschoolers.

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6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well
with the appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.
Significant Changes in Physical Growth
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower

in pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers
move, from the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more slender
appearance of a child. The trunk, arms and legs become longer.
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is evenly

distributed. Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level, about the chest level.
This is why they have difficulty doing sudden movements without falling down.
Preschoolers on the other hand, have their center of gravity at a lower level, right
about near the belly button. This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced
than the toddler. The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to
a more steady bearing. They no longer "toddle," that wobbly way that toddlers walk.
This also allows the preschooler to move more "successfully" than the toddler. Some
say that the later part of the preschooler years at around5 or 6 is the best time to
begin learning skills that require balance like riding a bike or skating.
By the time the child reaches three years old, all primary or deciduous, or
what are also called "baby or milk" teeth are already in place. The permanent teeth
which will-begin to come out by age six are also developing. The preschooler years
are therefore a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large
muscles. These gross motor skills are categorized into three: are those that involve
going from one place to another, like walking, running, climbing, skipping, hopping,
creeping, galloping, and dodging. Non-locomotor ones are those where the child
stays in place, like bending, stretching, turning and swaying. Manipulative skills are
those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing,
catching and dribbling.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest

around three and becomes a little less as the preschooler gets older. Preschoolers
should be provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow them to use
their large muscles. Regular physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain
healthy bones, muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or
delay hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase capacity
for learning.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller
muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here
are picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding and using a writing
implement. It also involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating,
buttoning, zipping, combing and brushing.
Different environments provide different experiences with fine motor skills. For
example the availability of information and communications technology in largely

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urban areas makes younger and younger children proficient in keyboarding and
manipulation of the mouse and the use of smart phones and tablets. While other
children use their fine motor skills in digging in soil, making toys out of sticks, cans
and bottle caps. Still others, enjoy clay, play dough, and finger paint.
By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with
their thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and
threading activities. They can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up
independently. Significant. progress in fine motor skills can be expected of
preschoolers especially if they are aptly supported and appropriate activities are
provided for them. Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the
other, is usually established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this, preschoolers
can be observed to do tasks using tneir hands interchangeably. We canobserve a
preschooler shifting the crayon from left to right and back again while working on a
coloring activity.
Preschoolers' Artistic Development
At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of
artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor
Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood:
Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which
later become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may
start to name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representations

(This also becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development).
At this point adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend
to give the same names to their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise
of a prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial
features are included.
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children

usually draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees,
the sun and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually
drawings appear to follow a ground line.
Everyone who observes a preschooler go through these stages of drawing

would surely say one thing: that the preschooler drew the same drawing maybe a
hundred times! Repetition is the hallmark of early drawing. One wonders if the supply
of scratch papers, crayons and pens will ever be enough. Adults should remember to
have a neat supply of these or they will find the preschoolers' drawings on the
furniture and walls! This affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of the
fine motors skills involved.
Also important to remember is that the preschoolers' representations or

drawings does not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children's
drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they understand themselves and the
world around them.
Preschoolers' Nutrition and Sleep

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The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical
growth and development. The preschooler's nutritional status is the result of what
nutrients he or she actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for
his her age. Obviously, having too much or too little both have their negative effects.
Here in our country, we can see the extreme of preschoolers not having enough food
and those on the other end of the extreme where we find preschoolers who are not
just over weight but obese. The celebration of the Nutrition month every July is aimed
at advocating for proper nutrition. Each year a theme is put forth to advocate good
nutritional habits while government programs on giving out fortified bread, milk and
even noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep.

Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are
asleep that vital biological processes that affect physical and cognitive development
take place. During sleep, especially in the dream state (rapid eye movement stage),
growth hormones are released. Blood supply to the muscles are likewise increased
helping preschoolers regain energy. At this state while dreaming, increased brain
activity is also attained.
A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do: (physical skills)
This bulleted list of preschoolers' physical skills is lifted from the Physical
Domain component of the Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards
(ELDS). This set of standards was based on a study commissioned by UNICEF and
the Child Welfare Council (CWC) . This is now adopted for use by the Early
Childhood Care Development Council.
Gross Motor: 36-48 months
 Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot

 Skips (with alternating feet)
 Jumps and turns
 Stands on one leg without falling for at least 5 seconds
 Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
 Throws a ball overhead with control of speed
 Kicks a ball with control of speed
Fine-motor Skills:
36-48 Months
Consistently tårns pages of a picture or story book one page at a time,

looking at pictures with interest
Purposefully copies diagonal lines
Purposefully bisects a cross
Purposefully copies a square
Purposefully copies a triangle

