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Water Control Management of Concrete Mixes on Construction Sites in Africa

Conference Paper · December 2015

DOI: 10.18638/arsa.2015.4.1.746

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 Wet Trades Water Control Management on
Construction Sites in Africa
Hennie van Heerden / Derick Booyens
Department of Construction Economics
University of Pretoria
Pretoria, South Africa
hennie.vanheerden@up.ac.za
derick.booyens@up.ac.za

ABSTRACT:

The purpose of this study is to try and increase the level of quality control for contractors in South Africa and

other countries especially in Africa over wet mixes for example concrete. Increasing the level of control through

simplifying the management process, one can ensure prevention of failures rather than to rectify defects at a later

stage of the project. Specific issues included are the contractors’ understanding of the effect of adding water to

mixtures, slump tests, test cubes and the ethics surrounding it.

In most circumstances it is difficult for building contractors to manage the quality of wet trades on constructions

sites and would typically include the mixing of concrete and mortar. As the contractor cannot be personally

involved in the quality assurance of everyday mixing on site, he has to rely heavily on the skills of his workforce

and/or sub-contractors performing these mixes and their understanding of the effects of adding water to these

mixes. The interference of staff with ready mix concrete mixes from reputable suppliers is often outside of the

contractor’s control. This lack of control over adding water in mixes can lead to minor or major defects and even

total failure of structures in some cases.

Keywords: Water control, wet trades, quality management, quality control

1. INTRODUCTION

As readymix concrete deliveries arrive on the construction site, a labourer will often jump up at the back of the

truck to see what the slump of the concrete is through the outlet of the truck and inform the supervisor of the

status of that concrete slump. If the slump is “undesirable” or not to his liking through this visible inspection, the

labourer is often instructed to add water to the mix through the outlet and thereby increasing the workability of
the concrete. This “undesirability” is measured and influenced by the whether the concrete is to be transported

over the site by means of wheelbarrows and placed by hand, all adding to the amount of effort that will be

required to do the pour. Under other circumstances, the plaster or brickwork sub-contractor would instruct the

team to mix a batch of plaster or mortar and after 30 minutes of work, would realise it is time for lunch and

everybody would down tools for an hour often leaving the mix to dry out, usually in the sun. As work resumes,

the plasterer or bricklayer would instruct the labourer to add water to the mix to make it workable again due to

the drying effect of the heat exposure. These are just some scenarios happening on a daily basis on construction

sites and making it very difficult for a contractor to control or effectively managing proper water control to

mixes. Even if curing of the final product is properly done after adding additional water, the desired strength

effect will be sacrificed. The aim of the study is to attempt in determining whether the abusive adding of water to

mixtures on site, can be more effectively managed from a contractors’ point of view. Thus ensuring that when

the correct quality of mixes is achieved and with the aid of proper curing methods, defects or failures can be

minimized or prevented.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Effects of adding water: concrete strenght and slump

Adding excessive water on the building site dilutes the paste while increasing the slump with the strength

decreasing significantly [1]. According to Pronto Readymix, a large concrete readymix supplier in South Africa,

this adverse effect on the concrete strength will even increase during summer times when temperatures and

humidity levels are high. [2].

As illustrated in the following Table I, as the standing time of the truck on site increases, the slump loss will

increase while the possibility of adding water will increase to improve the workability of the concrete. The table

further shows the approximate percentages of strength loss when adding specific amounts of water additionally

[2].
 Table 1 - The extra addition of water to compensate for workability loss due to delays adversely affecting concrete strength.
(Source: Pronto Readymix).

Required water to maintain

Time Standing on site Slump Loss % % Strength Loss
slump at 75mm‐100mm
30 35 8 Litre / m3 5%

60 50 10 Litre / m3 10%

90 60 12 Litre / m3 15%

120 70 17 Litre / m3 20%

Diagram 1 below illustrates what happens if excessive water is added to increase the slump, without adjusting the
concrete mix ratio.
Nil

10

20
Strenght reduction %

30

90mm
40 Standard 120mm 180mm
Slump
Collapse

0 ₊ 10 ₊ 20 ₊ 30
Water added - Litres per Cubic Meter
Diagram 1 – Effect of addition of excess water on concrete strenght and slump (Based on 25 MPa concrete at 90mm slump)

Readymix concrete suppliers in South Africa will not take responsibility for their product if water is added on

site. The truck driver will simply mark “water added” on the delivery note and thereby distance themselves from

any possible claims towards the compressions strength of the concrete delivered and not bear the liability from

any failures that could arise in future.

One can add water to the truck, but these procedures is more complex and specific rules need to be adhered to.

