Module 1 - Differentiation Methods

The gradient of the chord AB

A. Gradient of a Curve
BC BD − CD f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
If a tangent is drawn at a point P on a curve, then the = = =
gradient of this tangent is said to be the gradient of AC ED (x2 − x1 )
the curve at P. In Fig. 1, the gradient of the curve at
P is equal to the gradient of the tangent PQ. For the curve f (x) = x2 shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 1

For the curve shown in Fig. 2, let the points A

and B have co-ordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2),
respectively. In functional notation, y1 = f (x1 ) and Figure 3
y2 = f (x2 ) as shown.

(i) the gradient of chord AB

f (3) − f (1) 9−1
= = =4
3−1 2
(ii) the gradient of chord AC
f (2) − f (1) 4−1
= = =3
2−1 1
(iii) the gradient of chord AD
f (1.5) − f (1) 2.25 − 1
= = = 2.5
1.5 − 1 0.5
(iv) if E is the point on the curve (1.1, f (1.1)) then
the gradient of chord AE
f (1.1) − f (1) 1.21 − 1
= = = 2.1
Figure 2 1.1 − 1 0.1
(v) if F is the point on the curve (1.01, f (1.01)) then the curve at A in Fig. 4 can either be written as
the gradient of chord AF  
δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
f (1.01) − f (1) 1.0201 − 1 limit or limit
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx
= = = 2.01
1.01 − 1 0.01
dy δy
Thus as point B moves closer and closer to point In Leibniz notation, = limit
dx δx→0 δx
A the gradient of the chord approaches nearer and
nearer to the value 2. This is called the limiting value In functional notation,
of the gradient of the chord AB and when B coin-  
 f (x + δx) − f (x)
cides with A the chord becomes the tangent to the f (x) = limit
curve. δx→0 δx
dy
is the same as f (x) and is called the differential
dx
B. Differentiation from first principles coefficient or the derivative. The process of finding
the differential coefficient is called differentiation.

In Fig. 4, A and B are two points very close Problem 1. Differentiate from first principle
together on a curve, δx (delta x) and δy (delta y) rep-
f (x) = x 2 and determine the value of the gradient
resenting small increments in the x and y directions,
of the curve at x = 2.
respectively.
To ‘differentiate from first principles’ means ‘to find
f (x)’ by using the expression
 
f (x + δx) − f (x)
f (x) = limit
δx→0 δx
f (x) = x 2
Substituting (x + δx) for x gives
f (x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 , hence
 2 
(x + 2xδx + δx 2 ) − (x 2 )
f (x) = limit
δx→0 δx
 
(2xδx + δx 2 )
= limit
δx→0 δx
= limit [2x + δx]
δx→0
Figure 4 As δx → 0, [2x + δx] → [2x + 0]. Thus f  (x) = 2x,
i.e. the differential coefficient of x 2 is 2x. At x = 2,
δy
Gradient of chord AB = ; however, the gradient of the curve, f (x) = 2(2) = 4.
δx
δy = f (x + δx) − f (x).
C. Differentiation of common functions
δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
Hence = .
δx δx
δy From differentiation by first principles of a number
As δx approaches zero, approaches a limiting of examples such as in Problem 1 above, a general
δx rule for differentiating y = ax n emerges, where a and
value and the gradient of the chord approaches the n are constants.
gradient of the tangent at A.
When determining the gradient of a tangent to a dy
The rule is: if y = axn then = anxn−1
curve there are two notations used. The gradient of dx
(or, if f (x) = axn then f  (x) = anxn−1 ) and is true for (iv) If the gradient of y = sin x is further investi-
all real values of a and n. gated between B and D then the resulting graph
For example, if y = 4x 3 then a = 4 and n = 3, and dy
of is seen to be a cosine wave. Hence the
dx
dy rate of change of sin x is cos x,
= anx n−1 = (4)(3)x 3−1 = 12x 2
dx dy
i.e. if y = sin x then = cos x
If y = ax n and n = 0 then y = ax 0 and dx
dy
= (a)(0)x 0−1 = 0, By a similar construction to that shown in Fig. 5 it
dx may be shown that:
i.e. the differential coefficient of a constant is zero.
Figure 5(a) shows a graph of y = sin x. The dy
gradient is continually changing as the curve moves if y = sin ax then = a cos ax
from 0 to A to B to C to D. The gradient, given dx
dy
by , may be plotted in a corresponding position If graphs of y = cos x, y = ex and y = ln x are plot-
dx ted and their gradients investigated, their differential
below y = sin x, as shown in Fig. 5(b).
coefficients may be determined in a similar manner
y to that shown for y = sin x. The rate of change of a
function is a measure of the derivative.
A
y = sin x
The standard derivatives summarized below
may be proved theoretically and are true for all real
+ values of x
B D
(a)
0 π /2 π 3π /2 2π x rad
dy
y or f (x) or f (x)
dx
−
ax n anx n−1
C
sin ax a cos ax
cos ax −a sin ax
D′ eax aeax
0′ d
dy
dx
(sin x) = cos x 1
dx ln ax
+ x
A′ C′
(b)
0 π /2 π 3π /2 2π x rad The differential coefficient of a sum or difference
−
is the sum or difference of the differential coeffi-
cients of the separate terms.