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Cuts with scissors following a line
49-60 months
• Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes
Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs, etc.) without
prompts
Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
Colors with strokes staying within the lines
Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills)
36-48 months
Pours from pitcher without spillage
Feeds self using spoon without spillage
Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces
Puts on socks independently
49-60 months
Feeds self using fingers without spillage
Prepares own food
Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying
Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement
Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
Washes and dries face independently without having to be told
Takes a bath independently without having to be told
The Role of Caregivers in the Growth and DeVelopment of the Preschooler

Optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced by the
supportive caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a stimulating environment
and appropriate activities for the children. If you have friends and relatives who are
responsible for preschoolers, read and share the following tips: (This collection
includes those suggested by Lesia Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension
Specialist, Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa State University)
For all preschoolers:
a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and

walking.
b. Provide thein with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls
and bean bags,

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c. Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and
lines on the classroom floor or playground. Montessori schools have blue or red lines
on their preschool classroom floors.
d. Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play. like in a grassy area or soft
mats. Keen observation and monitoring is, of course expected to keep them safe
from injury.
e. Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine for
bed time is ideal.
f. Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more fruits,

vegetables, water and fresh juices, rather than processed foods, sugary snacks and
sodas.
For three-year-old
g. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large

buttons or old beads to string on a shoe lace.
h. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different
sizes.
i. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck,
slither like a snake, and run like a deer.
j. Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking "what" children are
drawing. Three-year-olds may not know or care, but simply enjoy the process of
drawing.
k. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create collages

from magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage children to
experiment with new media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yarn. Teach
children to mix different colors with paint.
For four-year-olds
l. Encourage physical development. Play follow the leader. Pretend to walk

like various animals.
m. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling,

climbing, leaping, balancing, and running across stepping stones.
n. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.
For five-year-olds
o. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing "Follow the

Leader" with skipping, galloping, and hopping. Skip or jump rope to music, teach folk
dances and games, provide a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted rope
suspended from a sturdy frame,
p. Teach sack-walking and twist-em," "statue," or "freeze" games to provide

an outlet for their drive for physical activity.

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q. Play games that can teach right and left directions, like "Hokey- Pokey,"
"Looby-Loo," and "Simon Says."
r. Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out coupons.
Evaluation
I. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of
preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take pictures. Describe the
gross and fine motor skills that you saw them do.
Physical Domain Skills Proposed Learning Activities
Cognitive Domain Skills Socio-emotional Domain Skill
II. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to one of the big
ideas on the physical development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.

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Reflection
From the module on the Physical Development of Preschoolers, I realized

that…
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Lesson 17

139
Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers
Overview
Someone once wrote in his journal: "Childhood is a world of miracle and
wonder; as if creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and
astonishing. The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the
world seems familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has become an
adult.' Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you
remember how you were as a preschooler? What do you remember most as a
preschooler? What did you enjoy doing?
Learning Outcomes
 describe the cognitive development that takes place among

preschoolers;
 apply concepts on preschoolers' cognitive development in
preschool teaching and in child care; and
 take an informed stand/position on current preschool teaching
practices.
ACTIVITY
Below are behaviors or remarks from children. Your early childhood experiences may
help you arrive at the correct answer. Put a check (V) on the item that is TRUE of
preschoolers and an X on the item that does NOT apply to preschoolers.
_____ 1. "Someone switched on the thunder," a child remarked.
_____ 2. Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his Father who is on the
other side of the phone inquiring if Mom is around.
_____ 3. "That tree 'pushed the leaf off and it fell down," says a child.
_____ 4. A child is presented with two identical beakers each filled to the same level
with liquid. The child is asked if these beakers have the same amount and she says
YES. The liquid from one beaker is poured into a third beaker, which is taller and
thinner than the first two. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin
beaker is equal to that which remains in one the original beakers. The child says
YES.
_____ 5. Child asks a series of "why" questions.
_____ 6. Child is strongly influenced by the features of the task that stand out, such
as the flashy, attractive clown.
_____ 7. Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of the task such as
directions for solving a problem and not on the prominent clown, for instance.
_____ 8. Jun does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back into
the juice box from which it came. Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his

