Program Studi Sarjana Kebidanan

MODUL
BAHASA
INGGRIS
 PRAKATA

Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT atas segala rahmat dan

karunia-Nya sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan
penyusunan 'Modul Teori Bahasa Inggris: Sentence' ini yang
merupakan bagian dari materi yang dibahas pada Mata
Kuliah (MK) Bahasa Inggris.

Materi pada modul ini merupakan materi pertama yang

akan mengawali serangkaian materi MK Bahasa Inggris,
yang membahas bagian atau penyusun kalimat, jenis-jenis
kalimat, struktur kalimat, penggunaan tanda baca dalam
kalimat, aturan baku penulisan serta penyusunan kalimat
terutama yang dinyatakan dalam Bahasa Inggris, dan
sebagainya.

Penulis mengucapkan banyak terima kasih kepada semua

pihak yang telah mendukung tersusunnya buku panduan ini,
terutama Tim Pengajar Mata Kuliah Bahasa Inggris dan
pengelola Program Studi Sarjana Kebidanan Universitas
Muhammadiyah Pekajangan Pekalongan.

Penulis berharap modul teori ini dapat memberi manfaat,

terutama bagi mahasiswa penempuh MK Bahasa Inggris.
Kritik dan saran yang membangun sangat diharapkan guna
memperbaiki dan menyempurnakan modul teori ini.

Pekalongan, Juni 2022

Penyusun
TABLE OF
CONTENT

SENTENCE 01

PARTS OF SPEECH 02

NOUNS 03

PRONOUNS 04

ADJECTIVES 05

ARTICLES 06
VERBS 07

ADVERBS 08

PREPOSITION 09

CONJUNCTIONS 10

INTERJECTIONS 11
 CHAPTER 1
SENTENCE

What is a sentence? When you meet a group of words, can you

decide whether those can be called as a sentence? Now, take a look
at the following items and decide which ones are sentences and
which ones are not.

Is it a sentence?
a. Tom Cruise will be the next president of the US.
b. A pretty cat with fluffy white fur
c. Because I really want to join a tour to Raja Ampat
d. You have such beautiful eyes.
e. Can you help me lift these boxes?
f. Keep going!
g. Behind the valley
h. I like it.
i. What a beauty!
j. Stop!

How many sentences do you find? Which items are sentences? How
can you decide whether or not the group of words is a sentence?
So, a sentence is ______________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

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Now, take a look at the following paragraph. Every normal
paragraph consists of at least three sentences. Can you count how
many sentences the paragraph has?

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī or al-Khwarizmi and formerly

Latinized as Algorithmi, was a Persian polymath who produced vastly
influential works in Mathematics, Astronomy, and Geography. Around
820 AD, he was appointed as the astronomer and head of the library
of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. His popularizing treatise on
Algebra presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic
equations. One of his principal achievements in Algebra was his
demonstration of how to solve quadratic equations by completing the
square, for which he provided geometric justifications.

Taken from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi

Can you count them? Easy, right? But, if you still find it difficult to
count the number of the sentences, don’t worry. Pay attention to
the following characteristics of English sentences and ask questions
for any confusion you face.

English Sentence Characteristics

1. Every sentence starts with a capital letter / uppercase.

Donna has three brothers and a sister.
Swimming and cycling are my recent hobbies.

2. Every sentence ends with a period (.), a question mark (?), or

an exclamation mark (!).
I need to finish my homework as soon as possible.
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 Can you help me answer the third question?
Please, stop!

3. Every sentence has at least a subject that can be person(s),

place(s), thing(s), or combination of them.
Marry started her poetry writing last week.
Marry and her poetry are equally beautiful.

4. Every sentence has at least a predicate.

Marry loves singing.
Marry sings and dances every single day.

5. English sentences follow S+P+O order.

Betty got her highest score last week.
S P O
6. Every sentence has a complete idea.
Eloise was the first friend I met in my first day in high school.

A sentence can be defined as a group of words that you use to

communicate your ideas. Every sentence is formed from one or
more clauses and expresses a complete thought. Do you still
remember what a clause is? How does it differ to sentences or
phrases? Fortunately, Indonesian language employs almost
syntactical formulas for clauses and sentences which are almost
similar to English syntax. Thus, you only need to brainstorm your
Indonesian linguistic class to understand this material. Conversely,
by learning this material you will also refresh your understanding of
your first language linguistics.

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A clause is a unit of

language consisting of at least two words: a subject and a predicate.
It is a pair of subject and predicate. Before we talk further about
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clauses, decide whether or not each of the following word groups is
a clause. Remember, every clause must have a pair of subject(s) and
predicate(s).

Now, take a look and decide: is each of the following word groups a clause?
o Teaching is an art
o to protect the environment
o after that breathtaking incident
o because pollution causes cancer
o since Newton introduced his theory of gravity

Which ones are clauses, and which ones are not? Can you decide
easily? Is it still troublesome enough? Pay attention to the following
explanation on Independent and Dependent Clause.

Independent clauses
An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own as a
distinct sentence.

Take a look at these examples:

o I love eating cookies.
o My dog barks a lot.
o The kids ate lunch.
o His truck is green.

As you can see, independent clauses are neither long or complex.

Or if it is long, it still has only a pair of subject and predicate. They
can certainly be part of complex sentences, but by definition, they
are known as simple sentences.

Other types of sentences include complex sentences, compound

sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Each type of
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sentence is created by a unique combination of independent and
dependent clauses. In complex sentences, an independent clause
acts as the main clause.

Dependent clauses
In contrast, a dependent clause is not a complete sentence.
Dependent clauses are sometimes known as subordinate clauses.
As their name implies, these clauses depend on independent clauses
to clearly express ideas.

Here are a few examples of dependent clauses:

o When I grow up
o Although he sings well
o The mouse that was hiding

To turn these dependent clauses into full sentences, you need to

combine them with independent clauses:
o When I grow up, I want to be a doctor.
o Although he sings well, he hates karaoke.
o I searched through the basement and found the mouse that
was hiding.

Take a look at these three sentences and see if you can pick out the
differences between the first two and the last one.

In the first two examples, the dependent clause comes before the
independent clause and the two clauses are separated by commas.
Keep this in mind when you are writing: Whenever the dependent
clause comes first in a complex sentence, it’s followed by a
comma.

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How to combine clauses
When you want to write a sentence that has more than one
independent clause, you need to combine clauses. Every sentence
you write includes at least one independent clause. The other clauses
in your sentence determine how you can combine them with your
independent clause.

A sentence that includes two or more independent clauses is known

as a compound sentence. In a compound sentence, the clauses are
joined by a comma paired with a coordinating conjunction, a
semicolon, or a colon. This kind of combination is known as
coordination.

Take a look at these examples of compound sentences:

o I love drinking soda, but I know it’s bad for my teeth.
o Maria loved hosting dinner parties; her friends enjoyed her
cooking.
o We danced until the band finished playing: they played until
midnight.

When all of your clauses are independent clauses, you can combine
them using a coordinating conjunction. In English, the coordinating
conjunctions are:
for or
and yet
nor so
but

If you need to combine a dependent clause with an independent

clause, you need a subordinating conjunction. There are a lot more
subordinating conjunctions than there are coordinating

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conjunctions, and they can be divided into categories according to
their function.

A sentence that includes an independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses is known as a complex sentence, and a sentence
that includes two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause is known as a compound-complex sentence. In
either of these kinds of sentences, the subordinating conjunction
signifies the beginning of the dependent clause.

Here are a few examples:

o The fun can begin now that the clown is here.
o While we slept, the plane reached its destination.
o Before you leave, remember to take a goodie bag!
o The pool is open daily until the temperature drops.

As you can see in these examples, when the dependent clause comes
first, it needs to be followed by a comma.

Subordinating conjunctions are not the only way to add a dependent

clause to a sentence. Dependent clauses can also start with relative
pronouns or relative adverbs.

Relative pronouns include that, whose, whom, who, and which.

Take a look at how these dependent clauses that begin with relative
pronouns work in sentences:
o The guy who shouted all night made it impossible to fall
asleep.
o Pac’s, that restaurant with the arcade, is the best restaurant
in town.

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Relative adverbs include where, when, how, and why. Here are a few
relative adverb-led dependent clauses at work:
o The traffic jam is the reason why we were late.
o I have no idea when my hose stopped working.

Types of Sentences

There are four types of English sentence, classified by their purpose:

1. declarative sentence (statement)
2. interrogative sentence (question)
3. imperative sentence (command)
4. exclamative sentence (exclamation)

1. Declarative Sentence (statement)

Declarative sentences make a statement. They tell us something.
They give us information, and they normally end with a full-
stop/period.

The usual word order for the declarative sentence is:

subject + verb...

Declarative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these

examples:

positive negative
I like coffee. I do not like coffee.
We watched TV last night. We did not watch TV last night.

Declarative sentences are the most common type of sentence.

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2. Interrogative Sentence (question)
Interrogative sentences ask a question. They ask us something. They
want information, and they always end with a question mark.

The usual word order for the interrogative sentence is:

(wh-word +) auxiliary + subject + verb...

Interrogative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these

examples:

positive negative
Do you like coffee? Don't you like coffee?
Why did you go? Why didn't you go?

3. Imperative Sentence (command)

Imperative sentences give a command. They tell us to do something,
and they end with a full-stop/period (.) or exclamation mark/point
(!).

The usual word order for the imperative sentence is:

base verb...
Note that there is usually no subject—because the subject is
understood, it is YOU.

Imperative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these

examples:

positive negative
Stop! Don’t stop!
Give her coffee. Don't give her coffee.

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To soften the forcefulness of the imperatives, we can add ‘please’
before or after the main imperative or change the structure into
question.
For instance:
o Do you mind making me some coffee?
o Can you read the letter for me?

