UNIT I RECTIFIERS & FILTERS 2.0 INTRODUCTION For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier, iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits, These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below. 230V AC Transformer} >-| Rectifier Smoothing [+] Regulator |>- Regulated Mains 5V 0C Block Diagram of a Regulated Power Supply System Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply Y¥ Transformer ~ steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC. ¥ Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. ¥ Smoothing - smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. ¥ Regulator — eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage. The block diagram of a regulated D.C, power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier, filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator. 2.1 RECTIFIER ‘Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rect er. Such a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non- zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsatingd.c. voltage (Unidirectional), Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit: Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a h resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non- zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents. Average or DC current: The average current of a Pp defined as the area of one cycle of the curve divided by the base. Itis expressed mathematically as a Area ov i) Average value/de value/mean value= 2724 2" one period Total time period y, 1 a fracw ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current: ‘The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle of the curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base. Vere: = tran maven Itis the ratio of peak value to Rms value iil) Peak factor: peakvalue rmsvalue Peak facto!iv) Form factor: Itis the ratio of Rms value to average value Rmsvalue Form factors Sse ‘averagevalue v) Ripple Factor (I) : itis defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the dc. component in the output is known as “Ripple Factor”. V, Vue = Win Vie vi) Efficiency (77): It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the rectifier circuit converts a.c. power into d.c. power. _ op power i p power vil) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. vill) Transformer Utilization Factor (UTI The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the ‘Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as TUF = Pasirated,ix) % Regulation: ‘The variation of the d. ‘output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The percentage regulation is defined as %Re gulation | For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero. 2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed. 1) Half - Wave Rectifier 2) Full - Wave Rectifier 3) Bridge Rectifier 2.2.4 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER: AHalf -wave recti ras shown in fig 1.2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage. ie SF V.= Pulsating "Bl nv Beate, Fig 1.2: Basic structure of Half-Wave Rectifier AC. Input ‘The ac. voltage is applied to the rectifier circult using step-down transformer-rectifying element Le., p= ‘junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage Is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer. @er fig 3 Input and output waveforms of a Half wave rectifier V=Vm sin (wt) The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage. Operation: For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts. Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode current (or) load current is shown in fig 3. For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no power is delivered to the load. Analysi In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed. 1, DC output current 2. DC Output voltage 3. RMS. Current 4, RMS. voltage 5. Rectifier Efficiency (n ) 6. Ripple factor (y )7. Peak Factor 8. % Regulation 9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) 10. form factor 11. o/p frequency Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier. Then ‘msin (wt) Where Vj is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be \dealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i , inthe ON state and Rr (=e) in the reverse direction ie,, in the OFF state, Now the current “in the diode {or) in ‘the load resistance RLis given by V=V,,sin (wt) |) AVERAGE VOLTAGE 1 17, \ Vy, Jraony | 1" Views Vayda 1" Ve= = [Vlada > a a 1 Vac oon l's sin(t) vy, =t2vii) Ripple Factor: vili) Efficiency (77): p= OL BDOMEE «300 77 ppower = Paes100 Pac 7740.8 ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): ‘The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in the creut, Therefore, transformer utilization factors defined 25 A uetya Klas Ide lac Tac TUF = ‘The value of TUF Is low which shows that in half-wave circult, the transformer is not fully utilized, Ifthe transformer rating Is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver 1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.i) RMS VOLTAGE: a 7, Jrracwny 3 2 cy é 1 une afl (My? ¢2, Vous Vor [Yasimtwey? ator) = or S Vin Sin wh dit IV) RMS CURRENT V) PEAK FACTOR vi) FORM FACTOR se it fet Vm (1 Cosma Joe V,,=l= T- Sin 2ush in 2 ab), 2 “qa Ig 1 Peak factor = Petbvalue rmsvalue Peak Factor == ,, 12) @ Peak Factor =2 Rmsvalue ‘averagevalue Form factor=. (12) Form factor= Form Factor =1.57x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave rectifier, PIV is Vm. DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER: 1. The ripple factor is high. 2. The efficiency is low. 3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low. is normally not used as a Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circui power rectifier circuit. 2.2.2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER: ‘A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. in order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below ial center tapped = 1 transformer 222 ent Fig. 5 Input and output waveforms of Fullwave rectifier | Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt, During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes Positive and at the Same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative, Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows inthe both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance, |) AVERAGEVOLTAGE ¥ v V, R= We know 1, = Ye feck Hen ROR, FR, 2.Y,, 2, Vig, ei 2 Vi TR: +R, YOR, + Ry) << Ry, | Vig om Mon 2 0.637; | r | il) AVERAGE CURRENT | | | | |. Inc FWR 2 Inc HWR. @ i) Rmsvortace: 172 Vs = lV ‘d (wt), ; Tomar Tay Vous = ort {O-simown) (wt) L, oh @ ams current V) PEAK FACTOR peakvalue Peak factor = rmsvalueVn ,, 12) Peak Factor = Peak Factor =2 vi) FORM FACTOR Rms value Form factor=- average value Form factor= "=~" 2i Form Factor vii) Ripple Factor:a a Average voltage over half of the time period Since the average value of the AC voltage over the time period is zero, we may ara late the average value over the half of the time period using a similar definition as (2). ‘Therefore 1 pr Yor = gf Moat Dy fT = % f sin(ut)dt _ 2m [_ cos(wt)]7”? Cael aw hy 3 on {-eos(w/2) + cos0} Wn = FE {-cos(n) + cos0} ® 0.637 Vin wake of altemating current, is equivalent to a DC voltage that would provide the sane (4) RMS is not an "Average” voltage, and its mathematical relationship to peak voltage varies depending on the type of waveform. The RMS value ie (average) value of the squared function ofthe instantaneous values, Foe the voltage V(t) sinusoldal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Wavetorm, wun « .....Important relations to remember 1o keep in mind about RMS values ¢ ‘A few handy things sine wave, are as follows: 0.707 peak AC voltage = « Peak AC voltage © 1.414 %Vina 0.637 peak AC voltage y2 pt T [ sin?(wt)de v2 T ef 2sin?(wt)dt yt al {1 —cos(2ut)} dé v2 (7, va ft 3 i: di- 7 cos(2ut)dt Ma yg eaeay’ orl’ lo” ar | Jo Va Va a x sin(2ui?) ~ sin(0)} wove aa Et sin(4r) = sin(0)} vy We 2 are 7 Ye, © @ nat apply when dealing with a 70.7 % of peak voltage = 141.1 % of Vis = 63.7 % of peak voltage 2 Half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage ‘vaveform to pass, blocking the ot her half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are used to convert 4AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to construct. A half wave rectifier is the simplest form of rectifier available. Figure 2 shows the input AC voltage waveform, the circuit diagram and the final output Negat voltage waveform of a half wave rectifier, During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased making the current flow through the load resis ‘or. While during the ¢ half cycle the diode is reverse biased so it stops the current flow through the Joad resistor. Since current can not flow through the load during the negative half cycles, | the output voltage is equal to zero, ® AA * \| (Pulsating) Diode OC Output Load Primary ‘Secondary, Transformer Figure 2: Helf wave rectifier circuit diagram and waveform [electricaldu.com]. ‘Therefor, for an AC voltage given by (1) the output voltage of a half wave rectifier will be (for an ideal diode) Volt) = { Vsinwwt), O<¢t RMS value of the output voltage of a half wave rectifier To cal Ml i ones value of the output voltage, Vinsy of the pulsating DC output of r we use the definition (5). Therefore, for the voltage (8) we have 7 a < Af" ‘rms (t)dt z[ 30 v2 ” , v a ef sin oats Bf oat T to T Ira _ Lr , _- BE [ ranttanet ya pte ace ares s [ {1 ~ cos(2ut)}at ye pt. va pt? 7 a-# cos(2wt)dt T ho v2 fl mm V2 [ene ] 7 = orl") “alm to 2 a Ye Yi in(our) - 5 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of full wave rectifier Peal: inverse voltage(PIV) or peak reverse voltage(PRV) can be defined as the maximum wee of the reverse voltage of a diode, which occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is in reverse bias. PIV of center tapped full wave rectifier is 2Vm and of a bridge rectifiers it is Vm Peak factor of full wave rectifier Vin Peak factor = 77 = v2. (34) ‘Applications of full wave rectifier Full wave rectifier is of two types; center tapped and bridge rectifier. Both these rectifiers are used for following purposes depends upon the requirement. Following of full wave rectifier applications are: «It can be used to detect the amplitude of modulated radio signal. 12can be used to supply polatized voltage in welding, The Bridge Rectifier circuits are wid ely used in power supply for various appliances, as they are capable of converting t! he High AC voltage into Low DC voltage. Advantages of full wave rectifier. + Full wave rectifiers have higher rectifying efficiency than half-wave rectifiers. This means that they convert AC to DC more efficiently. * * They have low power loss because no voltage signal is wasted in the rectification process. * The output voltage of center tap] »ped full wave rectifier has lower ripples than a half Wave rectifiers, Disadvantages of full wave rectifier * The center tapped rectifer is more expensive than half-wave rectifier and tends to occupy a lot of space. A comparison of different parameters related to the half and full wave recti- fiers are given below: Sena eee Parameters ificr Full wave rectifier Number of diodes 1 ord Maximum efficiency 40.58% 81.06 % Peak inverse voltage Vs Vm OF 2Viq Average voltage no load Veale Wea/ Vims no load Ven/2 Vn/V2 Ripple