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younger sister. Mike's younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his
younger sister got sick.
ANALYSIS
Give reasons for your answers. Bring in your childhood experiences as you share
your answers. Try to arrive at a consensus.
1. Which item/s is/are TRUE of preschool children?
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2. Which item/s is/are NOT TRUE of preschool children?
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Answering the items above made you think about your own views or assumptions
about the preschoolers' cognitive development. You were also once in that world of
bursting curiosity wanting to know about the world around you. Read through the
module and you will surely understand the way preschoolers think and learn. You will
also learn about how as a future teacher or parent, you can best contribute to the
preschoolers' cognitive development.
Discussion
Preschooler.' Symbölic and Intuitive Thinking
All the behaviors and the remarks above except Items #4 and #7 are true of
preschool children. They are considered immature aspects or limitations of preschool
children's preoperational thought according to Piaget.
There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought, namely, symbolic

substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic stage, preschool children show
progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present,
by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive
substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a litany of
questions. The development in their language ability facilitates their endless asking of
questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their
improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations,
Items # I (Someone switched on the thunder.) and # 3 (That tree pushed the
leaf off and it fell down.), for example, indicate limitation on preschool children's
symbolic thought process. The remarks indicate that preschool children believe that
inanimate objects have 'lifelike' qualities and are capable of action. This is referred to
as animism (Santrock, 2002).
Preschool children who use animism fail to distinguish the appropriate

occasions for using human and nonhuman perspectives. However, the fact .that they
attribute the falling of the leaf and the thunder to a "cause" proves that preschool

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children realize that events have causes, although the perceived causes are not
correct.
Item # 2, "Child silently nods on the telephone as to answer his Father who is
on the other side of phone inquiring if Mom is around," is another limitation in
preschool children's symbolic thought. Piaget calls this egocentrism, the inability to
distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective
(Santrock, 2002). The child thinks that his father can see him just as he can see
himself.
Item # 4, should apply to preschool children had the child answered NO when
asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker was equal to that which remained
in the original beakers. Preschool children are quite limited in their intuitive thought
process. The amount of liquid that was transferred to the third beaker which was
taller but thinner than the original beaker remains unchanged, However, preschool
children are drawn to only to the height of the liquid when seen in the thinner an taller
beaker and fail to consider the width of the beaker.
This is a clear evidence of centration, one limitation of the preschool child's

preoperational thought, which is the focusing or on centering of one's attention on
one characteristic to the exclusion of others (Santrock, 2002). In this case, the focus
is only on the height of the beaker to the exclusion of the width of the beaker which is
clearly another factor that should be taken into consideration. This is also referred to
as unidimensional thought. This is also an evidence of preschool children's lack of
conservation, the awareness that the basic property of an object or a substance is
conserved (is not changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed. (Santrock,
2002).
Child asks a series Of "why" questions Item # 5. Preschool children ask a

barrage of questions. These signal the emergence of the preschool children's interest
in reasoning and in figuring out why things are the way they are. Their asking
questions is a function of their unsatiable curiosity coupled with the dramatic increase
in language.
Items # 6 and # 7 have something to do with preschool children's attention.

Between items # 6 and #7, item # 6 ( ... strongly influenced by the features of the
task that stand out, such as the flashy, attractive clown) applies to preschool children.
Because the preschool child pays more attention to the strikingly conspicuous
peripherals, they miss the more relevant and more important features needed in
problem solving or in task performance. This is obviously manifested when between
two wrapped gifts, one with a big, colorful ribbon and the other without, a preschool
child chooses the one with a prominent ribbon.
Item # 8 (Child does not-realize that the juice in each glass can be poured
back into the juice box from which it came). indicates irreversibility, Piaget's term for
a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more
directions. Once Jun can imagine restoring the original state of the water by pouring
it back into the other glass, he will realize that the amount of water in both glasses
must be the same. Unfortunately, however, in his developmental stage he is not yet
capable of reversible thinking. He is not yet capable of working backwards.

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Item # 9 (Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister.
Mike's younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his younger sister got
sick) shows that preschool children do hot use deductive or inductive reasoning;
instead they jump from one particular to another and see cause where none exists.
This is transductive reasoning.
While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as you have

seen in the Activity, they are making significant advancements in their cognitive
abilities like the acquisition of symbolic thought. Symbolic thought is shown in
preschool children's ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. They
do not need to be in sensorimotor contact with an object, person, or event in order to
think about it. Johann asks his Mom about the giraffe they saw in the zoo five months
ago. Moreover, preschool children can imagine that objects or people have
properties other than those they actually have. Mark imagines that his one-foot ruler
is a saw while he pretends to saw a piece of wood.
Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading, and writing when, for
instance, children pretend that one thing represents another such as a wooden block
used as a microphone in a magic sing and when they pretend to be dog Bantay while
in a sociodramatic play. In reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for
events in a story and that letters represent sounds used in language.
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of