4. Exclamative Sentence (exclamation)

Exclamative sentences express strong emotion/surprise—an
exclamation—and they always end with an exclamation mark/point
(!).

The usual word order for the exclamative sentence is:

What (+ adjective) + noun + subject + verb

How (+ adjective/adverb) + subject + verb

Look at these examples:

o What a liar he is!
o What an exciting movie it was!
o How he lied!
o How exciting the movie was!

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EXERCISE
Identify the subject(s) and predicate(s) of each sentence
below. Decide whether the sentences are simple, compound,
complex, or compound-complex sentence based on the
number of clauses in each sentence.

Every two minutes, a woman dies during pregnancy or childbirth,

according to the latest estimates released in a report by United
Nations agencies today. This report, Trends in maternal mortality,
reveals alarming setbacks for women’s health over recent years, as
maternal deaths either increased or stagnated in nearly all regions
of the world.

“While pregnancy should be a time of immense hope and a

positive experience for all women, it is tragically still a shockingly
dangerous experience for millions around the world who lack
access to high quality, respectful health care,” said Dr Tedros
Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of the World Health
Organization (WHO). “These new statistics reveal the urgent need
to ensure every woman and girl has access to critical health
services before, during and after childbirth, and that they can fully
exercise their reproductive rights.”

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 CHAPTER 2
PARTS OF SPEECH

Every word is a part of speech. The term part of speech refers to

the role a word plays in a sentence. It is the classification of words
categorized by their roles and functions within the structure of the
language.

Parts of speech encompass everything a language has in itself. Can

you imagine all the words of a language can be sorted into these
categories? They play different roles in the structure of a language.

There are nine categories of English parts of speech; they are nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, articles, verbs, adverbs, prepositions,
conjunction, and interjections.

Make a group of 3 – 4 members and discuss the material to complete

the blanks. Based on your current understanding, find a
synonymous word of each category in your first language. Try to
figure out the function, characters, types, or anything about it, then
give examples.

1. Nouns :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

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2. Pronouns :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

3. Articles :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Example :
________________________________________________

4. Adjectives :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

5. Verbs :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

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 Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

6. Adverbs :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

7. Prepositions :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

8. Conjunctions :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

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 Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

9. Interjections :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Examples :
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Do you have any question about parts of speech? Feel free let me
know when you have any difficulty, different opinion, suggestion,
and so on.

If everything is clear enough for you, try to identify each word of

the following excerpt by its category.
Nursing is an art and a science as well as a humanitarian service. It is a
unique profession within the health care sector focused on the care of
individuals, families, and communities. Florence Nightingale was the
founder of modern nursing. She laid the foundation of professional nursing
with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas Hospital, London
in 1860. Nurses play a vital role in the health care system of any country
whose main goals are to promote healthy lifestyles, prevent diseases,
alleviate suffering and rehabilitate individuals that are differently abled.
Therefore, most of the countries have strengthened their nursing
profession through degree level education and specialization in selected
fields of nursing in order to provide effective and efficient health care for
the public.
Source: https://nursing.cmb.ac.lk/nursing-as-a-profession/
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 CHAPTER 3
NOUNS

Nouns refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. They make up the

subjects, direct objects, and indirect objects in a sentence, along with
other roles. Most of words or lexicons of a language are nouns.

Noun can be a/an:

name for a person : Max, Julie, Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc.
name for an animal : dog, cat, cow, kangaroo, etc.
name for a place : London, Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc.
name for a thing (concrete) : bat, ball, chair, door, house,
computer, etc.
name for an idea (abstract) : devotion, superstition, happiness,
excitement, etc.

In sentences, nouns can play the role of subject, direct

object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement,
appositive, or adjective. Usually, nouns have articles (the, a, or an)
before them in a sentence, but not always. Sometimes you may see
adjectives or words like “some” or “this” before nouns. Aside from
the first word in a sentence, if a word is capitalized then it’s a noun,
such as a person’s name.

Examples of Noun as a Part of Speech:

o Alex is a wonderful player.

o Sydney Lions is the team he plays for.

o He was not born in this country.

o Sydney is the city he lives in.

o He is a man of dream.

o The bat is made of wood from a tree.

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 o My brother has a mobile phone.
o The phone is made of plastic and
o I need some water for the cake.
o The jug is on the table.
o There is also a pen and a diary on it.
o Truthfulness is a virtue that is rare nowadays.
o Honesty depends mostly on truthfulness and integrity.
o The cat used to eat a cookie every day.
o I have a phone, few books, a notepad, a table-calendar,
and a computer on my desk.

As you see in the examples, nouns are commonly used in groups in

sentences. They often perform as phrases, or to be precise Noun
Phrases. Hence, aside from single nouns, you need to know about
noun phrase.

Phrase

Phrases and clauses are the most important elements of English

grammar. Phrase and clause cover everything a sentence has.
Clauses are the center of sentences and phrases strengthen the
sentences to become meaningful. If the clauses are the pillars of a
building, the phrases are the bricks.

A phrase is a group of words that stands together as a single

grammatical unit. It is broader than a word, but smaller (the
function, not necessarily the number of the letters) than a clause.
When you consider the physical form of phrase, it is alike with a
clause. However, if we consider the function, a phrase is like a word.
For example, a noun phrase is a group of words that act as a single
noun. There are various types of phrases such as noun phrase,
adjective phrase, adverbial phrase, etc. However, in this chapter, we
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will only discuss ‘noun phrase’ to avoid any confusion and too broad
discussion.

Phrase and Noun

Angelina Jolie is my favorite celebrity.

(Angelina Jolie is a noun and act as a subject)

The highest paid actress Angelina Jolie is my favorite celebrity.

(The highest paid actress Angelina Jolie is a phrase and act as a
subject)

Phrase and Clause

Angelina Jolie (S) is (P) my favorite celebrity.

(a clause or a simple sentence)

The highest paid actress Angelina Jolie (S) (a noun phrase)

Although phrase can be as long as or even longer than a clause, a

phrase can only act as a single unit, for example as a subject only.

Types of Nouns

There are several types of nouns. Here are several types you need to
know. Several types are described in pairs to make you understand
easier.

Common and Proper Nouns

A common noun is a name for a type of thing, person, species, or
etc. which denotes a general name for something.

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Example of Common Noun:

Alex is a wonderful player.

Sydney Sixers is the team he plays for.
He was not born in this country.
Sydney is the city he lives in.
He is a man of dream.
Michael Clarke is his mentor.
He has a house across the river.
He goes for a walk by the river every day.
His friend accompanies him.
They talk about movies and celebrities.
He is a fan of Hugh Jackman and the movie Wolverine.
He has a dog named Poppy.
He has a house and a car also.

On the other hand, a proper noun is a name of

someone/something which denotes a particular person/thing. It
always begins with a capital letter.

Example of Proper Noun:

Alex is a wonderful player.

He plays for Sydney Sixers.
He was born in England.
He moved to Australia when he was young.
He lives in Sydney.
Michael Clarke is his mentor.
He has a house across the Georges River.
He goes for a walk by the river every Monday.
His friend Max accompanies him.
Max was born in South Africa.
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He is a fan of Hugh Jackman and the movie Wolverine.
He has a dog named Poppy.

Click the following link and enjoy the video to get better
understanding of proper and common nouns.
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/parts-
of-speech-the-noun/types-of-nouns/v/common-and-proper-
nouns

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

A concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses;
something that is physical or real.
I heard the doorbell.
My keyboard is sticky.
Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.

Abstract nouns are the exact opposite of concrete nouns. An

abstract noun is a word for something that cannot be seen but is
there. It has no physical existence. Generally, it refers to ideas,
qualities, and conditions, for instance: truth, lies, happiness, sorrow,
time, friendship, humor, patriotism, peace, love, democracy,
independence, etc.

Abstract Nouns in use:

Truthfulness is a virtue that is rare nowadays.
Honesty depends mostly on truthfulness and integrity.
Childhood is the best time to build it.
Different people may have different ideas, opinions, and beliefs.
But some virtues receive universal acknowledgment.
Courage, bravery, honesty, intelligence, perseverance, etc. are
the best of virtues.

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Countable and Non-countable Noun

A countable noun is a noun which can be counted in cardinal

numbers (1, 2, 3 . . .). Every countable noun can take an article: a,
an, the. The examples of countable nouns are chair, table, bat, ball,
etc. You can say 1 chair, 2 chairs, 3 chairs – so chairs are countable.

Countable nouns in use:

o I bought a book of neurology.
o The book has 269 pages in it.
o It has 39 chapters in it.
o Each chapter covers 5 topics.
o Alex has four pencils.
o He also has three erasers.
o He has a car.
o The car contains four seats.
o He had a cat when he was young.
o The cat used to eat a cookie every day.
o I have a phone, few books, a notepad, a table-calendar, and a
computer on my desk.
o I love to listen to songs when I work.
o How many times did I tell you to do this?
o I did it many times when I was young.
o Bring me a glass of water.

The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable

nouns; for example, water, sugar, oil, salt, etc. You cannot say “1
water, 2 water, 3 water” because water is not countable.

Abstract nouns and proper nouns are always non-countable nouns,

but common nouns and concrete nouns can be both count and non-
count nouns.
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 o Non-countable Nouns in use:
o I need some drinking water.
o Have some juice, please.
o Do you need some gas for your car?
o We need a lot of money for the business.
o Do you want some milk?
o I need some rice, bacon, cream, and oil.
o Do you drink coffee or tea in the morning?
o Can you please check the salt of the curry?
o I would like to have some beer after lunch.
o How much time do you need?
o I need some more time.
o Bring me a cup of soup.

Singular and Plural Nouns

Singular Nouns are namely, singular in number. The base form of

any noun is naturally singular and so that is the Singular Noun. For
example, duck, bush, man, mouse, child, fish etc. are singular nouns.

