RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

The rate of a chemical reaction is the time taken for a given mass/ amount of products to be formed. The rate
of a chemical reaction is also the time taken for a given mass/ amount of reactant to be consumed/ used up.

Change in concentration /amount of reactants

Rate of reaction = time taken for the change to occur

Change in concetration / amount of product formed

Rate of reaction = Time taken for the products to form

Some reactions are slow reactions e.g rusting of iron, weathering, ripening of an apple etc.
Some reactions are too fast and instantaneous e.g neutralisation of acids and bases/ alkalis, precipitation
reactions etc
Other reactions are explosive and very risky to carry out safely e.g reaction of potassium and sodium with
dilute acids.

The collision theory

The collision theory is an application of the Kinetic Particle Theory of matter which assumes matter is
made up of small/ tiny particles like ions, atoms and molecules which are constantly in motion.
The collision theory states that
(i) For a reaction to occur, reacting particles must first collide.
(ii) The collisions between the particles must be strong enough to produce a minimum amount of
energy to break the bonds and start the reaction.
The minimum amount of energy which the colliding particles need in order start the reaction is
called the activation energy EA
The speed at which the particles collide is called the collision frequency, the higher the collision frequency
the higher the chances of successful/ effective collisions to form products. The higher the chances of
successful collisions, the faster the reaction.

SOME WAYS OF MEASURING HOW FAST A REACTION IS GOING.

1. Measuring a reaction rate by measuring volume of a gas produced e.g.in the reaction between HCl
and marble chips (CaCO3).

2. Measuring reaction rate by mass loss. Use a top pan balance to measure the loss of mass in the
reaction between calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid.
 3. Measuring reaction rate by measuring formation of a given mass of precipitate per unit time. This can
be noted by the disappearance of a mark on a paper seen through the liquid mixture in a beaker e.g the
reaction between dilute Hydrochloric acid and Sodium thiosulphate can be measured by this method.

4. Measuring a rate by time taken by a certain

mass of reactant to completely diminish/
form products e.g dissolving of metal in
acid. The reaction between metals such as
zinc, iron, and magnesium with dilute acid
can be determined using this method.

To measure the rate of reaction we must choose one property of the reaction which will indicate how far the
reaction has changed and observe the way in which the magnitude of that property varies with time.

EXAMPLE: The reaction of hydrochloric acid and marble chips. Carbon dioxide is produced and so we can
measure its Volume at specific times. A graph can then be plotted from the result.

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 (g)

From the graph, the rate of the reaction at different time can be obtained from the gradient

Reaction has stopped

volume
y
Reaction slower-
of gas
gradient less steep
x

Reaction faster-
gradient is steeper

Time

The rate of reaction is obtained by y/x ie Change in volume

Change in time
Notice that rate is higher at the beginning of the reaction (high value of y/x) but low towards end. In all these
cases the reaction proceeds fast initially and then slow down and finally stops. It stops because one of
the reactant has been used up.
The rate of different reactions can be compared by repeating the experiments and only changing one factor
which is being investigated. The results can then be plotted in the same grid so that it becomes easier to
compare its effect on the rate of a reaction. Consider the graphs below

1) Graph 1 represents the original fairly slow reaction

2) Graph 2 represents the reaction taking place faster, due to i) increase in temperature ii) increase in
concentration iii) catalyst added iv) increased pressure v) solid crushed into smaller particles. Graph
1 and 2 level off at the same amount of volume of gas produced, this shows that initial amounts of
reactants were used
3) Graph 3 shows a faster reaction due to a steeper slope as well as more products being formed. This
can happen only when more reactants were added at the start

Factors which affect rates of reactions

1. Particle size
2. Concentration
3. Catalyst
4. Temperature
5. Pressure
6. Light intensity

Surface Area/ Particle size

In many reactions, one reactant is a solid. The reaction between limestone (calcium carbonate) and
hydrochloric acid is an example. Carbon dioxide gas is given off.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g).

This reaction can be used to investigate the effect of surface area on the rate of reaction.

Two equal samples of calcium carbonate were used,

The rates at which the two reactions occur can be found by measuring either:
• the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced by using a gas syringe per unit time or
• the loss in mass of the reaction mixture with time
These two methods are generally used for measuring the rate of reaction for reactions which produce gas as
one of the products.
The apparatus shown below are used to measure the loss in mass of the reaction mixture. The limestone is
placed in the flask and the acid added then the flask is quickly plugged with a cotton wool. (Why is the
flask plugged with a cotton wool?) The mass of the conical flask plus the reaction mixture is measured at
regular intervals until the reaction is complete. Carbon dioxide is a heavy gas. It escapes through the cotton
wool, which means the flask gets lighter as the reaction progresses, so the mass decreases. The total loss in
mass is calculated for each reading of the balance, and this is plotted against time. The experiment is
repeated using powdered limestone. Everything is kept exactly the same each time, except the surface area
of the marble chips (marble chips (lumps) and powdered form)