young children have been of great interest to the field of early childhood. Brain
research findings point us to more effective ways to care for and teach preschoolers.
From science lessons you had in high school or even in elementary, you will
remember that our brain is composed of numerous cells called neurons that connect
to each other to function. Cell connections are what we call synapses, sometimes
also referred to. as synaptic connections. Did you know that: the human brain
contains some 50 billion neurons at birth? by age 2, children have developed half of
the brain cell connections that will be made during one's lifetime? around 6 years of
age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking patterns?
All these facts point to the enormous potential that the preschooler's brain
has. The child's billion cells have the ability to make almost countless connections
that prepare the child for intricate pathways to learn language, acquire logical-
mathematical skills, interact with people, grow in. his feelings and emotions, and
even express himself in art. As such, a preschool teacher would often observe how a
child now has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud and independent
preschooler Who can now eat more neatly, enjoy "reading" a book, tell his own
stories among friends, build beautiful block structures and wear his jacket all by
himself.
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment.
Experts have shown specific areas. of brain activity that respond to environmental
stimulation. Therefore, the brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are
different for each

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person. The quality of these connections depends on the quality of stimulation and
exposure provided by the environment. In the preschool years, a supportive and
stimulating environment is that which offers many experiences involving the different
senses (multi- sensorial), and that which allows the child to think, imagine and create
is best. This environment can be provided for by a good combination of a healthy and
functional family environment and a quality preschool program. What did that milk
commercial say? Oh expose...explore...experience. May we add, all these lead to
yes... exponential brain development!
Just as an enriching environment favors the preschooler's brain development,

strong evidence also show that highly stressful environments marred by trauma and
chaos affect the cognitive development of preschoolers. High levels of stress
hormones such as cortisol may lead to diminished brain growth in areas needed for
memory, learning and emotional attachment. It may also lead to anxiety and
hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. It's not only the extreme form of negative
environment that negatively affects the preschooler's brain. An environment that
lacks the proper stimulating experiences can also cause damage. Preschools who
make children work with nothing but work sheets and pictures instead of real life,
hands-on experiences do more harm than good. As future teachers, always be aware
of your defining role in providing a quality environment that will lead to optimum brain
development for preschoolers.
Language Development
Young children's understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech.
As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language

increases (morphology, semantics, pragmatics).
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children

rapidly conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas,
people, and things. Throughout the preschool years, children's language
development becomes increasingly complex in the four main areas: phonology
(speech sounds), semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence construction), and
pragmatics (conversation or social uses of language). As they advance in age and as
they continuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb the meaning of
a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. Preschool children
combine syllables into words and words into sentences in an increasingly
sophisticated manner.
It is not uncommon to hear preschool children using "goed" childs" for

"children," "runned" for for "went," "foots" for "feet, "ran" an overéxtension of the
rules. A three-year old laughing with delight as an abrupt summer breeze stirred his
hair and tickled his skin, commented, "It did winding me!" Another child said, "My
father hatches the wood," meaning his father chops the wood with a hatchet. Many of
the oddities of young children's language sound like mistakes to adult listeners, but
from the children's perspective, they are not.
In asking questions, preschoolers tend to cling to a consistent word order and

so they form questions not by following the pattern "subject-verb-object" order but. by

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simply saying with a rising intonation the sentence in the natural order such as
"Mother is coming?" Likewise, preschool children tend to have difficulty with the
sentence in the passive voice. When told, "The car was pushed by a truck,"
preschoolers demonstrate a car pushing a truck.
From an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool children

learn to use language. 'successfully in social contexts (pragmatics). With an
expanded vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool children become skilled
conversationalists and often initiate conversation.
Parents, teachers, and caregivers can monitor a child's language

development in these four areas to identify where some children may struggle.
Children with mild to severe speech diffculties can be referred to a specially trained
professional called a speech pathologist in order to work with the child or suggest
helpful strategies for caregivers to improve language proficiency.
Language and Social Interaction
Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate

socially and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion -
called inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is
an important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development
requires social interaction and language. Children must use language to
communicate with others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock,
2002). This implies the importance of interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for
language development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest
cognitive development (language development included) on their own and that they
can improve their cognitive development through use of scaffolding from more-skilled
children and adults. He introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to
refer to tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the
guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock, 2002). In short,
the ZPD captures the preschool children’s cognitive skills that are in the process of
maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is
"the level of cognitive development reached by the preschool child independently.
The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor." (Santrock, 2002)
Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is

the concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing support over the course
of a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the
child's current performance level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is .1so
called More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Can you think of ways of scaffolding
preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and language development?
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory
The Information Processing model is another way of examining and