Singular Noun in a sentence:

I have a pet duck.
That big bush is beside our house.
He is the man of the house.
Ron’s pet mouse is too vicious for such a little creature.
Their child has a sound sense of situational adjustments.
I’d like that small fish, please.

The plural forms of the Singular Nouns are Plural Nouns. These
nouns determine more than one element. For examples: belts,
boxes, mice, sheep, people etc. are examples of plural noun.
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Plural Noun in a sentence:
There are seven belts in the seat.
Let’s unpack those boxes.
Our house is scattered with a herd of mice.
I’ve chased the sheep back into the shed.
These people are getting on my nerves.

Nouns in Use

Nouns as subjects
Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be
a noun. The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that
is doing or being the verb in that sentence.

Maria is happy.
Maria is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is
a form of to be (is).

Nouns as objects
Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be
either a direct object (a noun that receives the action performed by
the subject) or an indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of a
direct object).

Give the books to her.

Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect
object (who the books are being given to).

Nouns as subject and object complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this
example, the noun teacher is used as a subject complement.
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Mary is a teacher.
Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be,
become, or seem. A teacher is what Mary is.

A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.

E.g.: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this
sentence. Verbs that denote making, naming, or creating are often
followed by object complements.

Appositive nouns and nouns as modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun that immediately follows another
noun in order to further define or identify it.

My brother, Michael, is six years old.

Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the
sentence, my brother.

Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

He is a speed demon.
Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to
modify demon.

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EXERCISES OF NOUNS

Exercise 1
Mark or circle out the nouns and also name the noun that you have
found in the following statements. Like whether they are common,
proper, possessive, nouns, and so on.

1. One should always speak the truth.

2. People tend to believe more in individuals who have the trait
of honesty.
3. Are these two children yours?
4. Of all the animals, ' Lion is my favorite.
5. Shakespeare has been my all-time favorite.
6. It is believed that cleanliness attracts positivity and a good
aura.
7. Birdies have the freedom to glide wherever they wish.
8. Is Jessica your new class teacher?
9. Ganga is a spiritual river in India
10. Our office will be visited by the Inspection committee
tomorrow.
11. I love traveling places on the train.
12. The flock of sheep was running on the lawn
13. The Taj Mahal is an icon of love
14. This jewelry is made of gold.
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 15. The firemen were called immediately when the fire broke out.

Exercise 2
Write the appropriate noun in the below mentioned phrase.
1. I think I have lost my _________________ of keys, I am
unable to find them.
2. Our music _________________ has become everyone's
favourite and has recently being listed as one of the famous.
3. The Ramayana is a holy _________________ of the Hindus.
4. The Ganges is the one of the most spiritual
_________________ in India and is worshipped by people.
5. Salman Khan is a famous _________________
6. Our Sofa is made of _________________ , which makes it
super strong.
7. A _________________ can survive only in waterbodies.
8. Virat Kohli is my favourite____________.
9. The shopkeeper sold three __________ eggs.
10. Always speak the _______ .
11. Ram was driving a ______ when I saw him yesterday.
12. _______ lies in the vision of the beholder.

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Vocabulary Practice: Emergency Nursing Kit

Exercise 1: Underline every single term of nursing.

Your emergency nursing equipment kit must include a wide range

of emergency medications. The specific list depends partially on the
type of patient you treat, but in general should include:
• Medication to stop a postpartum hemorrhage, such as Pitocin.
• Treatment for anaphylaxis, such as epinephrine.
• Medication to lower blood pressure, such as magnesium.
• Pain and numbing agents, such as NSAIDs, morphine, and
lidocaine.
• Emergency cardiac drugs such as aspirin, nitroglycerin,
atropine, and heparin.
• Fast-acting anti-anxiety and anti-psychotic drugs for patients
who are anxious or experiencing psychosis.
Review practice guidelines for your patient population, as there may
be numerous additional medications you need to include.

First Aid Supplies

Nurses need to have basic first aid supplies such as sterilizing
equipment, bandages, gauze, and antibiotic ointment. But because
the extent of first aid you provide is much broader, you’ll need
equipment for emergency interventions, including invasive
emergency procedures. First aid supplies you should add to your kit
includes:
• scalpels in various sizes
• forceps in various sizes
• a stethoscope
• a blood pressure monitor

Page | 27
 • a glucose testing kit
• a thermometer
• saline flushes
• neonatal care equipment, such as suction bulbs and a blanket

Airway Management
Airway management is a critical, and oft-neglected, aspect of nursing
care. You must be prepared to expertly handle a range of respiratory
emergencies, so you should have:
• an emergency suction machine
• catheters in a variety of shapes and sizes
• oxygen
• tubing and extra oxygen masks

Patient Transport
You must be prepared to safely transport patients of all sizes and
needs. For patient transport, be sure to have:
• wheelchairs
• walkers
• stretchers
• smaller stretchers for children and infants
• larger stretchers for heavier patients
• support and lifting equipment
• crutches

It is also a good idea to have a plan for moving patients who are
immobile, and to regularly train in the use of transport equipment—
especially for larger patients, unstable patients, or patients for whom
movement presents a danger.

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Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment is critical to protecting your patients,
your colleagues, and yourself. Even if you have a COVID-19
vaccination, don’t get complacent. Your patients may not have been
vaccinated, and COVID-19 is far from the only pathogen they may
carry. To protect yourself and others, be sure to have:
• surgical masks
• N95 face masks
• face shields
• gloves, including non-latex gloves
• alcohol-based sanitizer
• disinfecting wipes
• surgical gowns
• shoe covers

Injection and IV Supplies

The right injection can save a patient’s life, so you must be prepared
to quickly give IV infusions and injections. Your kit should include:
• alcohol pads
• IV bags
• IV tubing
• saline
• various syringes and needles
• numbing equipment for giving injections to children and
people with needle phobia

When you’re treating emergency patients in life-or-death situations,

seconds count. There may not be time to transport the patient to a
different facility, move them to another area of the hospital, or find

Page | 29
a wall-mounted suction unit. Besides, in the era of COVID-19, every
movement potentially exposes other patients to the virus.

Exercise 2: Name each of the following nursing tools and

equipment.

Source: https://blog.sscor.com/the-ultimate-list-of-emergency-
medical-nursing-equipment

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 CHAPTER 4
PRONOUNS

A pronoun is used in place of a specific noun mentioned earlier in a

sentence so that you don’t have to keep saying/writing that
particular noun. In other words, you need to use pronouns to
replace the second, third, fourth, and the next mentions of the noun
you talk about to avoid unnecessary redundancy.

For example:
Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning. (Here, you
don’t have to mention ‘Michael’ again)

The coach selected several key points. He wanted the team to

memorize them. (‘He’ replaces ‘the coach’; ‘them’ replaces ‘several
key points’)

The word or phrase that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent

of the pronoun. In the previous example, original noun ‘the coach’
is the antecedent and the pronoun ‘he’ is the referent because it
refers back to the original noun. The antecedent and the pronoun/s
must agree in terms of number and gender. There are several types
of pronouns that differ based on the noun or noun phrase and its
function in a sentence. Each of them are described below.

Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns work as the subject of the verb in a sentence. A
subject pronoun normally replaces the subject/object (a noun) of
the previous sentence.

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For example:
o Mike can’t attend the party. He has gone to his

grandparents.
o Marta is a good storyteller. She told a ghost story that scared

everyone.
o Julie made some cakes. They look tasty. (Here, the subject

pronoun replaced the object of the previous sentence)

Object Pronouns:
Object pronouns work as the object or indirect object in a sentence
replacing the antecedent object. This form of the pronoun is also
used after prepositions.
For example:
o I’ll give you a present on your birthday. I have a great idea

for you. (after preposition)

o Tell her that you’ll take the job.

o I have a gift for your boss. Give it to your boss. (Here, ‘it’

works as an object)

Possessive Pronouns:
Possessive pronouns replace the nouns of the possessive
adjectives: my, our, your, her, his, their. The possessive pronouns
are mine, ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs. The pronoun ‘who’ also has a
possessive form, whose.
For example:
o I thought my bag was lost, but the one Kesrick found

was mine. (Here, ‘mine’ refers to ‘my bag’)

o Their vacation will start next week. Ours is tomorrow.

(Here, ‘ours’ refers to ‘our vacation’)

o Those four suitcases are ours.

o Is this yours?

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You have to take either her car or theirs. Hers is better than theirs.
(Here, ‘her’ is possessive adjective and ‘hers’ and ‘theirs’ are
possessive pronouns which replaced ‘her car’ and ‘their car’)

Reflexive Pronouns:
Reflexive pronoun redirects a sentence or a clause back to the
subject, which is also the direct object of that sentence. A reflexive
pronoun comes when the subject performs its action upon itself.
Here, ‘itself’ is a reflexive pronoun.
For example:
o Since she is her own boss, she gave herself a raise. (Here,
‘herself’ is the direct object of the clause and the same
person is the subject)
o She allowed herself more time to get ready.
o The computer restarts itself every night.
o We told ourselves that we were so lucky to be alive.

Demonstrative Pronouns:
Demonstrative pronouns normally indicate the closeness of or
distance from the speaker, either literally or symbolically. This,
these, that, and those are the demonstrative pronouns. They also
work as demonstrative adjectives when they modify a noun.
However, demonstrative pronouns do not modify anything rather
replace the nouns/noun phrases.

Sometimes neither, none and such are also used as demonstrative

pronouns.

For example:
o That is a long way to go. (demonstrative pronoun)
o This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)
o Hand me that cricket bat. (demonstrative adjective)
Page | 33
 o Neither is permitted to enter the building.
o Such are ways of life.

Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns produce questions. They are what, which,
who, whom, and whose.