B′ Thus, if f (x) = p(x) + q(x) − r(x),

(where f, p, q and r are functions),
then f (x) = p (x) + q (x) − r (x)
Figure 5
Differentiation of common functions is demon-
(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest. strated in the following worked problems.
Hence 0 is a maximum positive value.
(ii) Between 0 and A the gradient is positive but Problem 2. Find the differential coefficients of
is decreasing in value until at A the gradient is 12
zero, shown as A . (a) y = 12x 3 (b) y = 3 .
x
(iii) Between A and B the gradient is negative but
is increasing in value until at B the gradient is at
its steepest negative value. Hence B is a maxi- dy
If y = ax n then = anx n−1
mum negative value. dx
  
(a) Since y = 12x 3 , a = 12 and n = 3 thus dy 4 − 4 −1 −20 − 7
dy Thus = (5) − x 3 = x 3
= (12)(3)x 3−1 = 36x2 dx 3 3
dx
−20 −20
12 = = √
(b) y = 3 is rewritten in the standard ax n form as 7 3
3 x7
x 3x 3
y = 12x −3 and in the general rule a = 12 and
n = − 3.
dy 36 Problem 5. Differentiate, with respect to x,
Thus = (12)(−3)x −3−1 = −36x −4 = − 4 1 1
dx x y = 5x 4 + 4x − + √ − 3.
2x 2 x

Problem 3. Differentiate (a) y = 6 (b) y = 6x. 1 1

y = 5x 4 + 4x − 2
+ √ − 3 is rewritten as
2x x
(a) y = 6 may be written as y = 6x 0 , i.e. in the 1
general rule a = 6 and n = 0. 1
y = 5x 4 + 4x − x −2 + x − 2 −3
2
dy
Hence = (6)(0)x 0−1 = 0 When differentiating a sum, each term is differenti-
dx ated in turn.
dy 1
In general, the differential coefficient of a Thus = (5)(4)x 4−1 + (4)(1)x 1−1 − (−2)x −2−1
constant is always zero. dx 2
 
(b) Since y = 6x, in the general rule a = 6 and n = 1. 1 − 1 −1
+ (1) − x 2 −0
dy 2
Hence = (6)(1)x 1−1 = 6x 0 = 6 1 3
dx = 20x 3 + 4 + x −3 − x − 2
2
In general, the differential coefficient of kx, dy 1 1
where k is a constant, is always k. i.e. = 20x3 + 4 + 3 − √
dx x 2 x3

Problem 4. Find the derivatives of Problem 6. Find the differential coefficients

√ 5 of (a) y = 3 sin 4x (b) f (t) = 2 cos 3t with respect
(a) y = 3 x (b) y = √
3 4
. to the variable.
x

dy
√ (a) When y = 3 sin 4x then = (3)(4 cos 4x)
(a) y = 3 x is rewritten in the standard differential dx
1 = 12 cos 4x
form as y = 3x 2 .
1 (b) When f (t) = 2 cos 3t then
In the general rule, a = 3 and n = f (t) = (2)(−3 sin 3t) = −6 sin 3t
2
 
dy 1 1 3 1
Thus = (3) x 2 −1 = x − 2 Problem 7. Determine the derivatives of
dx 2 2 2
(a) y = 3e5x (b) f (θ) = 3θ (c) y = 6 ln 2x.
e
3 3
= 1
= √
2 x
2x 2 dy
(a) When y = 3e5x then = (3)(5)e5x = 15e5x
5 5 4 dx
(b) y = √ = 4 = 5x − 3 in the standard differen- 2
3 4
x (b) f (θ) = 3θ = 2e−3θ , thus
x3 e
tial form. −6
In the general rule, a = 5 and n = − 43 f (θ) = (2)(−3)e−30 = −6e−3θ = 3θ
e
  
dy 1 6
(c) When y = 6 ln 2x then =6 =
dx x x

Problem 8. Find the gradient of the curve

y = 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 5x − 2 at the points (0, −2) and
(1, 4).

The gradient of a curve at a given point is given by

the corresponding value of the derivative. Thus, since
y = 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 5x − 2.
dy
then the gradient = = 12x 3 − 4x + 5.
dx
At the point (0, −2), x = 0.
Thus the gradient = 12(0)3 − 4(0) + 5 = 5.
At the point (1, 4), x = 1.
Thus the gradient = 12(1)3 − 4(1) + 5 = 13.

Problem 9. Determine the co-ordinates of the

point on the graph y = 3x 2 − 7x + 2 where the
gradient is −1.

The gradient of the curve is given by the derivative.

dy
When y = 3x 2 − 7x + 2 then = 6x − 7
dx
Since the gradient is −1 then 6x − 7 = −1, from
which, x = 1
When x = 1, y = 3(1)2 − 7(1) + 2 = −2
Hence the gradient is −1 at the point (1, −2).

Exercise 1. Differentiation of common

functions
  
1 1
D. Differentiation of a Product = 3x − 2 1+
ln 2x
2
 
When y = uv, and u and v are both functions of x, dy 3 1
i.e. = √ 1 + ln 2x
dx x 2
dy dv du
then =u +v
dx dx dx
Problem 12. Differentiate y = x 3 cos 3x ln x.
This is known as the product rule.
Let u = x 3 cos 3x (i.e. a product) and v = ln x
Problem 10. Find the differential coefficient of
y = 3x 2 sin 2x. dy dv du
Then =u + v
dx dx dx

3x 2 sin 2x is a product of two terms 3x 2 and sin 2x du

where = (x 3 )(−3 sin 3x) + (cos 3x)(3x 2 )
Let u = 3x 2 and v = sin 2x dx
Using the product rule:
dv 1
dy dv du and =
= u + v dx x
dx dx dx  
dy 1
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Hence = (x cos 3x)
3 + (ln x)[−3x 3 sin 3x
dy dx x
gives: = (3x )(2 cos 2x) + (sin 2x)(6x)
2
dx + 3x 2 cos 3x]
dy = x 2 cos 3x + 3x 2 ln x(cos 3x − x sin 3x)
i.e. = 6x 2 cos 2x + 6x sin 2x
dx dy
= 6x(xcos 2x + sin 2x) i.e. = x2 {cos 3x + 3 ln x(cos 3x − x sin 3x)}
dx
Note that the differential coefficient of a product
is not obtained by merely differentiating each term
and multiplying the two answers together. The prod- Problem 13. Determine the rate of change of
uct rule formula must be used when differentiating voltage, given v = 5t sin 2t volts when t = 0.2 s.
products.
dv
Rate of change of voltage =
Problem 11. Find the √ rate of change of y with dt
respect to x given y = 3 x ln 2x. = (5t)(2 cos 2t) + ( sin 2t)(5)
= 10t cos 2t + 5 sin 2t
The rate of change of y with respect to x is given
dy dv
by When t = 0.2, = 10(0.2) cos 2(0.2)
dx dt
√ 1 + 5 sin 2(0.2)
y = 3 x ln 2x = 3x 2 ln 2x, which is a product.
1 = 2 cos 0.4 + 5 sin 0.4 (where cos 0.4
Let u = 3x 2 and v = ln 2x means the cosine of 0.4 radians)
dy dv du
Then = u + v dv
dx dx dx Hence = 2(0.92106) + 5(0.38942)
 ↓  ↓  ↓    ↓ dt

1 1 1 1
−1 = 1.8421 + 1.9471 = 3.7892
= 3x 2 + (ln 2x) 3 x2
x 2 i.e., the rate of change of voltage when t = 0.2 s is
 