understanding how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children's

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mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing,
and decoding data.
The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers. The child's
ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool. years.
But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention is focused
only on aspects that stand out at the expense of those that are relevant to solving a
problem to performing well on a task . Preschool children recognize previously
encountered information, recall old information, and reconstruct it in the present. Try
asking a preschooler what she did on Christmas vacation when she returns to
preschool after the holiday. She will be able to.
Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool years are
those involving short-term memory. In short-term memory, (STM) retain information
for up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep
information in STM for a much longer period (Santrock, 2002).
Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: a) rehearsal and
b) speed and efficiency of processing information. Older children rehearse items
more than younger children. On this count, preschool children may have shorter
memory span than primary and intermediate pupils. The speed with which a child
processes information is an important aspect of the child's cognitive abilities.
Between the ages of 2 and 5, long-term memory also begins to form, which is
why most people cannot remember anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or 3.
Part of long-term memory involves storing information about the sequence of

events during familiar situations as "scripts." Scripts help children understand,
interpret, and predict what will happen in future scenarios. For example, children
understand that entering the classroom as a class after the flag ceremony involves a
specific sequence of steps: one bell means put cross your hands right over left on
your chest, two bells mean pass quietly and follow the line until you reach your seat.
Children ages 2 through 5 also start to recognize that there are often multiple ways to
solve a problem and can brainstorm different (though sometimes primitive) solutions.
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to focus and use their
cognitive abilities for specific purposes. For example, children can learn to pay
attention to and memorize lists of words or facts. This skill is obviously crucial for
children starting school who need to learn new information, retain it and produce it for
tests and other academic activities. Children of this age have also developed a larger
overall capacity to process information. This expanding information processing
capacity allows young children to make connections between old and new
information. For example, children can use their knowledge of the alphabet and letter
sounds (phonics) to start sounding out and reading ,words. During this age,'
children's knowledge base also continues to grow and become better organized.
(http://www.milestonecentersinc.org)
In early childhood, as information-processing increases in speed, memory

becomes increasingly longer. Young children can remember a great deal of
information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts. Sometimes, however, the

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memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these inconsistencies may be to
some degree the result of inadequate prompts and cues. Rehearsal and organizing
information are deliberate mental activities that can be employed to improve the
processing of information. Young children typically, however, do not use rehearsal
and organization.
The Young Children's Theory of Mind
Theory of mind refers to individuals' thoughts about how mental processes

work (Santrock, 2002).
By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer
to needs, emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, "I forgot my
doll, I want my ice cream," these imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists.
Cognitive terms such as know, remember, and think usually appear after perceptual
and emotional terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
As their representation of the world and ability to remember and solve

problems improve, children start to reflect on their own thought processes. They
begin to construct a theory of mind or a set of ideas about mental activities
(Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007). This develops markedly between the
ages of three and five. It includes awareness of one's own thought processes, social
cognition, understanding that people can • hold false beliefs, ability to deceive, ability
to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish fantasy from reality
(Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a young age?

Various speculations and research findings suggest that social experience is very
important. Social experience includes l) early forms of communication, 2) imitation, 3)
make-believe play, 4) language, and 5) social interaction. (Preschoolers Cognitive
Development, 2007).
Receptive Language
Standards 1; The child is able to understand both verbal and non- verbal
forms of communication.
31-36 months: 3-4 years old
Speaks in simple sentences
Talks about an event and is understood
37-48 months
Uses some prepositions
Uses plurals
Uses past tense
Uses newly learned words appropriately in sentences
Uses newly learned words appropriately when in group conversations

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Draws and tells a story about his drawing
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Matching)
Standards 1.1; The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes,
symbols.
31-36 months: 2-1/2 to 3 years old
Matches identical objects with 2 attributes (e.g., color & shape)
Matches identical upper case letters
Matches identical lower case letters
Copies simple pattems with 2 or more atfributes (e.g, color, shape, sequence)
and continues this without guidance
Recognizes familiar logos (e.g., McDonald's, Coke, etc.)
Recognizes signs (e.g., male & female restrooms; stop and go;
danger/poison, etc.)
Matches identical 2-to 4-letter words
Matches identical single-digit numbers
Matches identical 2-digit numbers
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Copying Letters and Numbers)
Standards 1.2: The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in
sequence.
Prints upper-case letters with a model with some reversals
Prints complete name without model
Prints upper case letters with a model with no reversals
Prints lower case letters with a model with some reversals
Prints numbers 1-5 with amodel with some reversals
61-71 months; 5-6 years old
Prints upper case letters without a model and with no reversals
Prints lower case letters without a model and with no reversals
Prints numbers 1-5 without a model and with no reversals