Results

Notice these things about the results:

1. In both experiments, the reaction started rapidly and gradually slowed down as the reaction
continues. This is because the concentration of the reactants is high at the start and decreases as they
are being used up.
2. Curve 2 is steeper than curve 1. This shows that the reaction is faster for small chips (powder) than
when using lumps
3. In both experiments, the final loss in mass is the same (2.0 grams). This means the same amount of
carbon dioxide was lost in both reactions. This is because the same amount of reactants were used
in both experiments
Explanation: The surface area has been increased by powdering the limestone; this increases the total
surface area of the solid, so exposing more solid particles. More acid particles will then collide with
them and this increases the number of collisions. The more they collide the higher the rate of reaction.
The rate of reaction increases when the surface area increases
EFFECT OF VARYING THE ACID CONCENTRATION

The method: Dilute hydrochloric acid react with sodium thiosulphate solution to form a fine yellow
precipitate of sulphur.
Sodium thiosulphate + hydrochloric acid →sodim chloride + sulphur + sulphur dioxide + water

Na2S2O3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + S + SO2 + H2O

Caution: sulphur dioxide affects the lungs therefore the reaction should be carried out in a fume hood/
fume cupboard. The rate of this reaction can be followed by recording the time taken for a given amount of
sulphur to be precipitated. This can be done as follows:

1. Mark a cross on a piece of paper

2. Place a conical flask/ beaker containing sodium thiosulphate on top of the paper so that you can see
the cross through it, from above
3. Quickly add hydrochloric acid and start the stop watch/ clock at the same time
4. The cross grows fainter as the precipitate forms. Stop the clock the moment you can no longer see
the cross. Note the time taken for the cross to disappear.
5. Now repeat steps 1-4 several times, changing only the concentration of sodium thiosulphate or
hydrochloric acid

RESULTS
Experiment Volume of acid Volume of Volume of Concentration Time for the
(cm3) water (cm3) sodium of sodium cross to
thiosulphate thiosulphate disappear
(cm3) (mol/dm3) (seconds)
1 5.0 0.0 25.0 0.4 20.0
2 5.0 5.0 20.0 0.32 23.0
3 5.0 10.0 15.0 0.24 27.0
4 5.0 15.0 10.0 0.16
Note these things about the results:
1. When the most concentrated sodium thiosulphate solution was used, the reaction was at its fastest.
This is shown by the shortest time taken for the cross to disappear. The reverse is true, when the
sodium thiosulphate is diluted more and more, the precipitate takes longer and longer to form..
Explanation: When the sodium thiosulphate solution is more concentrated, there is large number of
sodium thiosulphate particles in a given volume therefore there will be more collisions with the
acid particles and as a result the rate of reaction also increases.

2. Rate therefore depends on how frequent are the particles colliding, the collision will then depend on
how dense or crowded the particles are (concentration).

In another experiment the results which were obtained are as shown by the graphs below:
2.0 mol/dm3
Explain why the graphs do not end
at the same level. What could be the
Volume of 1.0 mol/dm3 limiting factor?
CO2 In which reaction was the rate of
3
0.5 mol/dm reaction fastest

EFFECT OF CHANGING THE TEMPERATURE

Increasing temperature will increase the rate of a chemical reaction. The reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid can also be used to study the effect of temperature on the rate of a
reaction.

Sodium thiosulphate + hydrochloric acid →sodim chloride + sulphur + sulphur dioxide + water

Na2S2O3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + S + SO2 + H2O

Several experiments are carried out with equal volumes and concentrations of hydrochloric acid and sodium
thiosulphate but changing only the temperature of the reaction by heating sodium thiosulphate solution to
different temperatures, before adding the acid.

Sample results
Temperature (° C) 25 30 40 50 60
Time for cross to 120 80 48 30 20
disappear (s)
Note these things about the results:
1. It can be seen from the graph that the rate of the reaction is fastest at high temperatures; this is shown
by the shortest time taken for the cross to disappear.
Explanation: On heating, the particles gain more heat energy and this will make them to move faster. If
they move faster they collide more frequently and harder. The rate of the reaction would therefore be
expected to increase.

Effect of pressure
Change in pressure mostly affects chemical reaction that involves only gases, for example the Haber
process. An increase in pressure increases the rate of a reaction. This is because the increase in pressure
results in the gas particles being pushed closer together. This means that they collide more often and so react
faster.

EFFECT OF A CATALYST

Over 90% industrial use catalysts. A Catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction
but remains chemically unchanged (or is not used up) at the end of the reaction.
Most catalysts speed up the rate of reactions but some slow down the rate of reactions. Catalysts which slow
down the rate of reactions are known as inhibitors adding a bit of glycerine to stored hydrogen peroxide to
prevent it from decomposing rapidly.

Name the catalysts for the following processes:

Haber process ……………………………….

Contact process ……………………………….
Manufacture of margarine ……………………………….
Ethene to ethanol ……………………………….

In the laboratory, the effect of a catalyst can be observed using the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide as
an example.
Hydrogen peroxide water + oxygen

2H2O2(aq) Manganese (iv) oxide 2H2 O(l) + O2(g)

The rate of decomposition at room temperature is very slow. A catalyst such as black manganese (IV) oxide
powder can be used to speed up the rate of reaction. Resulting in more oxygen produced rapidly.
i) Describe how you would measure the rate of this reaction and draw a labelled diagram used to
measure the rate of this reaction
At the end of the reaction the manganese (IV) oxide can be filtered off and used again. The reaction can
proceed even faster by increasing the amount and surface area of the catalyst

Catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy (EA ) required for the reaction. This enables
more particles to have sufficient energy to react, therefore more effective collisions. The activation energy
is the energy barrier which reactants must overcome, when their particles collide to react successfully and
form products

ENZYMES

An enzyme is a biological catalyst. They are proteins. There are different types of enzymes e.g amylases
which breakdown sugars, proteases which break down proteins and peptones and lipases which break down
lipids.

A clear liquid hydrogen peroxide gradually decomposes at room temperature giving water and oxygen:
adding a drop of blood dramatically speeds up the reaction.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENZYMES AND CHEMICAL CATALYST

(1) Nature- enzymes are proteins in nature whereas chemical catalysts are transition metals or their
compounds
(2) Temperature. Chemical catalysts can work at a wide range and high temperatures but enzymes operate
effectively at temperatures between 35°C-40 °C. At low temperatures they are inactive but at high
temperature they are denatured (destroyed).

(3) pH – Enzymes are very specific in their action, others work best in acidic medium while others work
best in alkaline medium. Chemical catalysts are not pH sensitive.

(3) Substrate specific- Enzymes catalyse only one reaction/ substrate specific whereas one chemical
catalysts can catalyse different reactions.
USES OF ENZYMES
Humans have used enzymes for thousands of years. For example
(i) In making bread/ baking-Yeast, sugar and water are added to bread flour to make dough. Yeast
contains an enzyme called zymase. When the dough is left in a warm place, the yeast cells feed
on the sugar to obtain energy (anaerobic respiration). Enzymes in the yeast catalyse the reaction
called fermentation.

C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + ENERGY

Ethanol
The carbon dioxide gas makes the dough to rise.
(ii) in brewing- alcoholic drinks such as beer and wines are made with the help of enzymes. Beer is
made from barley grains to which yeast is added. Wine is made from grape jice which contains
glucose and fructose and wild yeast from grape skins. In both cases enzymes in yeast will carry
ot the fermentation of the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Ethanol is a substituent in
alcoholic drinks.

C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + ENERGY

Ethanol
(iii) Dairy Industry – In making yoghurt/ cheese, special bacteria are added to milk. They feed on
the lactose (sugar) in it to obtain energy. Their enzymes catalyses its conversion to lactic acid and
other substances, which causes the milk protein to become solid or ‘clot’ and turn into madila/
yoghurt.
(iv) Baby foods- In making baby foods, enzymes called proteases are added to pre-digest the protein
part of the food
(v) For tenderising meat- enzymes are added to break down proteins into simpler proteins
(vi) In tooth paste
(vii) In making soft centred chocolates- An enzyme invertase is added to sugar, water flavouring and
dipped in the chocolate, which hardens. The invertase catalyses the breakdown of sugars to more soluble
ones, so the paste goes runny
(vii) For leather treatment
(viii) Biological washing powders- enzymes are added to break down proteins found in stains e.g
blood, eggs in clothing

Explosive combustions: Example in flour mills, the surface area of particles increases when crushing wheat
to powders. Reactions are very fast when the surface area is large, hence once there is a reaction the whole
complex will explode.

Combustible gases in mines: Gases are compressed in mines and by so doing the particles of a gas get
crowded. Once an ignition occurs all particles react at the same time producing an explosion.

Everyday instances of speeding up , slowing down reactions.

Stirring- when stirring the mixtures, particles gain Kinetic Energy and there are more collisions
Heating-Particles gain kinetic energy hence collision is frequent. Temperature is the variable involved.
Crushing a solid increases the surface area therefore the rate of reaction increases. For example tablets are
more effective if taken in powder form. Why do we usually start a fire with small sticks? (Surface area)
Freezing- denaturing the enzyme by freezing. Stops decay. The variable is temperature.
Cooking- kills enzymes hence stops the rate of reaction .The variable is temperature.