When adding water to the mix, the addition should not alter the water-cement ratio above the maximum

permitted level. To correct this ratio, cement needs to be added proportionality. Water must be added to the

entire batch otherwise it is impossible to try and guess the balance of m3 still remaining in the drum of the truck.

If water is added through the discharge section of the drum, the water will not be distributed evenly through the

mix. Water should be added at the head section of the drum, or by the head and discharge sections (dual

injection) [3] [4].

Most supervisors in Africa on construction sites do not understand how to adjust water and the water-cement

ratios in wet trades. Without these necessary skills the risk for the contractor increases with each mix, as the

contractor cannot be present at all times. The contractor can use a slump test and make use of test cubes, but

these two methods also have their short falls and cannot indicate immediately if mixes were compromised before

discharge or application. This leads to rectifying the problem after 7 to 28 days rather than to try and prevent it

from happening in the first place.

2.2. The Slump Test and Test Cube Methods

a. The slump Test

Contractors use the slump test to measure consistency (stiffness, sloppiness or fluidity) of the mix. For the

contractor to be able to effectively handle, place and consolidate the concrete mix, the consistency of each batch

must be the same and within accordance to the South African National Standards (SANS 5862-1) [5] [6].

The slump test apparatus consists of a slump cone, base plate, tamping rod, scoop and metric ruler. When the

supervisor takes the concrete sample he must make sure that it happens in at least 9 increments and not during

the first or last 10% of the mixer truck’s discharge.

Figure 1 - Slump Test Apparatus

When doing the actual test the following procedure needs to be adhered to:

• Use the mixing tray to mix the sample,

 • Place the clean, damp slump cone on the leveled base plate and stand with your feet on the foot piece

sections,

• Fill the slump cone in 3 equal layers,

• Rod each layer 25 strokes (make sure the rod penetrates the layer below),

• When rod is full, clear away waste with rod,

• Transfer weight from foot pieces to handles and slowly lift the cone vertically straight up and off,

• Lay the trowel across the up-turned slump cone,

• Measure the distance between the underside of the trowel and the highest point of the top of the concrete,

• Record the distance to the nearest 5 mm [7] [8] [9] [10].

The bigger measurement of the slump, will indicate the wetter and weaker the mix. The slump test is suitable for

a slump range of 5 to 175 mm. Hand tamping is normally between 100 to 150 mm and a poker vibrator between

50 to 120 mm.

b. Cube Test

In South Africa, the compressive strength of concrete is determined according with SANS 5860, 5861-2, 5861-3

and 5863 [5]. After the slump test the supervisor must prepare concrete test cubes. Test cubes are normally 150

mm x 150 mm in size and the supervisor needs to take 6 cubes per test. He will use 3 of these cubes for crushing

after 7 days and 3 for crushing after 28 days. It is required to take at least one set per day or for every 50 m3 of

each grade of concrete poured.

The sampling procedure for a cube test is the same as for a slump test, although the apparatus and preparation

will differ:

• All moulds should be clean and without dust or rust,

• Joint faces should be greased,

• Assembled in the right way and bolts tight,

• A thin layer of release oil to be smeared on inside Faces,

• Place the mould on a firm level surface,

 • Mix the concrete on the mixing tray,

• Fill each mould in 50 mm layers,

• Tamp each layer 45 times (cube 150 mm) or 20 times (cube 100 mm), especially in the corners with rod,

• Remove surplus concrete, smooth over with trowel,

• Cover the mould with a damp cloth and polythene sheet,

• Store it in the shade, away from wind in a safe place,

• Once the concrete has hardened, place cubes submerged under water.

Figure 2 – Test Cubes apparatus

Figure 3– Test Cubes apparatus

Figure 4– Test Cubes apparatus

Figure 5– Test Cubes apparatus

The cubes should be removed from the mould the next day, clearly marked (company name, reference number

and the date the cubes ware made) and placed inside the curing tank. When the cube is removed from the mould,
the supervisor must loosen all the nuts with a spanner. If the cube is stuck, the supervisor should slightly tap the

sides with a hammer. Cubes are marked with a lumber crayon and placed in the curing tank completely covered

by the water and the thermostat is set between 22 ⁰C– 25 ⁰C to regulate the water temperature [5] [6].

For the cube test to be valid, the range of strengths within the set of three cubes may not exceed 15% of the

average.

c. Site ethics around slump test & cubes

Concrete is readily used in the developing world and while the components are simple, mix design and quality

control during construction is critical to obtain an acceptable end product. However, the use of these tests

requires equipment and testing that is often not available for short-term projects [11].

The other problem with these tests is that the supervisor / team leader can easily take shortcuts while executing

these tests:

• Supervisor can take test cubes from the mixing truck that carries 30 MPa and write on the test cube 25

MPa

• Supervisor can take test cubes from the mixing truck and add water afterwards that will distort the final

result

• Supervisor may not be educated around the understanding and importance of taking, curing and

transporting the sample, thus not understand that what he is doing wrong and the results are skewed. The

contractor can either then request a Schmidt hammer test or core drilling that will add to extra cost

In most developing countries it is not required to do cube tests for mortar mixes.

Even if the contractor’s system are in place and is properly managed, he will only have an indication after 7 days

and be definitely sure after 28 days of the final results.

d. The effects of building failures in Africa

In South Africa a suspended concrete slab collapsed killing a man and severely injuring several more. Dr.

Roderick Rankine, an engineer and expert in construction materials specified that the contractor did not follow

engineering specifications. Although there were a number of factors mentioned by him, the forensic investigators

discovered that the strength of the concrete was less than 3MPa in compression. The contractor admitted that

they mixed their own concrete on site and did not prepare any test cubes for testing purposes.
Most of these buildings that collapsed happened during construction on the site [12] [13]:

• January 2013: Five storey building collapsed in in the central district, Kenya, Nairobi

• January 2013: Building adjacent to Imperial Hotel tumbled down, Kenya, Kisumu

• November 2013: Mall collapsed during construction, Tongaat, South Africa

• June 2012: Four storey building collapsed, Kenya Mlolongo

• October 2011: Historic building collapsed, Brakpan, South Africa

• October 2011: Building under construction, Rand Airport Park, South Africa

• October 2011: Roof of building collapsed, Rosebank South Africa

• July 2010: Building under construction collapsed, Brakpan, South Africa

• July 2009: Roof in shopping mall collapsed, Durban South Africa

• October 2008: Office block under construction collapsed, Roodepoort, South Africa

• Year of 2004: The Engineering Council of South Africa mentioned that seven buildings collapsed in

KwaZulu Natal

Again the investigations with each failure listed a number of reasons why these incidents and accidents

happened. Amongst them were concrete mix ratios not being correct, cost cutting by contractors, changing the

recommended concrete mix, poor workmanship, lack of supervision, poor inspection & monitoring. Even with

the National Building Regulations (NBR) in South Africa, these accidents still occur from time to time [12] [13].

e. Effects of water-cement-ratio and curing

Correct curing is necessary to ensure that the cement hydration process is prolonged to allow the concrete to

increase its strength, durability and some of the other mechanical characteristics. Price (1991) defines curing as

the process of protecting concrete for a specified period of time after placement, to provide moisture for

hydration of cement, to provide proper temperature and to protect the concrete from damage by loading or

mechanical disturbance [14].

Improper curing produces cracks, compromise strength and reduce long-term durability due to insufficient

moisture [15]. The different curing methods seemed to have a higher deterioration effect to the development of

compressive strength than to its flexural and split tensile strength [16] [17].
With an increase in water-cement-ratio and an increase in curing age, the growth rate of the concrete strength is

diminished. [16]. Research showed that the weight, density and compressive strength of the concrete test cubes

decreased with an increase of water-cement ratio, however the results also showed that the compressive strength

increased as the number of curing days increased [18]. The research results indicated that the water-cement ratio

was the main determinant of the crushing strength of the concrete test cubes [19].

f. Colour quality management

Construction sites use colour in their health and safety to indicate dangerous areas or to close off specific

dangerous sections to emphasize the potential danger and make it more visible. Construction teams wear

different coloured hard hats, so it is easy for everybody to be identified. For example, white hard hats indicate

site agents, engineers, project managers; orange will indicate team leaders; red would be steel fixers; yellow the

concrete team and green general labourers.

Project Managers use colour in their programmes to indicate where the critical paths are, i.e. to indicate if the

project is ahead or behind schedule. Project Managers also use colour in delegation tools to assign

responsibilities to other team members. Even construction equipment is mostly yellow or red, common

aposematisms in nature. Yellow is a bright, colour and so is immediately noticed. Yellow is after all, the most

visible colour to the human eye.

Normal concrete has a characteristic grey colour, because of the cement being the finest grey ingredient, with the

greatest surface area and therefore the greatest colouring power [5].

There are many methods currently in use to change normal grey concrete colour into reds, yellows, browns and

black. One of these methods is through the use of synthetic iron oxides. These pigments are not affected by

ultraviolet rays, are permanent but the biggest problem is to ensure uniformity through different batches leading

to colour variation which may be unacceptable to the designer [5].

If these synthetic iron oxides can be designed on a nanometer scale to be a smart material, thus only reacting if

too much water was added to the mixture, changing the grey concrete colour into a red, so the same principle can

be applied to indicate when water has been added to an existing mix, changing the colour of the concrete. Most

smart materials can be controlled by external stimuli such as, stress, temperature, moisture, ph, electricity or

magnetic fields [20].

Through the change of colour all parties involved can timeously be alerted that the mixture was altered and

immediate corrective action can be taken. This can be a powerful tool to assist a construction manager in his

quality assurance management on site.

Through immediate identification the properties of the mixture can then be altered on site and prevent later

failures, thus minimizing the risk involved in adding to much water that will reduce the strength of mixtures.

g. Conclusions and recommendations

The interference of staff with ready mix concrete mixes from reputable suppliers is often outside of the

contractor’s control. This lack of control over adding water in mixes can lead to minor or major defects and even

total failure of structures in some cases.

Good site practice in both curing and cement-water ratio is key to ensure the desired compressive strength and

durability in concrete, and other cementitious wet mixes.

There are several different curing methods and they all have different effects on the compressive strength of

concrete. The most common used in South Africa is water curing. Most contractors don’t understand the effect

of spraying cold water on warm concrete or alternating wetting and drying cycles that causes crazing, cracking &

volume changes [16].

Both curing and the water-cement ratio are very important factors to understand and properly managed on site to

ensure the desired durability and compressive strength of concrete, although water-cement ratio is critical and

very difficult to verify and control [16].

Education and training will reduce these problems surrounding the water-cement ratio, with the use of colour

change to indicate an alteration in the water-cement ratio; it will be easier for supervisors to manage this problem

effectively.

This method will assist in avoiding the water-cement ratio issue, thus ensuring preventative control measures,

rather than to focus on corrective action, that is costly and time consuming.

Through the change in colour, even unskilled people will be able to take note of the problem and inform the

relevant supervisor. The supervisor can then either phone the engineer for assistance or he himself can do the

necessary adjustments and ensure that the concrete reach the required compressive strength or take other

corrective action.
3. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Lafarge Readymix Concrete .http://www.lafarge.co.ke/Myth_1.pdf [Accessed on 30 January 2015].

[2] Pronto Readymix Concrete. Effect of addition of excess water on concrete strength and slump. Retrieved

from http://www.prontormc.com/documents/technical_information.htm [Accessed on 28 January 2015].

[3] Suprenant, B.A. (1994). Adjusting Slump in the Field. Concrete Construction. The Aberdeen Group.

Publication #C940038. Retrieved from.

http://www.concreteconstruction.net/Images/Adjusting%20Slump%20in%20the%20Field_tcm45-

342700.pdf

[4] CEMEX USA-Technical Bulletin. The effects of water addition to concrete:”What’s a little water going to

hurt?” Retrieved from http://www.cemexusa.com/.../technicalservices/effectsofwateradditionstoconcrete.

pdf [Accessed on 29 January 2015].

[5] Owens, G. (2012). Fundamentals of concrete (2nd ed.).Cement and Concrete Institute, Midrand, South

Africa.

[6] Hauptfleisch, A.C. (2014). Basic Construction Technology. Construction Economics Associates (Pty) Ltd.

ISBN: 978-0-620-590-59773-9

[7] SABS Standard Method 860:1994. Concrete tests. Dimensions, tolerances and uses of cast specimens.

[8] SABS Standard Method 861-3:1994. Concrete tests. Making and curing of test specimens.

[9] SABS Standard Method 862-1:1994. Concrete tests. Consistence of freshly mixed concrete. Slump test.

[10] SABS Standard Method 863:1994. Concrete tests. Compressive strength of hardened concrete.

[11] Jon Fripp, P.E., Phuc Vu, P.E.,& David Cruz, P.E. Concrete Construction Field Techniques for the use in

the Developing World. https://s3.amazonaws.com/ewbgeneral/EWB-

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[12] SANS 10400 Building Regulations. http://sans10400.co.za/building-collapses/ . [Accessed on 02 March

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[13] Kioko, J.M. (2014). Causes of building failures in Africa: A case study on collapsing structure in Kenya.

IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Volume 11, Issue 3, Ver. VII (May-Jun. 2014), PP

09-10. http://www.iosrjournals.org [Accessed on 05 December 2015].

[14] Price, W.H. (1991). Factors influences concrete strength. J.Am. Concrete Institute.

[15] Zain, M.F.M.,Safiuddin.M., & Yusof, K.M. (2000). Influenece of different curing conditions on the

strength and durability of high performance concrete. In the proceedings of the Fourt ACI International

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Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA. 275-292

[16] Goel, A., Narwal, J., Verma, V., Sharma, D., & Singh, B. (2013). A Comparative study on the effect of

curing on the strength of concrete. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology,

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