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Domain: Cognitive Development
Attention and Activity Level
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity
at age-expected levels.
31 - 36 months: 2-1/2 to 3 years old
Completes simple tasks without prodding
37 - 48 months: 3-4 years old
May be distracted but re-focuses on his/her own
Remains settled while leafing through a picture book for 5 minutes
Remains settled while listening to a story using picture books for 5 minutes
Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for 10 minutes
Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for 15-20 minutes
Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
Can work on a school assignment independently
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Concept Formation)
Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object

constancy, space, time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for
understanding how materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
31 - 36 months: 2-1/2 to 3 years old
Knows the difference between a recent event and one that happened a long
time ago
Counts with one-to-one correspondence
Understands the concept of number-quantity relations from I through 5 (e.g.,

hands over 5 objects when asked)
Groups objects by shape
Arranges objects by length
Arranges objects according to size
Can tell in what way 2 things are the same
Can tell in what way 2 things are different

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Can tell which is prettier/nicer of 2 items based on his/her criteria
Groups pictured objects according to category
Can tell which is left and right on him/herself
Understands "more" and "less"
Understands the concept of conservation of matter at a rudimentary level
Can tell which is the left and right of people facing him/her
Knows the difference between yesterday, today, and tomorrow
Understands the concept of number-quantity relations for 1-10
Demonstrates concept of addition using finger or objects
Demonstrates concept of subtraction using fingers or objects
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cause and Effect Relationships)
Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) with occasional
guidance
Understands reasons behind rules and practices in school
Understands reasons behind rules and practices in the community, like those
pertaining to sanitation, environmental preservation, etc.
Memory: (Episodic Memory)
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places
he has been to.
Talks about things that happened during a particular event that occurred
some time back
Memory: (Memory for Concept-Based Knowledge-Semantic Memory)
Standards 1: The child is qble to stbre verbal information in short and long-
term mentQO'.
Repeats 5- to 7-word sentences correctly

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Memorizes the lyrics of a short song
Memorizes a short rhyme
Remembers the gist and many details of stories told or read
Can recite the days of the week with some errors
Remembers lessons learned in school even after several days have passed
Can recite the days of the week with no errors
Can recite the months of the year with some errors
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Logical Reasoning)
Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why
these happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to
him.
Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) with occasional
guidance
Can tell what is silly or wrong with absurd pictured scenes
Relates experiences in sequence or as these happened
Can appreciate humorous stories or jokes that his/her peers also find funny
(e.g., "knock-knock" jokes)
Knows that certain things are the same and therefore can be substituted for
each other (e.g., liquid and powdered detergents)
Can state opposite relationships
Can give substantive reasons why he/she like something or not
Can argue a point/stand logically
Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) without

guidance
Knows that certain elements remain the same even if their positions change
(e.g., 2 + 3 and 3 +2 equal 5)
Able to predict what will happen next in a story

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Can predict how a story will end half-way through
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Planning and Organizing)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity with adult guidance (e.g.,
eating, household chores and putting structure in activities)
Has almost everything he/she needs before starting an activity
Can dress following an organized sequence
Can bathe following an organized sequence
Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity without adult guidance
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Creative Thought)
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or new

associations between existing ideas or concepts.
Pretends to be engaged in "grown up" activities (e.g., playing office)
Pretends to be a character in a familiar story
Creates new words or names for people or objects
Can make a pun or joke
Creates some dance moves
Creates lyrics of songs using familiar melody
Pretends to be a character in his/her own made-up story
Formulates rules to implement in a game
Can draw things or scenes from experience but with no actual model or
reference (i.e., from memory)

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Can draw or paint things that do not exist in real life (i.e., fantasy or
imagination)
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cognitive Flexibility)
Standards 1: The child is able to shift to more adaptive cognitive processing

strategies in order to effectively deal with new and unexpected conditions in his/her
environment, including problem situations.
Modifies actions based on new experiences (e.g., change block structure that
falls)
Explores alternative solutions to a problem and selects one option
Is able to shift activities without much fuss
Is able to know when the topic of conversation has changed and adjust
accordingly
The Role of Caregivers (Parents and Teachers) in the Cognitive Development

of Preschoolers
Learning about how preschoolers think and learn, one will realize that parents
and teachers can do a lot either to help preschoolers develop their cognitive skills or
impede them. With the best of intentions, one can do more harm than good if the
approach to teaching preschoolers is not appropriate. Some adults think that the role
of preschools is to prepare the children to pass the entrance examinations of
elementary schools, and so they "harass" the preschoolers to master academic skills.
This leads the preschoolers to be stressed and to have a negative disposition about
school and about learning.
Two prominent organizations that have position statements about the

appropriate' practices in the care and education of preschoolers are the National
Association for the Education of Young Children -NAEYC (www.naeyc.org) and the
Association for Childhood Education International-ACEI (www.acei.org) Be sure to
check out their websites to learn more about the preschoolers. Below are some
appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of preschoolers. (adapted
from a list of tips for caregivers and teachers by Lesia Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life
Extension Specialist, 1--luman Development and Family Studies, Iowa State
University)
For three year-olds
1. Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, ask

questions, and listen.
2. Add new information to your children's sentences. "Yes that's it's a tall, red
flower and it smells so good."
3. Teach to memorize first and last names.