Who, whom, and whose refer to questions related to a person or

animal; what refers to an idea, object, or event; and which can
indicate either a person/s or a thing/s.

For example:
o What was the name of your dog?
o Which is your favorite movie?
o Who works for you?
o Whom do you prefer in this competition?
o There’s a new bike on the lawn. Whose is it?

The following table summarizes the material of the chapter.

Source: https://schoollead.in/personal-pronouns/

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EXERCISES OF PRONOUNS

Exercise 1: Choose the most suitable unswer.

1. I really like watching old shows. _________ are some of the
best things on TV.
a. Those
b. That
c. This
d. These

2. Please hand me __________ .

a. those
b. that
c. this
d. these
3. __________ is some of the nicest weather we’ve had lately.
a. Those
b. That
c. This
d. These
4. After the parade, __________ met up in the town square.
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
5. Would you like __________ to drink.
a. something
b. everyone

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 c. anywhere
6. I searched all over, but couldn’t find my notes __________ .
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
7. After the parade, __________ met up in the town square.
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
8. Would you like __________ to drink.
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
9. I searched all over, but couldn’t find my notes __________ .
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
10. After the parade, __________ met up in the town square.
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
11. Would you like __________ to drink.
a. something

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 b. everyone
c. anywhere
12. I searched all over, but couldn’t find my notes
__________ .
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
13. After the parade, __________ met up in the town square.
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
14. Would you like __________ to drink.
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere
15. I searched all over, but couldn’t find my notes
__________ .
a. something
b. everyone
c. anywhere

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Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable pronouns.

1. I have got a tortoise. ______ is my tortoise. I keep in a cage.

2. Nick is in the garden. Can you see ______ He is playing with
dog.
3. I've forgotten my pen at home. Can I borrow one of _____,
please?
4. We are German. But ______ English teacher can also talk to
in English.
5. Jenny and Sally are in the house. _______are listening to music
with phones.
6. You have got a new bike. Is this _______bike? Do you drive
to school?
7. Who is that girl over there? Do you know _______?
8. The Scotts have got a house. This is _______ house. We can
play in garden.
9. What did your brother say? Have you already talked to
______?
10. He is a famous actor. You can watch ______ new show on
TV.
11. Is this Tina's cat? Yes, it is _______ cat. ______ often plays
with her cat.
12. I collect old coins. This is _______ favorite one.
13. The kids like ________ new teachers because are funny.
14. Where are my glasses? Have you seen ________?
15. Is this your pencil case? Yes, it is ______.
16. This is an interesting play. You should read _______.
17. Debbie is eleven. _______ is English. We can talk to ______
in English.
18. We need a new laptop because ______ doesn't work anymore.
19. My brothers play in a band. You can watch ______ playing at
the festival.
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 20. What's the weather like in Rome? _______ is sunny and hot

Exercise 3: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable pronouns.

1. Murat is a good boy. __ always listens to__ teacher.
2. Amit and Sumit are twin brothers. ___ take the same bag to
school.
3. Milly and I are very good friends. ___ have known each other
since childhood.
4. The mangoes are very sour. Where did you buy ___?
5. I love watching Tom and Jerry. __ reminds me of my
childhood days.
6. I bought this book for my sister. __ often read it together.
7. This is Steve. Do you know __?
8. There are many windows here. But all of ___ are jammed.
9. The army has reached __ destination.
10. My aunt and uncle live in Delhi. ___ often visit ___.
11. While playing basketball, I hurt ____.
12. The children locked ___ up in the cupboard while playing
hide and seek.
13. I bought __ flowers for my anniversary.
14. All the boys participated in the race and ___ one of them got
a prize.
15. ___ of the witnesses were present in the court.
16. I met Peter ___ just returned from Belgium.
17. Raju set for ___, a target which was difficult to achieve.
18. The criminals ___ admitted their crime.
19. This is the girl __ identified the burglar.
20. The book is Anne’s. It is __ favorite book.

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 CHAPTER 5
ADJECTIVES

What are adjectives?

Adjectives are words that give more information about a noun or
pronoun. They describe, identifies, modifies, or quantifies nouns or
pronouns. Adjectives can go in different positions in a sentence.

Where adjectives go in a sentence?

We use adjectives to describe nouns.

Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun:

They have a beautiful house.
We saw a very exciting film last night.

or after a link verb like be, look or feel:

Their house is beautiful.
That film looks interesting.

Descriptive Adjectives:
A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and
pronouns. Most of the adjectives belong in this type. These
adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns
they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are also called
qualitative adjectives.

For examples:
o I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of
the car)
o I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information
about the subject)

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 o The hungry cats are crying.
o I saw a flying Eagle.

Quantitative Adjectives:
A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of
the nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the question category of
‘how much’ and ‘how many’.

For examples:
o I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much)
o They have three children. (How many)
o You should have completed the whole task. (How much)

Demonstrative Adjectives:
A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone.
Demonstrative adjectives include the words: this, that, these, those.
A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a
noun, but a demonstrative adjective always comes before the word
it modifies.

For examples:
o That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a
singular noun far from the speaker)
o This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the
speaker)
o These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a plural noun close to the
speaker)
o Those flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers to a plural noun far
from the speaker)

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Possessive Adjectives:
A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It
suggests the belongingness of something to someone/something.
Some of the most used possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our,
their, your. All these adjectives always come before a noun. Unlike
possessive pronouns, these words demand a noun after them.

For examples:
o My car is parked outside.
o His cat is very cute.
o Our job is almost done.
o Her books are interesting.

Interrogative Adjectives:
An interrogative adjective asks a question. An interrogative adjective
must be followed by a noun or a pronoun. The interrogative
adjectives are: which, what, whose. These words will not be
considered as adjectives if a noun does not follow right after them.
‘Whose’ also belongs to the possessive adjective type.

For examples:
o Which phone do you use?
o What game do you want to play?
o Whose car is this?

Indefinite Adjectives:
An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun unspecifically.
They provide indefinite/unspecific information about the noun.
The common indefinite adjectives are few, many, much, most, all,
any, each, every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.

Page | 42
For examples:
o I gave some candy to her.
o I want a few moments alone.
o Several writers wrote about the recent incidents.
o Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.

The Degree of Adjectives:

There are three degrees of adjectives: positive, comparative,
superlative. These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive
adjectives.

Comparative adjectives
We use comparative adjectives to show change or make
comparisons:
o This car is certainly better, but it's much more expensive.
o I'm feeling happier now.
o We need a bigger garden.

We use than when we want to compare one thing with another:

o She is two years older than me.
o New York is much bigger than Boston.
o He is a better player than Ronaldo.
o France is a bigger country than Britain.

When we want to describe how something or someone changes we

can use two comparatives with and:
o The balloon got bigger and bigger.
o Everything is getting more and more expensive.
o Grandfather is looking older and older.

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We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing
depends on another:
o The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is.
(= When you drive faster, it is more dangerous.)

o The higher they climbed, the colder it got.

(= When they climbed higher, it got colder.)

Superlative adjectives
We use the with superlative adjectives:
o It was the happiest day of my life.
o Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
o That’s the best film I have seen this year.
o I have three sisters: Jan is the oldest and Angela is the youngest.

How to form comparative and superlative adjectives:

We usually add –er and –est to one-syllable words to make
comparatives and superlatives:
old older oldest
long longer longest

If an adjective ends in –e, we add –r or –st:

nice nicer nicest
large larger largest

If an adjective ends in a vowel and a consonant, we double the

consonant:
big bigger biggest
fat fatter fattest

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If an adjective ends in a consonant and –y, we change –y to –i and
add –er or –est:
happy happier happiest
silly sillier silliest

We use more and most to make comparatives and superlatives for

most two syllable adjectives and for all adjectives with three or more
syllables:
careful more careful most careful
interesting more interesting most interesting

However, with these common two-syllable adjectives, you can either

add –er/–r and –est/–st or use more and most:
common likely simple
cruel narrow stupid
gentle pleasant
handsome polite

He is certainly handsomer than his brother.

His brother is handsome, but he is more handsome.
She is one of the politest people I have ever met.
She is the most polite person I have ever met.

The adjectives good, bad and far have irregular comparatives and
superlatives:

Good better best

bad worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest

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Order of Adjectives:
If you want to use more that one adjectives in a noun phrase, you
have to apply the following order.

Source: https://www.eslbuzz.com/english-grammar-order-of-
adjectives/
Page | 46
EXERCISES OF ADJECTIVES

Exercise 1: Circle all of the adjectives you find in the following

sentences.
1. The homeless beggar hasn’t eaten in days.
2. The fox is a sly animal.
3. Mary had a little lamb.
4. The selfish giant didn’t allow the children to enter his garden.
5. The foolish dog barked at its reflection and lost its food.
6. The family didn’t have enough food for the winter.
7. The girl is a state-level boxer.
8. The brave army marched through the streets.
9. I had no idea such a fantastic place existed.
10. Some oranges are pretty sour.
11. The ship sustained heavy damage.
12. I have called Sam several times.
13. The teacher called your name twice.
14. Naomi won the second prize.
15. I haven’t seen Mr Thomas for several days.
16. The soldier died a glorious death.
17. I had an eventful day.
18. King Solomon was a wise king.
19. Penny saw the accident with her own eyes.
20. What colour shirt do you like?

Exercise 2: Please fill the following sentences with the

appropriate form of adjectives. (Comparative or Superlative)
1. My apartment is (small) ------- than hers.
2. The bouquet is (beautiful)---------- than the one kept on the
table.
3. This is the (comfortable)-----------sofa I have ever used for
sitting.
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4. Who is the (rich)------kid in the world?
5. This is one of the (bad) -----------films that I have recently seen.
6. He is one of the -------(powerful) ----------persons in the nation.
7. Shakespeare is known as one of the (great)---------- men in
English Literature.
8. Helen is a (good)---------- athlete of the two.
9. The job offer is too (good)-------- for me
10. Healthy eaters usually live (long) -----------than the non-healthy
ones.

Exercise 3: Choose the correct forms.

1. The (later/latter) portion of the video clip is interesting.
2. (Each/Every) man desires to be wealthy and famous.
3. We all are asked to stay at home till (father/ further) order.
4. We have (some/any) great news for all your you.
5. He is my (older/elder) brother.
6. Have you watched (some/any) movie recently.
7. Kids saw (many/ much) animals on a jungle safari
8. There is not (many/much) salt in the food.
9. There are (a few/little) tables in the hall.
10. There is (some/any) juice in the glass.
11. I have (less/little) interest in painting.
12. She has (less/little) faith in her husband.
13. Do they have any (father/further) plans?
14. I have (fewer/less) time to finish this assignment.
15. I would need (fewer/less) outfits this season.

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Vocabulary Practice: Describing Pain

Exercise 1: Underline every single adjective of nursing you

find on the text.

Ways to describe and document your pain

Describing your pain accurately can help your health professional
make the right diagnosis and develop the best treatment plan for
you.

It's fine to describe your pain in your own words, you don't need to
use medical terms, but it helps to be able to understand the
difference between acute and chronic pain.

Pain is classified as acute when it comes on suddenly and has a

specific cause (eg, a broken bone, a cut, childbirth). Acute pain
doesn't generally last longer than 6 months and stops when the cause
of the pain is sorted out. Chronic pain lasts longer and is still there
after the initial cause has been resolved. Sometimes there's no
previous injury or apparent damage. Chronic pain can be complex
to understand and can affect you physically and emotionally.
Examples include headaches, arthritis and back pain.

Some words to describe pain

Each person experiences pain differently. Describing your pain
accurately is important as it can help your doctor make the right
diagnosis and develop the best treatment plan for you. The
following are examples of words that can help you describe the way
your pain feels. You can use a combination of these words.

aching dull ache cold sensation

cramping burning electric shock
Page | 49
nagging spasms tingling
intense splitting tiring
pins and needles stabbing exhausting
sharp tender
shooting throbbing

Some people find using descriptive sentences helpful such as ‘like a

red hot needle’ or ‘like a tight band’.

Using a pain scale

Your health professional might ask you to rate the intensity of your
pain (how bad it is) by choosing a number on a scale from 0–10. On
this scale 0 out of 10 indicates that you have no pain at all, and 10
out of 10 means the worst possible pain. The middle (around 5) is
moderate pain.

You may be asked to rate your pain using the pain scale for your
“best” day, “worst” day, and on an “average” day. This helps your
health professional get a clear picture of how your pain level changes
each day.

Sometimes people have trouble describing their pain, this may apply
to young children, people with intellectual difficulties, or where
there are language barriers or communication difficulties. In these
cases, your healthcare provider may use other signs to gauge pain.
These include:
o crying
o facial changes (e.g., grimacing or frowning)
o changes in sleeping or eating patterns
o becoming quiet and/or withdrawn
o screaming or refusing to move.

Page | 50
The faces pain scale, as pictured above, can also be used. The person
in pain can point to the facial expression that represents how their
pain makes them feel.

Source: https://www.healthnavigator.org.nz/health-a-z/p/pain-
describing-your-pain/

Exercise 2: Describing your pain

Write a paragraph consisting of 5 – 7 sentences about the
description of your recent physical or psychological feeling. You
may use the adjectives used in the text above.

Page | 51
 CHAPTER 6
ARTICLES

What Is an Article?
An article tells you if a noun is specific or general. Several possible
words can join together with a noun to create a noun phrase. A noun
phrase is made up of the noun and all the other words that go with
it. An article (a, an, some, the) gives information about the noun in
the noun phrase.

It can:
o tell us how many there are; if the article is “a” or “an,” we know
there's only one,
o tell us whether the noun in question is a specific one (“the”) or
just one in general,
o signal to a reader or listener that a noun is just being introduced
or that it's one he's already seen in a story.

Look at the following sentence:

The quick, brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

In addition to using all the letters of the alphabet, this sentence has
two noun phrases:
o the quick, brown fox
o the lazy dog

Both phrases include a noun (fox, dog), at least one adjective (quick,
brown, lazy) and an article (the). Noun phrases can also include
numbers, possessive adjectives or demonstratives (this, that, these,
those).

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Now that we know a little bit about what articles do, let's look at
definite and indefinite articles individually to see which does what.

Indefinite Articles
English has three indefinite articles: two for singular nouns and one
for plural and uncountable nouns.

Singular Nouns
For singular nouns, the indefinite articles are “a” and “an.” In other
languages, when choosing which indefinite article to use, you may
have to think about the gender of the noun, its spelling and the
spelling of any adjectives that come before it. In English, you only
have to listen to the very next word. If it begins with a vowel sound,
use “an.” If it begins with a consonant sound, use “a.” It's as simple
as that.

Here are a few examples:

o a man
o a monkey
o a blue umbrella
o a swimming pool
o an apple
o an elephant
o an igloo
o an octopus
o an umbrella
o an ugly hat

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Plural Nouns
For plural nouns, the indefinite article is “some.” It can be
followed by any adverb, adjective, plural noun or uncountable
noun whatsoever (as long as there's a noun somewhere in the
vicinity to complete the noun phrase).

Look at these examples:

o some men
o some cute monkeys
o some blue umbrellas
o some universities
o some elephants
o some very ugly hats
o some tufts of hair
o some water
o some milk
o some money

Other Rules for Indefinite Articles

We might choose to use an indefinite article in English for one of
two reasons:
1. We are introducing a noun for the first time in a story. When
a joke starts out, “A man walks into a shop,” the indefinite
article “a” is used for both the man and the shop because
this is the first mention of both nouns.
2. We don't care which one exactly. If you're going to the store
and your husband says, “Pick up a can of milk and some
olive oil,” he doesn't care which can or which olive oil you
get.
In either case, the noun is understood as being very general. There
are millions of men, shops, and cans of milk in the world, and
there are millions of gallons of olive oil. When you use an

Page | 54
indefinite article, you are beginning to narrow things down a bit,
but you're not into specifics just yet.

Definite Articles
We have only one definite article in English, and it's “the.” We
use “the” for singular, plural and uncountable nouns when the
reader or listener clearly understands which thing we're talking
about in particular. This could be for three different reasons.

1. It’s Been Introduced

The first time you introduce something, you use “a” or “an.”
For example, “A man walks into a shop” would be the first
time he was introduced. After that, you would switch to
“the.”

o The man looks for some groceries.

o The man brings two cartons of flour, butter, eggs, and
sugar to the cashier.
o The man leaves the shop with two hands full of things.

2. Unique People or Object

If there is only one in existence or it is unique, then you
would use the definite article “the.” For example, there is
only one “Colosseum” and only one “Eiffel Tower.” This
would look like:

o We visited the Colosseum when we were in Rome.

o My family saw the Eiffel Tower.
o The sun was beautiful.
o The sky looked amazing

This also includes unique objects in a specific place. Like

“the bathroom” in your house.
o Where is the bathroom?
Page | 55
 o The bathroom is next to the kitchen.
o I found the book in the hallway.

3. Exact Definitions
If you are describing exactly what you are looking for, then
you would use the definite article “the.” This would include
a specific “forest” or a particular “restaurant.”

o Our house is across the street from the Chinese

restaurant.
o Let's open the Chardonnay that Pam and Dale gave us
for our anniversary.
o The red car outside got scratched.

Other Definite Article Rules

There are a lot of very specific rules for whether to use a definite
or indefinite article, but they all fall into one of the categories
mentioned.

For example:
We use “the” when we use an ordinal number like first, second
or third, because using an ordinal number describes exactly which
one.
We also use “the” with the names of specific rivers, monuments
and the names of certain countries.
Use “the” where the clause is introduced with the word “only.”
But at the heart of all those rules, there's a broader one at work.
So, if you can just remember the ones given here, you'll be all set.

Exceptions to the Rules

While there are rules for when to use indefinite and definite
articles, language is never quite that simple. Each one has
exceptions to the rules.

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Indefinite Article Exceptions
Most of the time, using “a” or “an” is pretty simple. However, the
letters that will trip you up are “h” and “u.” Depending on how
they are pronounced, the indefinite article you use might be
swapped.

Use “an” for “h” words where the “h” is not pronounced, like
“an honest girl” or “an honorable mention.” You’ll notice the
beginning has the “on” sound.
Use “a” for “u” words that start with a “you” sound. Examples
include “a unicorn” and “a uniform.”
Choosing “a” or “an” is based on how the next word sounds and
not necessarily how it is spelled.

Definite Article Exceptions

Now, it is time to look at when we shouldn’t use “the” with
words. You don’t want to use “the” in these cases:
o Languages (e.g., French)
o Professions (e.g., engineering)
o Years (e.g., 1995)
o Individual names (e.g., Long Island)
o Possessive case (e.g., brother’s car)
o Meals (e.g., breakfast)
o People’s names (e.g., John)
o Titles (e.g., Prince Charles)

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EXERCISE OF ARTICLES

Fill in the blanks with appropriate articles.

Use ‘an’, ‘a’ or ‘the’ appropriately in the sentences given
below.

4. Sheldon is ___ honest man.

5. King Arthur was ___ just king.
6. ____ lion let go of ___ mouse.
7. I have fixed ___ appointment with ___ doctor.
8. Will you take ___ picture of us?
9. I broke ___ vase my brother brought.
10. My mother has ___ polka-dotted umbrella.
11. The team organised __ friendly match with ___
Presidents of both ___ countries.
12. We had __ mulberry tree in the garden.
13. ___ Eiffel Tower lights up at night.
14. ___ huge building turned to dust due to __ earthquake.
15. ___ famous band Beatles is coming to Texas tomorrow.
16. Charles Babbage is considered as ___ father of
computers.
17. __ famous poem ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ is written by __
Romantic poet John Keats.
18. __ Pacific Ocean is one of __ five oceans of __ world.
19. __ painter drew __ life-sized portrait of Mrs Mary
Poppins.
20. My son is ___ apple of my eye.
21. ___ history professor who taught us is retiring today.
22. ___ oranges I brought were very sour.
23. Sharon will take __ train from __ next stop.

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 CHAPTER 7
VERBS

What is a verb?
The next parts of speech we will explore is VERB.
Discussion about verbs will always be long since VERB is
one of the main parts of any utterance/sentence. In
addition, it will be long since the discussion will include the
discussion of English TENSES that is conveyed only
through the form of VERBS. Further, the discussion of
VERBS is also integrated with adverbs since adverbs are
the only part of speech that can modify VERBS.

In a sentence, a VERB tells about an action or a state. In

other words, VERBS tell what the subject (of the sentence)
is doing or what the state or situation of the subject is.

For example:
o Pain tells us that there is a problem with our body.
(tell: an action verb)
o Neither physiotherapists nor pharmacists are doctors.
(are: a stative verb)
o I never give my patients any prescription of chemical
medicine. (give: an action verb)
o The wound seems painful. (seem: a stative verbs)

Types of Verbs
By the characteristics, VERBs can be classified into several types.
We can differentiate VERBS into different contrasting types
based on the characteristics. Firstly, VERBS can be classified as
action and stative types.

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Action Verbs
These verbs talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence.
Action Verbs are one of the most easily identifiable types of
verbs. To recognize them, you simply have to look for the word
in the sentence that answers the question ‘What is the subject
doing?’.

For example:
o Rose is painting the kitchen walls.
The subject here is Rose, and what is Rose doing? Rose is
painting. Hence painting is our action verb.

o My dog is sleeping on the sofa.

The subject here is dog, and what is the dog doing? The dog
is sleeping. So sleeping is our action verb.

There are two types of Action Verbs which describe the Verb and
the Subject doing the action and the Object on which the action
is done, they are:

Transitive Verbs
What is a transitive verb?
These Action Verbs have a definite object on which, or for which
the action is being performed. That means that the action has a
definite recipient or object. To identify them you can ask the
question what is the/did the subject-verb?

o Rose is painting the kitchen walls.

Here the verb is painting and the subject is Rose.
If we form the question – what is Rose painting?
The answer is – The kitchen walls.
Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the
action of painting was being done.
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 o Hannah gave him a big hug.
Here we see that the action ‘gave’ is being performed by the
subject Hannah. So the question is what did Hannah give?
And the answer is – A big hug.
Here, we also have an indirect object as ‘him’. This indirect
object would be the answer to the question:
Who did the subject (Hannah) – verb – (give) the object
(hug) to?

Intransitive Verbs
What is an intransitive verb?
These verbs also show action but here there is no specific object
on which the action is being done. To recognize these verbs, we
ask the question “what is the/did the subject-verb?” If there is no
answer present, then the verb in the sentence is an Intransitive
Verb.

For example:
o Rose is painting right now.
Here, if we ask the question what is Rose painting? There is
no answer which means that in this sentence painting is an
Intransitive Verb.
It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no
specific object for the action.

o Hannah sneezed repeatedly.

Here, the verb is “sneezed”. If we ask the question what did
Hannah sneeze? There is no answer present for it making
sneezed an intransitive verb.
Dynamic and Stative Verbs
This category of verbs deals with the verb words themselves; and
whether they indicate an action or a state of the subject. This
category is not concerned with the object in particular.
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Dynamic Verbs
What is a dynamic verb?
These verbs denote an actual action or expression or process
done by the subject. They mean an action which can be seen or
physically felt or the result of which is seen or physically felt by
the object or an indirect object.

o She buys new clothes every week.

Here the verb is “buys” which is an action done by the
subject ‘she’, hence it is a dynamic verb.

o He is swimming at the beach.

Here again, we have the definite action swimming done by
the subject ‘he’, making ‘swimming’ a dynamic verb in this
sentence.

Stative Verbs
What is a stative verb?
These verbs refer to the state of the subject or the situation of the
subject. Stative Verbs tell us about the state of mind of the
subject, or the relation between the subject and the object.

For example:
o She prefers strawberry jam.
Here the Stative Verb is ‘prefers’ which shows the thinking
of the subject ‘She’ towards the object, which is ‘jam’.

o The cupboard requires a new coat of paint.

Here the subject is ‘cupboard’ and the stative verb is
‘requires’ which is telling about the relation between the
subject ‘cupboard’ and the object ‘paint’.

Linking Verbs
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What are linking verbs?
These verbs are unlike other verbs as they do not tell anything
about a subject themselves, instead Linking Verbs connect the
subject to a noun or adjective that helps in describing or providing
additional information about the subject. Those nouns or
adjectives are called the subject complements.

For example:
o Lisa is fussy about food.
Here we see the subject is Lisa and the linking verb is ‘is’
which is connecting Lisa to the subject complement ‘fussy
about food’ which is giving additional information about
Lisa’s preferences.

o They are stubborn children.

Here the linking verb is ‘are’ which is combining the subject
‘They‘ to the subject complement of ‘stubborn’ which is an
adjective.

The best to recognize linking words in a sentence is to see

whether the verb can be replaced by ‘is, am or are’. If the
sentence still sounds logical you know you have a linking verb.
o The students felt relieved. – The students are relieved.
Hence ‘felt’ was a linking verb and not an action verb. As
‘felt’ here is simply connecting the subject to the adjective.

o Every student felt the relief. – Every student is/am/are the

relief.
Hence in this sentence ‘felt’ is action verb as it is the action
of ‘feeling an emotion.’

English Tenses

What is tense?
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Why should we learn Tenses in English courses?

When we talk about tense, we talk about time, we will talk about
actions that happen in certain time concept. Then, why should we
learn tense? Can't we tell some actions without relating them to
time? The answer is no. Language is a part of culture, and it
dynamically formed and changed within a culture. When we learn
a language, you indeed learn the culture. English (people, not
language) never tell an event, a story, an information without
telling the time as a background. They do it automatically. Though
they may never learn English academically and never know past
tense of future perfect tense, they speak, write, and think with
tenses. Besides, they never think that speaking with tenses is a
burden since tenses are innate in their mind already.

In this course, and any other English courses or classes, learning

and memorizing all types of English tenses is not essential. As
long as you understand the concept of PRESENT, PAST,
FUTURE, CONTINUOUS, PERFECT, and how to implement
the concept to your English, then you don't need to memorize
any name or pattern of English tenses and learn it intentionally
just like you study Math or Physics. However, because the
concept of tense doesn't exist in BAHASA and for some of you,
English is a brand-new material, learning English Tenses and the
patterns will be like a shortcut for you to understand English one
step further.

Some grammar books will tell you that there are 16 types of
English Tenses, or some other will say 12 only. However, there
are only 3 types of English tenses actually: PAST, PRESENT, and
FUTURE. Then to enhance your understanding, you should also
understand the 2 aspects of tenses:
CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE and PERFECT.

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PAST tense indicates the time before now. PRESENT means
present or now. FUTURE indicates the time after now.
CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE indicates an action is still in
progress. Then, PERFECT indicates an action is completely
done.

To give you a complete map of English tenses, you can take a

look on the following tables.

Table 7.1
Types of English Tenses

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 Table 7.2
English Tenses in Use

Source: http://english-for-learners.blogspot.com/2014/05/16-
tenses.html

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Source: https://examplanning.com/16-tenses-in-english-
grammar-formula-and-examples/

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EXERCISE

Exercise 1: Complete the sentences, put the verb into the correct
form, positive, negative, or interrogative.

1. I’m sorry, but she _____________ (not, work) today. She

___________ (take) a day off.
2. My granny _____________ (break) her leg last Monday.
3. Maia __________ (leave) the class before Ria came.
4. How many birthday presents ____________ you
___________ (get) last year?
5. Look! She ___________ (cry).
6. I’m sorry, I ____________ (not, come) to your party next
week. I will go to Jakarta for two weeks.
7. Andi ___________ (write) the letter before Alice phoned
him.
8. I ___________ (not, like) tea. I prefer coffee.
9. The film wasn't very good. I _____________ (not, enjoy)
it very much.
10. We ___________ (visit) Museum Batik next month.
11. We ____________ (have) lunch right now.
12. Dina and Dini rarely __________ (walk) to work.
13. Danny and I ____________ (play) tennis yesterday. He
______ (be) much better than me, so he __________
(win) easily.
14. I ____________ (call) you last night, but you
_____________ (not, answer).
15. It was a funny situation, but nobody _____________
(laugh).
16. ____________ you ___________ (listen) to me?
17. Andrew ____________ (walk) in the park when I saw
him.
18. Dilla ______________ (read) all of the material before
she joins her classes.
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 19. I was having a shower when you __________ (come).
20. Mia ____________ (not, be) feeling good yesterday.

Exercise 2: Choose the most appropriate options to complete

the sentences.

1. For a long time, people ________ that the world was flat and
that people could fall off the edge.
a. are thinking c. thought
b. may think d. are thought
2. Andrew ____________ in the park when I saw him.
a. is walking c. has been walking
b. was walking d. had been walking
3. The ceiling was white. Now it is blue. He ________ the
ceiling.
a. paints c. has painted
b. is painting d. had painted
4. Grace keeps hoping the cat that she _______ in the pet store
yesterday _______ her birthday present.
a. sees / will be c. sees / would be
b. saw / will be d. was seen / would be
5. I __________ tea. I prefer coffee.
a. don’t like c. am not
b. doesn’t like d. was not
6. Look! She ___________ .
a. is crying c. has been crying
b. was crying d. had been crying
7. We are good friends. We ________ each other for a long
time.
a. know c. have known
b. knew d. had known

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 CHAPTER 8
ADVERBS

An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives,

other adverbs, and even the whole sentences. It tells when, where,
and how an action is performed or indicates the quality or degree of
the action.
Many adverbs end in -ly but some words which end in -ly (such as
friendly) are not adverbs. '-ly' type of adverbs are simply derived
from adjective+ly. In some cases, a word can act as both adjective
and adverb (but not in the same time), depending on the context of
the sentence.
For example:
o I'm a slow worker. I work slowly. (slow: adj; slowly: adv)
o She is an elegant woman. She speaks, eats, walks, even sleeps
elegantly. (elegant: adj; elegantly: adv)
o Anton is running fast. (fast: adv)
o Anton is a fast runner. (fast: adj)
o Alex works hard. (hard: adv)
o Alex is a hard worker. (hard: adj)

Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are clauses and phrases that
modify the verbs, adjectives or other adverbs in the sentence.

For example:
o He ran toward the bus until he was tired. (Adverb Clause)
o He came carrying his box with two hands. (Adverb Phrase)
o We were panicked without any reason. (Adverb Phrase)

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ADVERBS are special modifiers that can modify any type of words,
except NOUNs.

There are several types of adverbs, they are:

1. Conjunctive adverbs
2. Sentence adverbs
3. Adverbs of time/frequency
4. Adverbs of place/direction
5. Adverbs of degree
6. Adverbs of manner

Conjunctive Adverbs:
A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or independent clauses. It
provides transitions between ideas and shows relationships.
Conjunctive adverbs are also called connectors.

Example:
• It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been
canceled.
• We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come.
• Last season there was a great drought; consequently, we could
not grow crops.

Other examples of conjunctive adverbs are moreover, besides,

otherwise, etc.

Sentence Adverbs:
A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole
sentence.

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Example:

Hopefully, we will win the match.

Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.
Certainly, I did not think of coming here.
Other examples of sentence adverbs are: fortunately, unfortunately,
presumably, actually, obviously, evidently, etc. Moreover, many
words ending in -ed + ly are also sentence adverbs like unexpectedly,
allegedly, advisedly, decidedly, etc.

Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)

Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time or frequency of the action
in the sentence. They answer the question ‘when/how frequently is
the action performed?’.

Always, never, often, eventually, now, frequently, occasionally, once,

forever, seldom, before, Sunday, Monday, 10 AM, 12 PM, etc. are
common adverbs of time/frequency.

Example:

I went to school a little late yesterday.

He always gets a good result.
I will leave Monday.
He smokes occasionally.
Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the
action in the sentence. They answer the question ‘where is the action
performed?’.

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Across, over, under, in, out, through, backward, there, around, here,
sideways, upstairs, in the park, in the field, in that place, etc. are some
common adverbs of place/direction.

Example:
• I went through the jungle.
• He plays in the field.
• Alex is going to school.
• He is staying at my home.

Adverbs of Degree / Intensifying Adverbs (How Much?)

Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in
the sentence are called adverbs of degree. They answer the question
‘how much is the action performed?’. Completely, nearly, entirely,
less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, much, etc. are
common adverbs of degree.

Example:
• She completely forgot about her anniversary.
• I read the newspaper thoroughly.
• I am so excited about the new job.
• Robin hardly studies.

Adverbs of Manner (How?)

Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action
in the sentence are called adverbs of manner. They answer the
question ‘how is the action performed?’. Beautifully, equally,
thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully,
earnestly, nicely, tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs of manner.
These adverbs usually end in -ly added to a descriptive adjective.

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Example:
o Let's divide the prizes equally.
o Please, handle the camera carefully.
o Mike is walking slowly.
o He is running fast.

Another types of Adverbs:

1. explanatory adverbs (namely, for example, etc.)
2. exclamatory adverbs how (how beautiful she is!)
3. relative adverbs (these adverbs introduce adjective clauses)
e.g.: We visited the house where a famous poet once lived.

4. interrogative adverbs
o in questions (When will he arrive?)
o in noun clauses derived from questions (I asked when he
would arrive.)

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EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Read the sentences given below and underline the

adverbs.
1. The boy is too careless.
2. The winds are very strong.
3. The baby slept soundly.
4. The soldiers fought the war valiantly.
5. Joey always tries his best.
6. Surely you are mistaken.
7. The movie is to end soon.
8. Your friend messaged again.
9. I did my homework already.
10. I was rather busy.
11. Is your mother within?
12. We looked for the lost puppy everywhere.
13. We do not know her.
14. How long is the trip?
15. Monica seldom visits here.

Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate

adverb from the table.

out too somewhat

quickly before so
forward often
pretty once

1. Riya ran to her mother ____.

2. The scores are ____.
3. We have met ____.
4. I know him ____ well.
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5. The baby is ___ sleepy.
6. The naughty boy is ___ annoying.
7. My aunt comes to visit us ___.
8. My grandpa is ____ better today.
9. I met a magician ___.
10. Ambition urges us ___.

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 CHAPTER 9
PREPOSITIONS

What are prepositions?

A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a
noun and the other words of a sentence. They explain relationships
of sequence, space, and logic between the object of the sentence and
the rest of the sentence. They help us understand order, time
connections, and positions.

Example:
o I am going to Canada.
o Alex threw a stone into the pond.
o The present is inside the box.
o They have gone out of the town.

There are a few interesting linguistic facts about preposition.

First, they are a closed class of words which means no new

preposition gets added to the language. We use a fixed set of
prepositions.

Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be

plural, possessive, inflection, or anything else.

Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and

natural uses. So, it is easy to be confused about preposition.

Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and

adverbs.

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Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words.
Prepositions with two or more words are called phrasal
prepositions.

There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:

because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account
of, in care of, in spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Prepositions
Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some
prepositions which are common in every type of preposition as they
function in a versatile way.

1. Prepositions of Time
2. Prepositions of Place and Direction
3. Prepositions of Agents or Things
4. Phrasal Prepositions

Prepositions of Time:
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the
nouns to the other parts of a sentence.

On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the
most common preposition of time.

Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October.
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday.

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Prepositions of Place and Direction:
Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the
nouns to the other parts of a sentence.

On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among,
through, in front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the
most common prepositions of place/direction.

Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house.
o I live across the river.

Prepositions of Agents or Things:

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a casual relationship
between nouns and other parts of the sentence.

Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common
prepositions of agents or things.

Example:
o This article is about smartphones.
o Most of the guests have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers.

Phrasal Prepositions:
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a
combination of two or more words which functions as a
preposition.

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Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in
front of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in
addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard
to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions.

Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of the city.

Prepositions are the most confusing and difficult part of grammar

because almost every definition of a preposition has exceptions
and different meanings. There is no better technique to grasp the
correct use of prepositions other than practicing to picture how
each preposition functions in certain contexts. There are some
certain common uses and expressions of different prepositions.

1. Prepositions of Time Usage

Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the
nouns to the other parts of a sentence.

Common preposition of time: On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago,
before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common.

AT, ON, IN

AT:
At always indicates an exact and specific time.
o I started working at 10 AM.
o The movie starts at 6 PM.
o The shop closes at 30 AM.
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Note: Exceptions are that we say – at the weekend, at night, at
Christmas, at Easter, at the moment, etc.

ON:
On generally indicates a fixed date or a day.
o I’ll see her on Friday.
o He broke a record on Monday morning.
o I have a meeting on 25 October.

IN:
In generally indicates an indefinite and unspecific time of months,
seasons, years, centuries, etc.
o I will get a holiday in December.
o Murphy was born in 2001.
o I love playing cricket in summer.
Note: Some very common exceptions are – in the morning, in the
evening, in the afternoon, in five minutes, in six days, in two years,
etc.

FROM....TO , UNTIL, SINCE, FOR

From....to:
From....to indicates a fixed time-span with the beginning and the
end.
o I worked there from 2010 to 2017.
o I usually work from Saturday to Thursday.
o I will stay there from 10 AM to 6 PM.

Until/till:
Until/till indicates a specific or unspecific time/event up to a
point.

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 o They will not return until Friday.
o Wait for me until I return.
o I do not give up until I am succeeded.
o I will be there until Monday.

Since:
Since indicates a time-span beginning in a time in the past and still
continuing in the present (now).
o Alex has been in the village since Sunday.
o He has been suffering from fever since Friday.
o Robin and Susan have been friends since childhood.

For:
For indicates a period of time (amount of time) in the past, present
or future.
o He stayed there for four days.
o I will be staying there for five months.
o I will work with them for a year.
o He was standing there for a long time.

BEFORE, AFTER, DURING, BY

Before:
o Before indicates a prior event/ period of time from a point.
o Robin was very nervous before the interview.
o I want to leave before lunch.
o These batsmen should not get out before the tea break.
o Before going, close all the window.

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After:
After indicates a following event/period of time from a point. This
preposition is the exact opposite of before.
o Robin felt confident after the interview.
o I want to leave after lunch.
o After playing football, we went home.

During:
During indicates a period of time throughout the course or
duration of any event or action.
o Robert was sleeping during the film.
o They don’t talk during dinner.
o I don’t usually smoke during office time.

By:
By means ‘within the extent or period of; during’ something.
o I will complete the assignment by Sunday.
o He will return by 6 PM.
o I will submit the list by 11 AM.

2. Prepositions of Places and Direction Usage

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the
nouns to the other parts of a sentence.

Common prepositions of places & direction: On, at, in, by, from,
to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front
of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common.
In indicates something to be present in a place or enclosure. It
does not say particularly where but gives an enclosure to the noun
it connects with.

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IN:
In indicates something to be present in a place or enclosure. It does
not say particularly where but gives an enclosure to the noun it
connects with.

Example:
Your shirt is in the closet. (Does not indicate an exact place)
He lives in Australia.
Alex works in that building.
AT:
At indicates an exact place.

Example:
o He is at the door.
o I am standing at 13/4 George Street.
o He is at home.

ON, ABOVE, OVER

ON:
On indicates a position above but touching the object.

Example:
o The phone is on the table. (Phone is touching with the table)
o He is on the third floor.
o Sit on the sofa.

ABOVE:
Above indicates a much higher position than the preposition on
does. It also indicates something out of reach.

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Example:
o The sky is above my head.
o Hold your hands above your head.
o Stars are above the sky.

OVER
Over means a position between on and above which is not
touching.

Example:
There are clouds over the hills.
A bird flew over my head.
My flat is over that shop.

UNDER, BELOW
UNDER:
Under is the opposite of on and means ‘below the surface of’
something.

Example:
o The cat is under the table.
o The carpet under my feet is very soft.
o That book is under my glasses.

BELLOW:
Below indicates something at a slightly lower position than what
under indicates.

Example:
o I have a scar just below my right eye.
o Do you see the line below the paper?
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 o Please, don’t write below this line.

TO
To indicates a motion in the direction of a place.

Example:
o He went to college.
o We are going to Mexico.
o We walked from the farm to the beach.

FROM
From indicates the point of place at which a motion, journey, or
action starts.

Example:
o He came from England.
o We walked from the beach to the farm.
o He drove here from Atlanta.

INTO, OUT OF
INTO:
Into indicates a motion towards/going inside something. It has
many uses.

Example:
o He came into the house.
o The police broke into the bar.
o My car crashed into a street sign.

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OUT OF:
Out of means the opposite of into. It indicates a motion towards
outside of something.

Example:

He is going out of the town.

Get out of my house.
Please, remain out of this. (Not indicating a place but an issue)

THROUGH, ACROSS, BESIDE, IN FRONT OF, BEHIND,

TOWARDS, BY
THROUGH:
Through indicates a motion in the middle of something.
Example:
o We drove through the tunnel.
o They came through a forest.
o He came through a wedding gate.

ACROSS:
Across takut means going to the other side of a river or road or
something straight.
Example:
o He went across the river.
o I walked across the road.
My house is across the bank. (There is a road between the house
and the bank)

BESIDE:
Beside means at the side of/ next to something.

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Example:
o The car beside the cycle is mine.
o He is standing beside the shop.
o I will always be beside you.

IN FRONT OF
In front of means a position facing someone/something.

Example:
o He parked his car in front of my house.
o I have a pool in front of my resthouse.
o He was nervous in front of me.

BEHIND:
Behind means at the far side of something (might be out of sight).
It is opposite of in front of.

Example:
o He parked his car behind my car.
o I have a pool behind my house.
o Go behind that tree.

TOWARDS:
Towards means a motion in the direction of something literary or
metaphorically.

Example:
o Take five steps towards the post and stand there.
o They moved towards the Labour Party.
o I walked towards the car when you were standing.

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BY
By means ‘near to or next to’ something or someone.

Example:
o He has a house by the river.
o I was standing by the car.
o My flat is by the saloon.

UP, DOWN
UP:
Up means a motion towards a higher place or position.

Example:
o We were climbing up the mountain.
o Lift your hands up.
o John is going up to London. (From a lower place of the
country)
o Climb up the stairs.

DOWN:
Down indicates the opposite meaning of up. It means a motion
towards a lower place or position.

Example:
o He was walking down the river.
o I am climbing down the hill.
o Go down the stairs.

BETWEEN:
Between indicates something/someone to be in the middle of two
other things or persons.

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Example:
o Alex is sitting between Robin and Robert.
o The cat is between the two boxes.
o This matter is between you and him.

AMONG:
Among indicates something/someone to be in the middle of three
or more other things or persons.

Example:
o Alex is sitting among the patients.
o He is the best among them.
o Among all the people, John had the courage to speak up.

3. Use of Prepositions : Of, About, For, With, By

OF:
Of expresses the relationship of a part of something to its whole.
It is the most used preposition in English.

Example.
o He is a boy of 15.
o Some parts of his body were injured.
o Most of the guests are gone.
o The plays of Shakespeare will always be classics.

ABOUT:
About means ‘on the subject of’ something or ‘concerning of’
something/someone. It also means ‘approximately.'

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Example:
o I was about to leave.
o He cares about his classes.
o I have about 30 candies in my bag.
o This article is about computers.

FOR:
For means ‘with the object or purpose of’. It indicates a suiting of
purpose for something/someone.

Example:
o I will always be here for you.
o I have done it for my benefit.
o Cucumber is a good vegetable for making a salad.
o Take my gratitude for your kind hospitality.
o WITH:
With means ‘accompanied by’ something or someone.

Example:
I will always be with you.
I have brought some candies with me.
He is playing with his sisters.
It is free with this product.

BY:
By means ‘as a means of’ something or someone. This preposition
often comes in a passive sentence.

Example:
o Do you travel by bus/train/plane/bike?
o He was undone by me.
o The letter was written by him.
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 CHAPTER 10
CONJUNCTIONS

What are conjunctions?

Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together

for constructing sentences. Conjunctions make a link
between/among words or groups of words to other parts of the
sentence and show a relationship between/among them.

For example:
o Alex and Robin are playing together.
o Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.
o I play cricket, and Robin plays football.
o When he was sick, I went to see him.

Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Correlative Conjunctions
3. Subordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions:
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases,
or independent clauses, which are parallel in structure. There are
seven coordinating conjunctions which are by far the most common
conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

Example:
o We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
o Do you want an ice cream or chocolate?

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 o Go away and never come back.

Correlative Conjunctions:
A correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence
structure to show a contrast or to compare the equal parts of a
sentence. The words of correlative conjunctions have a special
connection between them.

The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or,
neither - nor, both - and, not - but, whether - or not.

Example:
o Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
o I want both ice cream and chocolate.
o He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.

Subordinating Conjunctions:
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparallel
sentence structure. These elements are usually a dependent clause
and an independent clause.

Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:

after, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that,
though, which, as much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, because,
provided, until, who/whom, before, since, what,
whoever/whomever.

Example:
o Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
o Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
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 o When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
o Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.

EXERCISE

Complete the sentences with what, when, why, because, after,

but or that.
1. They stayed at home _______ it was raining heavily.
2. People cause accidents _______ they drink and drive.
3. Tommy went to his friends _______ he had had lunch.
4. I wanted to help him, _______ he said he could do it himself.
5. You should know ________ smoking is bad for your health.
6. Linda's father always watches TV _______ he comes home
from work.
7. Tommy decided to leave ________ it was dark outside.
8. We were playing tennis ________ it started to rain.
9. Do you know ________ he started playing chess?
10. Tim knew ________ he will work in his holidays.
11. I can't understand ________ she hasn't phoned yet.
12. They were very proud ________ they won.
13. He didn't know ________ time they had left the party.
14. He broke his arm ________ he fell down the tree.
15. She wanted to open the door, ________ she couldn't find the
key.

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 CHAPTER 11
INTERJECTIONS

What is interjection?
An interjection is a kind of exclamation inserted into regular speech.
Actually, it is a brief and abrupt pause in speech for expressing
emotions.

They are unique and have some interesting features:

o Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in sentence
construction.
o They usually cannot be modified or inflected.
o They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the
sentence.
o They are highly context-sensitive.

In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to

show our reaction to something which influences our emotion.
They are the initial reaction and sometimes do not even make sense.
However, for formal speech or writing, using interjections is not
appropriate.

Types of Interjections

Primary Interjection
The words that are exclusively interjections and cannot be classified
as any other Parts of Speech are called Primary Interjections.

Examples:
Phew Oh Huh
Wow Blah Aw

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God Gee Geez
Oops Ugh Meh
Hurray Ouch
Yuck Alas

Oops, My bad.
Wow! You had time to join us.
Alas! I couldn’t be there on time.

Secondary Interjection
The Nouns, Adjectives, and other Parts of Speech that act as
interjections on occasions are called Secondary Interjections.

Examples:
o Indeed, I was waiting for your premonitions.
o Goodness! How did you go through all these books in a day?
o Holy cow! You're the last person I expected.

Interjections mainly have four roles:

Role 1: Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and

feeling with emphasis. There are also many taboo words
that are usually used in everyday conversation but not in
formal aspects. These words fall into the category of
interjections.

Example:
Wow! That’s an amazing scene.
Aw, I did not want him to come.
What? You never told me that!
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Role 2: Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a
thought or hold someone’s attention for a moment. These
are just sounds, not words because these sounds do not
make any sense.

Example:
Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back.
I want to, uh, ask you out on a date.

Role 3: Some interjections express only yes or no.

Example:
Yes! I will most definitely do it.
Nah, we are not going.

Role 4: Some are used to get someone’s attention.

Example:
Yo, Alex! Get in the car!
Hey! Will you give me that ball?
Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?

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REFERENCES

Azar, S.A. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar:3rd

Ed. White Plains: Pearson Education, Inc.
Biber, D. et al. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written
English. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Frank, M. (1972). Modern English.. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Murphy, R. (1994). English Grammar in Use. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/noun
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/english-grammar-
reference/adjectives
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htm
https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/verb
https://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplepresent.html
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/beginner-to-pre-
intermediate/past-continuous-and-past-simple
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/as
k_about_english/preps.shtml
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htm
https://elt.oup.com/student/oefc/medicine1/a_languagespot/oef
c_medicine_gr02?cc=global&selLanguage=en

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