1 3 −1
= 3x 2 −1 + ( ln 2x) x 2 3.79 volts/s, correct to 3 significant figures.
2
Exercise 2. Differentiation of a product
E. Differentiation of a Quotient Problem 15. Determine the differential coeffi-
cient of y = tan ax.
u
When y = , and u and v are both functions of x
v
sin ax
y = tan ax = . Differentiation of tan ax is thus
cos ax
du dv treated as a quotient with u = sin ax and v = cos ax
dy v dx − u dx
then =
dx v2 du dv
dy v dx − u dx
=
This is known as the quotient rule. dx v2
(cos ax)(a cos ax) − (sin ax)(−a sin ax)
=
Problem 14. Find the differential coefficient of (cos ax)2
4 sin 5x
y= . a cos2 ax + a sin2 ax a(cos2 ax + sin2 ax)
5x 4 = 2
=
( cos ax) cos2 ax
a
4 sin 5x = , since cos2 ax + sin2 ax = 1
is a quotient. Let u = 4 sin 5x and v = 5x 4 cos2 ax
5x 4 (see Chapter 16)
dy 1
Hence = a sec2 ax since sec2 ax =
(Note that v is always the denominator and u the dx cos2 ax
numerator)
du dv
dy v dx − u dx Problem 16. Find the derivative of y = sec ax.
=
dx v2
du 1
where = (4)(5) cos 5x = 20 cos 5x y = sec ax = (i.e. a quotient). Let u = 1 and
dx cos ax
v = cos ax
dv du dv
and = (5)(4)x 3 = 20x 3 v −u
dx dy dx dx
=
dy (5x 4 )(20 cos 5x) − (4 sin 5x)(20x 3 ) dx v2
Hence =
dx (5x 4 )2
(cos ax)(0) − (1)(−a sin ax)
100x 4 cos 5x − 80x 3 sin 5x =
= (cos ax)2
25x 8
  
20x 3 [5x cos 5x − 4 sin 5x] a sin ax 1 sin ax
= = =a
25x 8 cos2 ax cos ax cos ax
dy 4 dy
i.e. = 5 (5x cos 5x − 4 sin 5x) i.e. = a sec ax tan ax
dx 5x dx
Note that the differential coefficient is not obtained
by merely differentiating each term in turn and then
dividing the numerator by the denominator. The quo-
tient formula must be used when differentiating
quotients.
 te2t
Problem 17. Differentiate y = Let y = 5x and v = 2x 2 + 4
2 cos t
du dv
dy v −u (2x 2 + 4)(5) − (5x)(4x)
te2t = dx 2 dx =
The function is a quotient, whose numerator dx v (2x 2 + 4)2
2 cos t
is a product.
10x 2 + 20 − 20x 2 20 − 10x 2
Let u = te2t and v = 2 cos t then = =
du dv (2x 2 + 4)2 (2x 2 + 4)2
= (t)(2e2t ) + (e2t )(1) and = −2 sin t  √ 
dt dt √ 3 √
At the point 3, , x = 3,
du dv 2
dy v dx − u dx √
Hence = dy 20 − 10( 3)2
dx v2 hence the gradient = = √
dx [2( 3)2 + 4]2
(2 cos t)[2te2t + e2t ] − (te2t )(−2 sin t)
= 20 − 30 1
(2 cos t)2 = =−
100 10
4te2t cos t + 2e2t cos t + 2te2t sin t
=
4 cos2 t
2e2t [2t cos t + cos t + t sin t] Exercise 3. Differentiation of a quotient.
=
4 cos2 t
dy e2t
i.e. = (2t cos t + cos t + t sin t)
dx 2 cos2 t

Problem 18. Determine the gradient of the

√ 
5x √ 3
curve y = 2 at the point 3, .
2x + 4 2
 Using the function of a function rule,
F. Function of a Function
dy dy du
It is often easier to make a substitution before = × = (6u5 )(12t 2 − 3)
dx du dx
differentiating.
Rewriting u as (4t 3 − 3t) gives:

dy dy du dy
If y is a function of x then = × = 6(4t 3 − 3t)5 (12t 2 − 3)
dx du dx dt
= 18(4t 2 − 1)(4t 3 − 3t)5
This is known as the ‘function of a function’ rule
(or sometimes the chain rule).
Problem 21. Determine the differential coeffi-
For example, if y = (3x − 1)9 then, by making
the substitution u = (3x − 1), y = u9 , which is of the cient of y = (3x 2 + 4x − 1).
‘standard’ form.
dy du  1
Hence = 9u8 and =3 y = (3x 2 + 4x − 1) = (3x 2 + 4x − 1) 2
du dx
1
dy dy du Let u = 3x 2 + 4x − 1 then y = u 2
Then = × = (9u8 )(3) = 27u8
dx du dx du dy 1 − 1 1
Hence = 6x + 4 and = u 2= √
dy dx du 2 2 u
Rewriting u as (3x − 1) gives: = 27(3x − 1)8
dx
Using the function of a function rule,
Since y is a function of u, and u is a function of x,  
then y is a function of a function of x. dy dy du 1 3x + 2
= × = √ (6x + 4) = √
dx du dx 2 u u
Problem 19. Differentiate y = 3 cos(5x 2 + 2). dy 3x + 2
i.e. =
dx (3x2 + 4x − 1)
Let u = 5x 2 + 2 then y = 3 cos u
du dy Problem 22. Differentiate y = 3 tan4 3x.
Hence = 10x and = −3 sin u.
dx du
Using the function of a function rule, Let u = tan 3x then y = 3u4
du
dy dy du Hence = 3 sec2 3x, (from Problem 15), and
= × = (−3 sin u)(10x) = −30x sin u dx
dx du dx dy
= 12u3
Rewriting u as 5x 2 + 2 gives: du
dy dy du
dy Then = × = (12u3 )(3 sec2 3x)
= −30x sin(5x2 + 2) dx du dx
dx
= 12( tan 3x)3 (3 sec2 3x)
dy
Problem 20. Find the derivative of i.e. = 36 tan3 3x sec2 3x
y = (4t 3 − 3t)6 . dx

Let u = 4t 3 − 3t, then y = u6 Problem 23. Find the differential coefficient of

2
du dy y= 3
Hence = 12t 2 − 3 and = 6u5 (2t − 5)4
dt du
 2
y= = 2(2t 3 − 5)−4 . Let u = (2t 3 − 5),
(2t 3 − 5)4
then y = 2u−4
du dy −8
Hence = 6t 2 and = −8u−5 = 5
dt du u
 
dy dy du −8
Then = × = (6t 2 )
dt du dt u5
−48t 2
=
(2t 3 − 5)5

Exercise 4. Function of a function

G. Successive Differentiation Problem 26. Given y = 2xe−3x show that

When a function y = f (x) is differentiated with d2 y dy

+ 6 + 9y = 0.
respect to x the differential coefficient is written as dx 2 dx
dy
or f (x). If the expression is differentiated again,
dx
the second differential coefficient is obtained and y = 2xe−3x (i.e. a product)
d2 y dy
is written as 2 (pronounced dee two y by dee x Hence = (2x)(−3e−3x ) + (e−3x )(2)
dx dx
squared) or f (x) (pronounced f double-dash x).
= −6xe−3x + 2e−3x
By successive differentiation further higher deriv- d2 y
d3 y d4 y = [(−6x)(−3e−3x ) + (e−3x )(−6)]
atives such as 3 and 4 may be obtained. dx 2
dx dx + (−6e−3x )
dy d2 y = 18xe−3x − 6e−3x − 6e−3x
Thus if y = 3x 4 , = 12x 3 , 2 = 36x 2 ,
dx dx d2 y
i.e. = 18xe−3x − 12e−3x
d3 y d4 y d5 y dx 2
= 72x, = 72 and = 0.
dx 3 dx 4 dx 5
d2 y dy
Substituting values into + 6 + 9y gives:
Problem 24. If f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5, find dx 2 dx
f (x).
(18xe−3x − 12e−3x ) + 6(−6xe−3x + 2e−3x )
+ 9(2xe−3x ) = 18xe−3x − 12e−3x − 36xe−3x
f (x) = 2x − 4x + 3x − 5
5 3
+ 12e−3x + 18xe−3x = 0
f (x) = 10x − 12x + 3
4 2

f  (x) = 40x 3 − 24x = 4x(10x2 − 6) d2 y dy

Thus when y = 2xe−3x , 2
+ 6 + 9y = 0
dx dx
d2 y
Problem 25. If y = cos x − sin x, evaluate x, in Problem 27. Evaluate when θ = 0 given
dθ 2
π d2 y y = 4 sec 2θ.
the range 0 ≤ x ≤ , when 2 is zero.
2 dx
Since y = 4 sec 2θ,

dy dy
Since y = cos x − sin x, = −sin x − cos x and then = (4)(2) sec 2θ tan 2θ (from Problem 16)
dx dθ
d2 y = 8 sec 2θ tan 2θ (i.e. a product)
= −cos x + sin x.
dx 2 d2 y
= (8 sec 2θ)(2 sec2 2θ)
d2 y dθ 2
When is zero, −cos x + sin x = 0, + (tan 2θ)[(8)(2) sec 2θ tan 2θ]
dx 2
sin x = 16 sec3 2θ + 16 sec 2θ tan2 2θ
i.e. sin x = cos x or = 1.
cos x d2 y
π When θ = 0, = 16 sec3 0 + 16 sec 0 tan2 0
Hence tan x = 1 and x = arctan1 = 45◦ or rads dθ 2
4
π = 16(1) + 16(1)(0) = 16.
in the range 0 ≤ x ≤
2
Exercise 5. Successive differentiation