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4. Provide books for children to read, and read the same books to them. Read
poetry and nursery rhymes. Encourage a child to repeat a stbry and discuss the
ideas and events. Read titles and point to important words on pages, packages, and
street signs.
5. Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing a grocery list or note

for parents. Provide paper, small notebooks, and markers for use in dramatic play.
6. Count objects of interest; for example cookies, cups, napkins, or dolls. It is

better to use objects that you can move one at a time as you and the children count.
Measure, and have children help measure and count as you follow a recipe.
7. Explain why and how things happen with the help of a reference book. Help
them do simple science activities like magnetic attraction, freezing water, planting
seeds, making a terrarium, and flying kites on a windy day.
8. Provide sets - toys and other objects that go together. Discuss similarities
and differences. For example, point out sequences in cooking.
9. Sing simple songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoe box or milk can
drums, rattles of mongo beans in a box, etc. Encourage a variety of body movements
and dance to music of many kinds. Play musical games such as "London Bridge,"
"Ring-around-the-Rosie," and "Farmer in. the Dell."
For four-year-olds
1. Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their
own. Provide alternative reading material with a collection of outdated coupons, junk.
mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes.
2. Say nursery rhymes and finger plays together. Encourage 4-year- olds to
tell stories to younger children.
3. Encourage interest in writing and words. Provide children with paper and
notebooks for writing. Print letters and numerals on art work, and label- toy shelves
with pictures and words that describe objects.
4. Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count everything in
sight, like silverware, socks, rocks, leaves, etc. Talk about things being in, on, under,
behind, beside, before and after, larger than, too far, etc.
5. Teach children the correct use of the telephone.
6. Encourage 4-year-olds to help you plan and plant a garden. They will love
to water plants daily and will enjoy measuring plant growth.
For five-year-olds
1. Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices for
different characters. While reading a familiar story, stop before the end and ask
children to add their own end to the story.

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2. Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on the wall or
refrigerator. You can also. record the child telling the story and let him listen to
himself later.
3. Ask "what if' questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead of 3? What if
Little Red Riding Hood saw a rabbit instead of a wolf?
4. Involve children in writing "thank-you" notes, holiday greeting cards, and

letters. If a 5-year-old enjoys copying letters, let him dictate a short message to you
and copy it from your writing.
5. Give 5-year-olds opportunities to sort, group, match, count, and sequence

with real life situations such as setting the table, counting the number of turns, sorting
out socks, and matching fabric swatches. Expose them to games involving matching
pairs.
6. Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and why.
Give answers they can understand.
7. Five-year-olds will show an increasing interest in numbers. Encourage

them to count anything Of interest - cups, leaves, drums, bells, number of children
absent, etc.
8. Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, and riddles by reading humorous

stories, riddles, and nonsense rhymes. Join them in jokes from school, books, and
TV.
9. Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest. Teach

children how to move their bodies to dramatize the Opening of a flower, falling
leaves, or-rain; wiggly worms and snakes; and laundry blowing in the wind.
Evaluation
Questions for Discussion
1. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler's:
a. animism
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b. egocentrism
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c. centration

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d. lack of conservation
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e. irreversibility
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
f. transductive reasoning
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Read this excerpt from Albert Einstein's biography. Examine
Albert Einstein's preschool development in the light of cognitive development

in early childhood as discussed. How different was his childhood from the average
childhood? (language development, Einstein's lifelong memory of that compass,
parents' and teachers' underestimation of his cognitive ability?)
In the public mind, the name Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is synonymous with
genius. His general theory of relativity ("the greatest revolution in thought since
Newton "), his discovery of the fundamental principle of quantum physics, and his
other contributions to the reshaping of our knowledge of the universe cause him to be
considered "one of the greatest physicists of all time" (Whitrow, 1967).
Yet the young Einstein, who was born in the German town of Ulm, hardly
seemed destined for intellectual stardom. He was slow in learning to walk and did not
begin talking until at least his third year. His parents feared he might be mentally
retarded. Einstein himself always insisted that he did not try to speak until after the
age of 3, skipping babbling and going. directly into sentences. Actually, his sentences
may have come a bit earlier. When his sister, Maja, was born four months before
Albert's third birthday, Albert (who had been promised a new baby to play with and
apparently thought it would be a toy) reportedly asked in disappointment. "Where are
the wheels? "
Regardless of the exact timing, "Albert was certainly a late and reluctant
talker" (Brian, 1996). The reasons may have had more to do with personality than
with cognitive development; he was a shy, taciturn child, whom adults thought
backward and other children considered dull. He would not play marbles or soldiers