factor 121 os c Form factor 1.57 Lu i Output frequeney f of ee 4 «RC circuit n RO circuit (also known as an RC filter or RC network) stands fora resistorcapacitor _ Gtrouit, An RC circuit is defined as an electrical circuit composed of the passive circuit components of a resistor (R) and capacitor (C), driven by a voltage source or current Bassource. In an RC series circuit, a pure resistor having resistance 2 in ohms and a p capacitor of capacitance C in Farads are connected in series. >i R c — Vy ple ve Vv Figure 4: RC circuit diagram (electricaldu.com). RC time constant The RC time constant indicates the rate of charge or discharge. RC specifies the time it takes C to charge to 63% of the charging voltage. Similarly, RC specifies the time it takes C to discharge 63% of the way down to the value equal to 37% of the initial voltage across Cat the start of discharge. FC tine 0 3 6 9 1215 18 21 26 27 30 Time, ¢ Figure 5: C charges through R to 63% of Vp in one RC time constant. 100 | © sof} 37 v J 205-F ic time Ss oa 6 8 1215 18 at 24 27 30 Timo, § Figure 6: C to discharge through R, Vo drops to 37% ofits initial voltage in one time constant. 45 Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter Filters are components used to. ‘convert (smoothen) pulsating DC waveforms ‘into constant DC waveforms. They achieve this by Suppressing the DC tipples in the waveform, Although half-wave Tectifiers without filters are th used for any practi i shows how a capaciti a pulsating DC we ive filter is can be used to smoothen out raveform into a constant DC w: aveform. PY Be. fr Rec oeaetsn Oa ae io Figure 7: Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter and ‘waveform [electricaldu.com). 6 Full wave rectifier with capacitor filter With the oonter tapped full wave restifer we get a pulsating DC voltage with a lot of ples as the output. We cannot use this pulsating for prateal applications. $0, to Shoe Te eusstng DC voltage to pute DC voltage, we use a flier cnet rahi above. Here we place a capacitor across the load. he working of the capacitive filter 9, Ral Figure &: Pll vve rectifier rei dagiam with npacitor Str [etic com). circuits to short the ripples and block the DC component so thet it lows through another ath and i available across the load. During the postive halfwave, the diode D, starts | conducting, The capecitor is uncharged, and when we apply an input AC voltage which happens to be more then the capacitor voltage, it changes the capacitor immediately to 8the maximum value of the input voltage. At this point, the supply voltage is equal capacitor voltage. Y Voltage ‘AC Input Time OC Output} The Figure 9: Waveform of full wave rectifier RC filter [electricaldu.com]. When the applied AC voltage starts decreasing and less than the capacitor, starts discharging slowly but this is slower when compared to the charging of the capacitor and it does not get enough time to discharge entirely and the charging starts again, So around half of the charge present in the capacitor gets discharged. During the negative cycle, the diode De starts conducting, and the above process happens again, ‘This will current to flow through the same direction across the load. Qg Durong poshe hal Fcc l h Diode Shub Conduchy a afl Por Sor kIo j wey A | ik toakas $C Tegel #Vi-Vo-8 | B el Vez Vir 2 2 Bg wtiate sical] ge VF —Vo — Vel 2 | Negale hal ye l ve Vous Wie the capacitor = -jo~8 = =)¢ 16is simsoidel for the fist half eyele only pulsating output signal, Fig: Half-wave rectifier ciruit Since the diode conducts only in one halfcyele (O-n), it can be verified thatthe de componett in the Output is Vaux/t, where Vinay is the peak value of the voltage. Thus,‘Smoothing ° Capacitor Charges ——C Disharges Vit \ ow Se ‘Resullant Output Waveform (With capacitor) Naz AG Inout waveform Fig.2: Half-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter “The working of the capacitor can be understood in the following manner. When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges f0 the peak voltage Vm Just past the positive peak the rectifier output voltage tres to fall. As the source vollaBe decreases below Vax, the capacitor will try to send the current back to diode making it reverse biased. Thus the diode separates/disconnects the source from the load and hence the capacitor will discharge through the load until the source voltage tecomes more than the capacitor voltage: The diode agtin starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to the peak value Vm and the Process continues. Although in the output waveform the discharging of capacitor is shown as 2 straight line for simplicity, the decay is actually the normal exponential decay of any capacitor discharging through a load resistor, The extent fo which the capacitor voltage drops depends on the capacitance and the amount of current drawn by the load thes two factors effectively form the RC time constant for voltage decay, A proper combination of large capacitance and small load resistance can give out @ steady output. Circuit components/Equipments: () A step-down transformer, (i) A junction diode, (il) 3 Lond resisters Gv) 3 Electrolytic Capacitors, (¥) Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connesting wires, Ce Breadboard. | i \ i | Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Figs. 1 and 2) Mf Wa) ‘\ \ 3 iWye ‘Table(II): Half wave rectifier with filter (C EF) (Make separate tables for each eapacitor) ‘SLNo Load R(KQ) T 2 3 (UD Input and output waveforms: ‘Waveforms without Filter: R= Input ‘Waveforms with Capacitor Filter: C = R= Input Discussions: Precautions: ‘Output Voltage Ripple Factor | i Vee (Volt) | Vac (Volt) r \ Output (Paste data here) (Paste data here) aE Output