156
or other games with his peers, but he would crouch for hours, observing an ant
colony.
When he started school, he did poorly in most subjects; the headmaster

predicted he would never amount to anything. Albert hated the regimentation and
rote learning stressed in German schools: he did not have a retentive memory and
could not give clear answers to his teachers' questions. He was a daydreamer, his
questioning mind occupied with its own speculations. He would not even try to learn
anything unless he was interested in it-and then his concentration was intense.
His wonder about the workings of the universe was awakened at the;age 'of 4
or 5, when he was sick in bed and his father gave him a magnetic pocket compass to
keep him amused. The boy was astonished no matter which way he turned the
compass, the needle pointed to N (for 'north '). What controlled its motion? He
pestered his Uncle Jacob, who had studied engineering, with questions. His uncle
told him about the earth's north and south poles and about magnetic fields, but Albert
still was not satisfied. He believed there must be some mysterious force in what
appeared to be the empty space around the needle. He carried the compass around
for weeks, trying to figure out its secret. Years later, at the age this experience made
a deep and lasting of 67, he wrote, impression upon me. Something deeply hidden
had to be behind things" (Schilpp, 1970, p. 9).
That sense of wonder was reawakened several years later, when Uncle
Jacob, noticing that Albert' showed an interest in arithmetic, introduced him to
algebra and geometry. Albert solved every problem in the books his uncle brought
him and then went searching for more. It was that same insatiable curiosity and
persistence-what Einstein himself called "a furious impulse to understand"
(Michelmore, 1962, p. 24)- that underlay his lifetime quest for scientific knowledge).
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3. To enhance the preschoolers' symbolic thinking, language, attention,

memory function, and metacognition, what developmentally appropriate practices
would you recommend? What developmentally inappropriate practices would you not
recommend?
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157
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4. Critics argue that too many preschools are academically oriented

and stressful for young children. Do you agree? Explain.
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5. Does preschool matter? Doesn't preschool rob the child of his irretrievable
childhood? Defend your stand.
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158
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Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Kohlberg’s Theory. Fill

out the matrix below.

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Reflection
From the module on the Cognitive Development of Preschooler, I realized

that…
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References:
Acero, Victorina D. et al. (2012). Child & Adolescent Development. Rex Book Store,
Inc. Sampaloc, Manila
Corpuz, Brenda B. et al. (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners & Learning

160
Principles. LORIMAR Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Metro Manila.
Prepared by: Checked by: Approved:
VICENTE S. ESMALDE DR. MELANIE D. SALUMBIDES DR. VICTORIA M. NOBLE

Instructor III Program Chair, CTE Department Head, Academic

PED05Learning Module 2023 2024

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1

PED05: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

 Explain metacognition in your own words.

Metacognition Metacognition Application of Learners who do not

Teaching Strategies Person

Answer the followingStrategy

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

2 I reward myself when I work.

5 I have ways of dealing with distractions.

6 I am willing to do the work I do not enjoy

7 I seek clarification from the teacher about her

Always Sometimes Never Your

2 I make a review schedule for examinations.

3 I plan to get the necessary resources and

7 I prioritize tasks which should be done first,

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

1 I discuss work assignments with other

3 I keep cuttings from newspapers and

6 I ask questions and generally take part in

7 I listen out for key ideas when someone is

Always Sometimes Never Your

1 I get so worried about assignments that they

2 This worry about assignments makes me feel

4 I let these concerns about the work get on top

Always Sometimes Never Your

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

7 I underline or highlight key ideas so they

Always Sometimes Never Your

2 I read other references and read about the

6 My essays have a conclusion.

7 I frequently check back to the title during the

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

Part 2 Organizing and planning your work

Part 3 Working with others; utilizing resources and feedback

Part 4 Managing school work stress

Part 5 Note-taking and reading

Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project

Use the scoring guide below

Scoring for Part 1 Motivation

Score: 10 for Always

Scoring for Part 2 Organizing and Planning your Work

Score: 10 for Always

Scoring for Part 3

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

Scoring for Part 4 Managing school work stress

Score: 10 for Never

My Score in the Study Habits Questionnaire

Aspect of Study Habits My Score Interpretation

Part 2 Organizing and Planning Your Work

Part 3 Working with Others, Utilizing Resources and

Part 5 Note-taking and Reading

Part 6 Preparing an Assignment/Project

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

What is metacognition? This appears to be such a high-sounding word that some

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities

 What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?

Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition: (Work

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education

Novice and Expert Learners

Differences between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners