Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Aquafaba, a new plant-based rheological additive for food applications

Yue He a, Venkatesh Meda a, Martin J.T. Reaney b, c, d, Rana Mustafa b, c, d, *
a
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A9, Canada
b
Department of Plant Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A8, Canada
c
Prairie Tide Chemicals Inc., 102 Melville Street, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7J 0R1, Canada
d
Guangdong Saskatchewan Oilseed Joint Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Engineering, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou,
Guangdong, 510632, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Canning or cooking pulse seed in water produces a solution that, when separated from the seed, has
Aquafaba utility as a plant-based rheological additive for food formulations. This solution, called “aquafaba”, has become a
Chickpea popular food ingredient that is extensively featured and trending on social and professional media. It is
Pulses
particularly popular among those posters who feature vegetarian and vegan recipes. Canned chickpea is the most
Egg replacement
Egg-free products
frequently cited source of aquafaba suggested by internet enthusiasts. Commercial production of aquafaba from
Vegan canning waste is not practical. Any strategy employed by industry will require that the process is made consistent
and that there is an application for the cooked seed.
Scope and approach: This paper presents an overview of aquafaba composition, functional properties, opportu­
nities and challenges associated with using aquafaba in food formulations.
Key finding and conclusion: Aquafaba consists of water (92–95%) and dry matter (5–8%) which includes carbo­
hydrates (i.e. sugars, soluble and insoluble fibre), low molecular weight proteins (0.95–1.5% w/v; ≤ 24 kDa),
saponins, and some Maillard reaction products. Recent research unveiled positive effects of aquafaba on the
physiochemical properties of foods including confections, egg/gluten-free bakery products and mayonnaise.
There is growing interest in commercial production of aquafaba, however, more effort is needed to understand
conditions that affect aquafaba functionality, and to develop approaches to standardize commercial aquafaba
production.

1. Introduction growth and protein accumulation. This input is a major contributor to

Plant-based food ingredients and products are increasingly being
developed to mimic and replace animal sources such as meat, milk, and
eggs. This trend is associated with the exponential growth of both
vegetarian and vegan markets, as well as a consumer preference for
healthy and eco-friendly food. Consumers are willing to change their
behavior and accept responsibility for climate change by reducing their
carbon footprint. This includes choosing plant-derived foods as an
alternative to animal-based ones (Lee & Okos, 2011; McDermott &
Wyatt, 2017). Pulses, including dry bean, chickpea, faba bean, lentil,
and dry pea, contain 20–30% lysine-rich protein. As such, legumes and
the edible dry seed from legumes, called pulses, can play a crucial role in
replacing animal protein in the diet.
For many crops, nitrogen is needed as an input for enhanced plant
the environmental footprint of the crop. Pulses such as faba bean and
chickpea have the capacity to convert atmospheric dinitrogen to useful
forms of organic nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation rates of 106 kg N ha− 1 are
typical in pulses (Hossain et al., 2016). Therefore, the protein in pulses is
produced at a lower environmental cost than for crops that require ni­
trogen input. As nitrogen fertilizer is a major contributor to greenhouse
gas emissions from agriculture, biological nitrogen fixation helps to
lower greenhouse gas emissions associated with crop production and
contributes to sustainability.
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), also called garbanzo bean or Bengal
gram, is the second most consumed pulse worldwide. It is an essential
food for growing populations, especially in developing countries. In
2017, chickpea global production was 14.8 million tonnes (FAOSTAT,
2017). The global chickpea market reached a volume of 16.3 million

* Corresponding author. Department of Plant Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A8, Canada.
E-mail addresses: yuh885@mail.usask.ca (Y. He), venkatesh.meda@usask.ca (V. Meda), martin.reaney@usask.ca (M.J.T. Reaney), rana.mustafa@usask.ca, rana.
mustafa@usask.ca (R. Mustafa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.035
Received 15 June 2020; Received in revised form 13 December 2020; Accepted 14 February 2021
Available online 19 February 2021
0924-2244/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. He et al.
tons in 2018 and is predicted to grow to 21.0 million tons by 2024, at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.1% (Imarcgroup, 2018).
Chemical and functional properties of chickpea flour, chickpea
protein isolate and concentrate are reported in the literature (Boye et al.,
2010; Du, Jiang, Yu, & Jane, 2014; Xu, Thomas, & Bhardwaj, 2014).
Recent studies show that the viscous liquid that can be drained from
canned or cooked chickpea produces stable foams, emulsions and gels.
However, it is possible to use this liquid, called aquafaba, as a vegan,
gluten and cholesterol-free rheological additive in many food products
including egg-free mayonnaise, meringues, mousse, whipped cream, ice
cream, emulsified dressings, cocktails, and bakery products.
This paper reviews aquafaba history, sources, extraction methods,
composition, physical characteristics, functionality and potential food
applications. Aquafaba is also compared with other food rheological
additives. Finally, the significance, challenges and future opportunities
of aquafaba manufacturing and application in the development of vegan
and gluten free food products are discussed.
2. Aquafaba history
Aquafaba was initially described by Joël Roessel, a vegan French
musician who was trying to replace egg white as a foaming agent in a
“floating island” recipe (Révolution végétales, 2014). According to
Roessel, the stability of aquafaba foam was improved by adding corn
starch and guar gum. Roessel also observed the foamability of red kidney
bean and palm heart cooking water (Révolution végétales, 2014). After
Roessel’s observation, a video “Le Défi FUDA” was posted online
introducing an egg-free chocolate mousse recipe by using the foam
produced from chickpea aquafaba. Around the same time, Goose Wohlt,
a software engineer in the US, optimized a vegan meringue recipe pre­
pared with concentrated chickpea aquafaba. He posted a video to a
vegan Facebook® page titled “What Fat Vegans Eat” in February 2015
that featured an egg-free meringue recipe with only two ingredients:
Fig. 1. Aquafaba prepared by five chickpea cultivars, a) in jar from left to right: CDC Consul, CDC Luna, CDC Orion, CDC Leader, and Amit; b) in centrifuge tube from
left to right: CDC Consul, Amit, CDC Leader, CDC Orion, and CDC Luna.
28
Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42
chickpea aquafaba and sugar. Subsequently, chickpea cooking water
was first called “aquafaba” by Goose Wohlt (March 13, 2015). The word
aquafaba is a concatenation of two Latin words: aqua for water, and faba
for bean. Since then, popular enthusiasm for aquafaba was ignited.
Many aquafaba proponents posted their recipes through all social media
such as forums, websites, YouTube®, LinkedIn® and Facebook®. For
example, a Facebook group was created and titled: “Vegan Meringues –
Hits and Misses!” especially for sharing aquafaba-based food products
and trying to address the challenges that aquafaba users encounter.
Aquafaba became an internet phenomenon and has piqued the curiosity
of vegan communities and professional chefs. There is probably more
community-based research on this topic than research on all topics
performed by the food science departments of all universities world­
wide. This also inspired food scientists and the food processing industry
to develop a new aquafaba-based clean label rheological food additives.
3. Aquafaba sources
Traditional chickpea processing consists of two main steps: soaking
and cooking in water (boiling or cooking under pressure) (Serventi,
2020). Cooking chickpea in water is a crucial step to produce cooked
chickpea seed which is directly consumable or packaged and sold as
frozen chickpea. The leftover water is a potential source of aquafaba.
Aquafaba from canned or homemade boiled chickpea is currently the
main source for consumers and restaurants though commercial supply of
aquafaba has started. For example, commercial aquafaba liquid or
powder made from dried chickpea cooking broth is sold by “Vör”,
“Haden’s Aquafaba”, Sesajal and “Chickplease”.
4. Aquafaba preparation
Aquafaba preparation is similar to the process of canning (Fig. 1).
Preparation starts by soaking chickpea seed in water to extract
Y. He et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

antinutritional compounds, hydrate the seed and reduce the cooking
time. After discarding the soaking water or solution, the soaked seed is
boiled in hot water or cooked in water under pressure (Table 1). In some
cases, additives are included with the water to reduce the cooking time
or increase product shelf life.
Researchers have optimized the ratio of seed to cooking water and
the cooking time to maximize aquafaba yield and functionality. For
example, Bird, Pilkington, Saputra, and Serventi (2017) boiled chickpea
seed in water with 1:1.75 CWR for 90 min. This process was also applied
by Stantiall, Dale, Calizo, and Serventi (2018), Damian, Huo, and Ser­
venti (2018), and Serventi, Wang, Zhu, Liu, and Fei (2018) to extract
cooking water from chickpea and other pulses. This extraction yielded
approximately 0.6 g of cooking water per gram of dry pulse.
Lafarga, Villaró, Bobo, and Aguiló-Aguayo (2019) boiled chickpea
with three different CWRs (1:1.5, 1:3.25, 1:50) for 190 min in a
stainless-steel cooking pot and adjusted aquafaba pH to different values
(3.5, 5.0, 6.5). The optimum CWR and pH conditions yielding the
highest functionalities and stabilities were 1:1.5 and 3.5, respectively.
Alsalman, Tulbek, Nickerson, and Ramaswamy (2020) soaked
chickpea in water at 40 ◦ C for 2 h and obtained aquafaba with maximum
functionality and minimum content of antinutritive compounds,
including tannin and phytic acid, by cooking the seed in a pressure
cooker for 60 min using (≈1:2.33) CWR.
However, using less water for cooking the seed (1:1 CWR), and
shorter cooking time (30 min) at 115–118 ◦ C under 70–80 kPa, He,
Shim, Mustafa, Meda, and Reaney (2019) obtained 0.7–1.1 g cooking
water/g chickpea (dwt) with superior functionality.
In order to produce aquafaba at larger scales in ecofriendly pro­
cesses, using less water and energy is crucial. Further use of hydrolytic
enzymes and other methods such as ultrasound or microwave assisted
extraction might also improve aquafaba yield and functional properties.
5. Aquafaba composition
Aquafaba composition depends on three main factors: 1) extraction
conditions such as soaking the seed prior to cooking, seed to water ratio
(CWR), temperature, pH, time, and pressure during extraction, 2)
chickpea cultivar and genotype, and 3) seed and cell wall composition
and structure (Fig. 2).
Much of the aquafaba research to date has focused on the effect of
extraction parameters on aquafaba composition without considering
compositional variation between chickpea cultivars and genotypes, seed

Table 1
Aquafaba and pulse cooking water composition.
Nutritional Cooking water source
information
Chickpea Haricot Split Green Yellow soybean
bean yellow lentil
pea

Soaking and cooking conditions

Commercial chickpea cans Soaking (1:4 Soaking (40 ◦ C, 2 h); Soaking (1:3.3 CWR, 16 h); cooking Soaking Soaking (1:3.3
CWR at 4 ◦ C, 16 cooking (pressure (boiling water 1:1.75 CWR, 90 min) (1:3.3 CWR, 16 h);
h); cooking cooker, 1:2, 1:4, and CWR, 16 cooking
(pressure cooker, 2:3 CWRs, 15, 30, 45, h); cooking (boiling water
1:1 CWR, 30 and 60 min) (boiling 1:1.75 CWR,
min) water 90 min)
1:1.75
CWR, 60
min)

Energy (kJ/100 – 72 – – – – – – – – –
g)
Dry matter (g/ 4.9–6.4 5.03 7.89 5.8–7.8 – 5.1 5.13 3.28 4.41 4.69 5.59
100 g)
Available – 2.64 – – – – 3.61 1.82 2.74 2.7 4.12
carbohydrates
(g/100 g)
LMW (sugar) (g/ – 0.64 – – – 1.2 1.2 0.73 1.02 0.54 1.66
100 g)
HMW (g/100 g) – 0.69 – – – – 0.04 0.16 0.09 0.07
Insoluble fibre – – – – 2.4 2.37 0.93 1.63 2.09 2.46
(g/100 g)
Dietary fiber (g/ – 0.69 – – – – – – – – –
100 g)
Starch (g/100 g) – – – – – – <DL <DL <DL <DL –
Protein (g/100 1.21–1.72 1.27 1.3 – 0.5–1 1 0.95 0.7 1.27 1.51 0.68
g)
Fat (g/100 g) – <DL – – – – <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL
Ash (g/100 g) – 0.44 – – – 0.6 0.57 0.75 0.4 0.48 0.78
Saponins (mg/g) – – – – – – 4.5, 5.9, 4.7, 12, 14 6.4
12 7.9 9.8
TPC (mg/g) – 0.3 – – – – 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.7 –
Tocopherols – 0.11 – – – – – – – – –
(μg/mL)
Tannin (mg CE/ – – – – 0.49–11.8 – – – – – –
100 g)
Phytic acid (g/ – – – – 0.000–0.057 – – – – – –
100 g)
References Shim et al. Raikos Buhl He et al., 2019 Alsalman et al., 2020 Bird Stantiall et al., 2018; Damian et al., 2018 Serventi et al.
(2018) et al. et al., et al., (2018)
(2019) 2019 2017

The acronyms LMW and HMW refer to water-soluble carbohydrates and stand for low molecular weight and high molecular weight, respectively; CE, catechin
equivalents; CWR, seed to water ratio; TPC, total phenolic content. The symbol < DL means below detection limit. The symbol – means did not measure.

29
Y. He et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

Fig. 2. Factors affecting aquafaba quality and functional performance.

size, coat composition, degradation of cell membranes, and defects in water (chickpea aquafaba) contains insoluble fibre (2.4 g/100 g), WSC
the seed that makes it hard-to-cook. (2–4 g/100 g), protein (0.7–1.5 g/100 g), ash (0.4–0.8 g/100 g), saponin
The composition of cell walls differs between genotypes (species and (4.5–14 mg/g), phenolic compounds (0.3–0.7 mg/g), and tocopherols
cultivar differences), environment conditions during plant growth and (0.11 μg/mL) (Table 1) (He et al., 2019; Raikos, Hayes, & Ni, 2019;
postharvest storage conditions (Wood et al., 2018). Cell walls of pulses Serventi et al., 2018; Stantiall et al., 2018). Fat and starch content in
are composed of complex polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses, soaking or cooking water has not been detected in measurable levels.
pectins), phenolic compounds and protein (Wood et al., 2018). Ab­
sorption of water during soaking followed by high temperature treat­
5.2. Aquafaba from canned chickpea
ment during cooking leads to protein hydration and denaturation, starch
gelatinization, in addition to solubilization, depolymerization, and/or
The chemical composition of aquafaba recovered from commercial
loss of cell wall pectic polysaccharides (Chigwedere et al., 2018; Mustafa
chickpea cans varies between brands and among cans from the same
& Reaney, 2019). Therefore, during cooking, the outer cell layers of the
brand due to differences in chickpea cultivars and canning conditions.
seed coat become a selective membrane that controls diffusion of mol­
Shim, Mustafa, Shen, Ratanapariyanuch, and Reaney (2018) analyzed
ecules from seed to cooking water. Seed coat changes depend on the
aquafaba from 10 brands of canned chickpea and showed that aquafaba
pressure and temperature applied during soaking and cooking. Exposure
moisture content ranged from 93.6% to 95.1%, and carbon and protein
to higher pressures, temperatures or prolonged cooking times induce
content varied from 31.3% to 39.2% and from 22.7% to 26.8% in dry
starch swelling and gelatinization. This can cause seed coat disruption
matter, respectively. Proton-NMR analysis revealed the presence of
and increased transfer of undissolved materials to the cooking water
approximately 20 compounds in aquafaba including sugar (glucose,
(Gowen, 2006).
sucrose), alcohol (isopropanol, ethanol, methanol), amino acid
(alanine), organic acid (lactic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, citrate,
formate, malate), and nucleoside (inosine, adenosine). Most aquafaba
5.1. Chickpea soaking and cooking water composition
proteins are of small molecular weight (MW) (≤23 kDa) with proteins of
10 kDa, 12 kDa, 15 kDa, and 23 kDa being identified as heat soluble
During soaking and cooking of chickpea seed, between 0.6% and 8%
hydrophilic species (late embryogenesis abundant proteins (LEAP) and
of the total solid material is transferred to the soaking and cooking
dehydrins) and heat shock proteins with well-known heat stability
water, respectively. Insoluble carbohydrates are the most abundant
(Buhl, Christensen, & Hammershøj, 2019; Shim et al., 2018).
compounds in the soaking and cooking water, followed by water soluble
carbohydrate, and protein (Serventi et al., 2018).
The dry matter of chickpea soaking water contains 0.25 g/100 g of 5.3. Aquafaba from different chickpea cultivars
insoluble carbohydrates, 0.19 g/100 g of WSC, 0.13 g/100 g of ash, and
0.08 g/100 g of protein (Bird et al., 2017). The dry matter of cooking Chickpea cultivars are divided into Kabuli and Desi classes. This

30
Y. He et al.
classification is based on seed size, colour, and thickness and shape of
the seed coat. Each chickpea cultivar includes a number of genotypes
(Mustafa & Reaney, 2019). Chickpea composition not only varies be­
tween cultivars and genotypes, but also depends on environmental
constraints such as climate, soil nutrition, soil biology, agronomic
practices, and postharvest storage conditions.
Previous research on chickpea cooking quality focused only on the
cooked seed. Significant decreases in protein, starch, minerals, reducing
and non-reducing sugars, and oligosaccharides after cooking chickpea
seed were observed (Attia, Shehata, Aman, & Hamza, 1994). The loss
varied between different genotypes. Research also showed that chickpea
cooking quality traits such as seed firmness and hydration capacity are
strongly related to variation in seed size, specific surface area, and seed
coat incidence (Avola & Patanè, 2010; Patanè, Iacoponi, & Raccuia,
2004).
He et al. (2019) compared aquafaba prepared from four Kabuli
chickpea cultivars (CDC Leader, CDC Orion, CDC Luna, and Amit) and
one Desi chickpea cultivar (CDC Consul). Significant differences were
observed in hundred-seed weight, seed coat incidence, and seed coat
weight per surface area among chickpea cultivars which might explain
the variation in aquafaba properties among the cultivars tested. To our
knowledge, there is no other research regarding the effect genotype
(cultivar) on aquafaba composition and technical quality.
5.4. Pulse cooking waters and brines
Investigations of cooking of different pulse species showed large
variation in the cooking water chemical composition which is related to
the variability in seed and cell wall composition. Stantiall et al. (2018)
and Serventi et al. (2018) analyzed chemical compositions of cooking
water from haricot bean, garbanzo chickpea, whole green lentil, split
yellow pea, and soybean (Table 1). Insoluble fibre varied from 28% of
the dry matter of haricot bean cooking water to 37% of split yellow peas,
44% of lentil and yellow soybean, and 46% of chickpea cooking water.
Water soluble fibre ranged from 13% of the dry matter of lentil cooking
water, to 24% of chickpea, 25% of split yellow pea, 27% of haricot bean,
and 30% of yellow soybean cooking water. Most of WSC was of low
molecular weight (LMW) carbohydrates attributed to sucrose, raffinose,
and stachyose (Bach Knudsen, 1997; Mokni Ghribi et al., 2015), while
high molecular weight (HMW) WSC are regarded to be soluble fibre.
Therefore, total carbohydrate ranged from 55% to 74% of the dry matter
of these pulse cooking water with 70% for chickpea aquafaba.
5.5. Mineral profile of aquafaba
Chickpea is a rich source of minerals and can supply up to 40% of the
adult recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for manganese and cop­
per, 15% for iron and zinc, and ~7% for selenium (Wood & Grusak,
2007). Prior studies showed the loss of chickpea minerals upon cooking,
and investigated different treatments such as germination, microwave
treatment, and autoclaving before cooking to increase mineral retention
in the cooked chickpea (Attia et al., 1994; El-Adawy, 2002). Studies on
mineral content and profile of the cooking water are very limited.
Damian et al. (2018) compared the mineral profile of chickpea
aquafaba and other pulse cooking water (haricot bean, whole green
lentil, split yellow pea, and soybean). Ash content ranged from 0.40
g/100 g (of dry matter) in split yellow peas cooking water to 0.75 g/100
g in haricot bean cooking water. All pulse cooking water contained high
amounts of copper (0.06–0.17 mg/100 g), potassium (25–37 mg/100 g)
and manganese (0.04–0.11 mg/100 g) which is approximately 10% of
the recommended daily intake (RDI) for each mineral. Compared to
aquafaba prepared from other pulses, chickpea aquafaba had higher
concentrations of sodium (24 mg/100 g), manganese (0.11 mg/100 g),
and molybdenum (37 mg/100 g). Molybdenum represented up to 90%
RDI in the chickpeas cooking water. Minerals located in the seed coat are
more likely to transfer at a higher rate to the cooking water.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42
5.6. Aquafaba bioactive substances
Legumes contain many secondary plant metabolites and non-
nutrient bioactive substances, including oligosaccharides, trypsin and
chymotrypsin inhibitors, lectins, α-amylase inhibitors, antifungal pep­
tide, phytic acid, oxalate, phenolic compounds, saponins, and tannins
(Campos-Vega, Loarca-Piña, & Oomah, 2010; Jukanti, Gaur, Gowda, &
Chibbar, 2012; Lyimo, Mugula, & Elias, 1992). Some of these com­
pounds are also regarded as anti-nutritional factors which can interfere
with nutrient absorption in human and animals (Champ, 2002).
Prior to aquafaba preparation, soaking dry chickpea in water can
reduce the concentration of antinutritional components including
α-galactosides, saponins, minerals, phytic acid, oxalate, and proteolytic
enzyme inhibitors, that are partly or entirely solubilized in the soaking
solution (Frias, Vidal-Valverde, Sotomayor, Diaz-Pollan, & Urbano,
2000). Then, cooking seed in water under high temperature and pres­
sure may destroy or inactivate some heat-sensitive antinutritional
compounds such as trypsin inhibitors and decrease phytic acid and
α-galactoside content (Iyer, Kadam, & Salunkhe, 1989; Chau, Cheung, &
Wong, 1997; Frias et al., 2000). Thus, the concentration and activity of
these antinutritional factors in aquafaba is significantly lower than in
raw pulse seed. The degree of antinutrient reduction in aquafaba de­
pends on their structure, seed to water ratio, processing practice, time,
and temperature (El-Adawy, 2002; Ruiz et al., 1996).
Consumers are concerned about oligosaccharides in aquafaba as
these compounds can cause unpleasant gastrointestinal symptoms such
as flatulence, bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain (Pedrosa et al.,
2012). Conversely, these phytochemicals at lower levels have
health-promoting properties, such as reducing blood cholesterol level,
blood lipid level, and improving blood glucose responses (Barakat,
Reim, & Rohn, 2015; B.; Singh, Singh, Singh, & Kaur, 2017). Oligosac­
charides also have antioxidant properties and can decrease the risk of
some cancers (Barakat et al., 2015). In addition, some oligosaccharides
(raffinose and stachyose) function as prebiotics (Chen, Singh, Bhargava,
& Ramanathan, 2018). More research is needed to determine the effects
of aquafaba preparation methods on composition.
6. Aquafaba physical characteristics
Aquafaba physical properties including pH, density, viscosity, water-
and oil-absorption capacities (WHC and OHC) determine aquafaba
functional properties. Chickpea aquafaba and other pulse cooking wa­
ters have a slightly acidic pH with values of 6.07 (haricot bean and
yellow soybean), 6.26 (chickpea aquafaba), 6.39 (split yellow pea), and
6.47 (green lentil) (Serventi et al., 2018; Stantiall et al., 2018). At lower
pH, protein positive charges increase, which in turn weaken hydro­
phobic interactions between protein molecules and increase protein
flexibility and reduces solution surface tension. This leads to an increase
in foaming and emulsification properties (Kaur & Singh, 2007; Lafarga,
Álvarez, Bobo, & Aguiló-Aguayo, 2018; Ragab, Babiker, & Eltinay,
2004).
The density of chickpea aquafaba is 1.02–1.03 g/mL, which is similar
to other pulse cooking waters where density is 1.017 g/mL for haricot
bean, 1.025 g/mL for green lentil, 1.021 g/mL for split yellow pea, and
1.25 g/mL for yellow soybean (Meurer, de Souza, & Ferreira Marczak,
2020; Serventi et al., 2018; Stantiall et al., 2018).
In general, the variation in viscosity between chickpea aquafaba and
other pulse cooking water is not significant. However, the viscosity of
aquafaba from canned chickpea varies significantly (from 5.7 to 114.2
mPa*) with CV of 160% (Shim et al., 2018). Aquafaba viscosity is
affected by the content of protein and insoluble carbohydrate (especially
cellulose and pectin) and different types of interactions between these
molecules during aquafaba preparation (Liu, Nguyen, Andya, & Shire,
2005; Hüttner & Arendt, 2010; Serventi, 2020) (Fig. 3). The viscosity of
different pulse cooking waters also varied significantly depending on
their initial composition and processing methods. For instance, chickpea
Y. He et al.
Fig. 3. Mechanisms of aquafaba rheological properties.
aquafaba was fairly viscous (47 mPa*s), which is similar to yellow
soybean cooking water (45 mPa*s), whereas the viscosity of haricot
bean, split yellow pea, and whole green lentil cooking water were very
low and only 4.5, 8.7, and 25 mPa*s, respectively. In the study reported
by Meurer et al. (2020), aquafaba viscosity significantly increased after
ultrasound treatment with 100% power capacity for 10 min. Ultrasound
treatment might expose more hydrophilic amino acids to the aqueous
phase and improve protein water binding capacity, thereby, enhancing
aquafaba viscosity (Soria & Villamiel, 2010).
Water- and oil-holding capacities (WHC and OHC) of pulse cooking
waters are indicative of their potential use as thickening agents in high
fat matrices (Damian et al., 2018; Serventi et al., 2018). Water prepared
with haricot bean and whole green lentil showed very low WHC values
(0.07 and 0.13 g/g). Conversely, moderate WHC was observed for
cooking water from chickpea (1.46 g/g), split yellow pea (2.2 g/g), and
yellow soybean (1.54 g/g). Overall, OHC values (2.68–3.22 g/g) were
higher compared to WHC values (0.07–2.20 g/g) for all tested samples.
Chickpea aquafaba had significantly higher OHC value (3.22 g/g)
compared with haricot bean (2.85 g/g), whole green lentil (2.71 g/g),
and split yellow pea (3.04 g/g).
Water- and oil-holding capacities of pulse cooking water are influ­
enced by soluble/insoluble carbohydrates content, protein content, and
processing time. Soluble carbohydrates are known for their high water-
binding ability (Sila et al., 2014). Literature indicates that water soluble
carbohydrate (including oligosaccharide) contents in chickpea, split
yellow pea, and yellow soybean cooking water is much higher compared
with haricot bean and green lentil cooking water (Table 1). This might
explain the differences of WHC values among the cooking waters of
these five pulses. Both water soluble and insoluble polysaccharides are
able to absorb oil (El-Adawy, 2002; López et al., 1996). Additionally,
aquafaba proteins contain lipophilic groups that bind with oil (Du et al.,
2014). Therefore, with their high content of protein and solu­
ble/insoluble carbohydrates (possibly being oligosaccharide, cellulose,
hemicellulose, or lignin) (Table 1), pulse cooking water exhibits rela­
tively high OHC. Alsalman et al. (2020) indicated that increasing
32
Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42
cooking time from 15 to 60 min could reduce WHC (from 2.4 g/g to 1.6
g/g) but increase OHC (from 0.9 g/g to 3.5 g/g) of chickpea aquafaba. In
general, longer cooking time can cause protein denaturation and lower
its water binding capacity by exposing more hydrophobic area to the
aqueous phase, thereby, changing its OHC and WHC properties.
7. Aquafaba functionality
Aquafaba exerts a wide range of useful functional properties such as
foaming, emulsification and gelling that can be manipulated to produce
new complex food products (Table 2). These functional properties are
determined by aquafaba composition (i.e. the components’ structure
and concentration) and food formulations that include aquafaba.
(Fig. 2).
Likewise, the functional properties of aquafaba are mainly derived
from its content of protein, water soluble/insoluble carbohydrates,
polysaccharide–protein complexes, coacervates, saponins, and phenolic
compounds (Serventi, 2020). The proteins in aquafaba are amphiphilic
molecules that contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups. The hy­
drophilic groups interact with water, whereas the hydrophobic groups
stabilize the interactions with the gaseous/oil phase. Therefore, these
molecules aggregate at the air-water/water-oil interface and lower the
solution interfacial tension, this can induce partial unfolding of proteins.
This lower interfacial tension allows encapsulation of air bubbles or oil
droplets and the association of protein molecules, leading to an inter­
molecular cohesive film with sufficient elasticity to stabilize foams and
emulsions (Klamczynska, Czuchajowska, & Baik, 2001; Mariotti, Pagani,
& Lucisano, 2013; Wu, Clifford, & Howell, 2007). Aquafaba proteins are
typically low molecular weight species (≤25 kDa), that have well-known
surface-active and foaming properties (Deep Singh, Wani, Kaur, & Sogi,
2008; Shim et al., 2018). Stantiall et al. (2018) have eluciated that
aquafaba protein content correlates positively with aquafaba foaming
capacity (r2 = 0.95).
Polysaccharides have prominent water-holding and thickening
properties due to their hydrophilic character and high molecular weight.
Y. He et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

Table 2
Aquafaba and pulse cooking water functional properties.
Cooking References Functionalities
water
Foamability Emulsibility Gelation and thickening Comparison of aquafaba with other
sources
properties rheological additives

Chickpea Shim et al. FC 410–510% – – –

(2018)
Mustafa et al. FC 182–476%, FS 77–92% ES 60–80% – AQ produces foam with comparable
(2018) density, volume and stability to fresh
egg white and commercial egg white
liquid
Raikos et al. – The change of particle size and TSI – The appearance and mean spherical
(2019) were used to evaluate the ES of equivalent diameter of the AQ
mayonnaise during refrigerated mayonnaise droplets are comparable
storage. AQ emulsion remains stable to the microstructure of traditional
during cold storage for 21 days mayonnaise made from egg yolk
Buhl et al. FC 95–105% EC 12.5–14.5 m2/g; ES 19–21.5 min – AQ FC is lower than that of egg white,
(2019) but FS is comparable to that of egg
white
Aslan et al. FC 127%; FS 95%. Replacing egg by – – AQ could bring low colour, smell, and
(2020) up to 50% AQ provided significant pore structure score for cake samples.
increase in foaming capacity. FS Addition of AQ resulted in an increase
showed comparable values with egg of cake hardness
Meurer et al. FC 360–550%. FC and FS increased ES increased after treating AQ with – Adhesiveness of AQ meringue did not
(2020) after treating AQ with high intensity high intensity ultrasound and longer have significant difference compared
ultrasound and longer treating time. treating time. ES 100%, 98–99%, to the egg white meringue
FS 70–93%, 62–84%, 56–77%, for 97.5–98.5%, 96.5–98%, when
10 min, 15 min and 20 min, measured after 1 h, 12 h, 24 h and 4
respectively days, respectively
He et al. – EC 1.1–1.3 m2/g; ES 71.9–77.1% – –
(2019)
Lafarga et al. FC 162–324%; FS 3.4–93%. An EC 3.9–72%; ES 0–76.3%. Lower pH – –
(2019) increase in CWR and pH cause a and CWR values increased emulsion
decrease on foaming properties properties
Alsalman et al. FC and FS significantly affected by ECmax 7.3 mL at CWR (2:3), cooking – –
(2020) CWR. Highest FC 120% at CWR (60 min); ECmin 0.6 mL at CWR
(2:3), cooking time (30 min). Best FS (1:4), cooking (15 min); ESmax 8 mL
(57 min) at CWR (1:2), cooking time at CWR (2:3), cooking (60 min)
(45 min)
Bird et al. – – AQ gelling ability Chickpea AQ is promising substitute of
(2017) caused longer pasting hydrocolloids such as xanthan gum for
time in the RVA texture improvement of gluten-free
thermogram for AQ bread
gluten-free bread
Stantiall et al., FC 58% EAI 38.6 m2/g; EC 54.2% PCW and AQ lead to a AQ FC is significantly lower than that
Haricot 2018; Damian FC 39% EAI 22.8 m2/g; EC 46.3% chewy internal structure of egg white. Meringues made with AQ
bean et al., 2018 of meringues and whole green lentils cooking water
Split FC 97% EAI 47.1 m2/g; EC 52.7% had comparable hardness compared to
yellow egg white meringue and showed high
pea acceptance, but split yellow pea and
Green FC 93% EAI 16.0 m2/g; EC 49.0%. haricot bean meringues showed very
lentil hard crust
Yellow Serventi et al. FC 65% EAI 20.3 m2/g; EC49.3% – –
soybean (2018)

FC, foaming capacity; FS, foam stability; CWR, seed to water ratio; ES, emulsion stability; TSI, Turbiscan Stability Index; EC, emulsion capacity; EAI, emulsifying
activity index; AQ, aquafaba; RVA, Rapid Visco Analyzer; PCW, pulse cooking water. The symbol – means did not measure.

Most common non-adsorbing polysaccharides enhance the emulsion and
foaming stability by gelling or modifying the viscosity of the aqueous
continuous phase, which improve the overrun control to slow down
droplet/bubble movement and encounters (Bouyer, Mekhloufi, Rosilio,
Grossiord, & Agnely, 2012). On the other hand, some other poly­
saccharides (modified starch, cellulose derivatives, and pectin) display
interfacial activity. They first stabilize foam or emulsion by absorption
at the oil droplet/air bubble surface and then prevent flocculation and
coalescence through electrostatic and/or steric repulsive forces (Bouyer
et al., 2012). In addition, the water adsorption of soluble, low molecular
weight (LMW) carbohydrates, found in pulse cooking water, contribute
to aquafaba gelling properties (Serventi et al., 2018; Stantiall et al.,
2018).
During cooking of chickpea seed, polysaccharide–protein complexes
and coacervates typically occur on the reducing end of polysaccharides
with a protein amine group by covalent, Maillard, or electrostatic
interaction. Association of protein and polysaccharide polymers would
raise the bulk viscosity of the system by forming larger entities. The
rheological behaviour of these systems ranged from viscous to visco­
elastic with some systems even showing elastic behaviour. These prop­
erties were affected by protein-polysaccharide ratio, pH, and ionic
strength. Neutral protein-polysaccharide complexes are preferred to
build dense viscoelastic interfacial networks at the air/water interface.
These networks can reduce gas permeability of a thin-film and promote
foam stability, resulting in much reduced rates of interfacial area loss
and air bubble coalescence. While uneven (mostly negative) charged
protein-polysaccharide solutions can stabilize electrostatic repulsion
forces between the droplet surfaces and induce stability against floccu­
lation and creaming of emulsions. The stability is gained by interactions
that compete with van der Waals attraction (Schmitt et al., 2011; Tur­
geon, Schmitt, & Sanchez, 2007).
One important type of protein-polysaccharide interactions during

33
Y. He et al.
pressure-heating chickpea seeds in water might be induced by Maillard
reaction and results in protein glycation and the formation of covalent
conjugates between proteins and polysaccharides (Kasran, Cui, & Goff,
2013; Xu & Zhao, 2019; Yang et al., 2015). These conjugates have more
disordered secondary structure and can be quickly absorbed in the
oil-water interfaces to form a thick and stable film (Xu & Zhao, 2019).
Moreover, the covalent conjugates have increased average hydrody­
namic radius compared with the untreated protein isolate, which means
the conducted glycation confers greater aggregation of protein. More
importantly, the generated protein-saccharide dispersions show
improved colloidal stability with increased negative zeta-potentials by
enhancing the essential electrostatic repulsion (Xu & Zhao, 2019). The
effect of the Maillard reaction on the emulsification properties and
stability of egg white (Kato, Minaki, & Kobayashi, 1993), ovalbumin
(Aoki et al., 1999), soy protein isolate (Xu & Zhao, 2019) and its
application in salad dressing emulsions (Diftis, Biliaderis, & Kiosseo­
glou, 2005) were investigated. Moreover, the Maillard reaction can
change protein flexibility and solubility and, in some case, enhances
protein foaming capacity and stability (Mustafa & Reaney, 2019; Xu &
Zhao, 2019).
Saponins can be considered to be non-ionic surfactants due to their
amphipathic structure comprising a lipid-soluble aglycone (triterpene or
steroid derivatives) and water-soluble glycoside moiety. Chung, Sher,
Rousset, Decker, and McClements (2017) presumed that saponins could
pack tightly together at the water/oil or water/air interface; therefore,
effectively mitigate unfavorable molecular interactions between phases.
This could lower interfacial tension and help to generate foam or smaller
droplets during homogenization. Saponins extracts are currently used in
the food industry as emulsifying and foaming agents. Furthermore,
saponin can interact with protein to form high molecular weight com­
plexes as well as increase protein aggregation and modify protein heat
stability and surface properties during heating (Güçlü-Üstündağ &
Mazza, 2007). This interaction might contribute to improvement of
protein foaming and emulsion properties.
Phenolic compounds bind with proteins and polysaccharides,
changing their solubility, foaming and emulsifying properties (Vega &
Grover, 2011; Wu et al., 2007). Phenolic compounds are multidentate
ligands, which are able to bind simultaneously through their different
phenolic groups at many sites on the protein and polysaccharide mole­
cule. Flavonoid-protein interactions are divided into covalent and
non-covalent interactions. Covalent binding results from the reaction
between protein’s amine and amide groups on the one hand, and qui­
nones formed by flavonoid oxidation on the other hand during heating.
Non-covalent binding is from forms of flavan-3-ols, flavonols and
proanthocyanidin (Bordenave, Hamaker, & Ferruzzi, 2014). Flavonoids
in legume such as rutin and tiliroside have showed their ability to
emulsify oil-water solution (Luo et al., 2011). Moreover, due to their
antioxidant activities, phenolic compounds scavenge or trap reactive
carbonyl free radicals formed during the Maillard reaction, thereby
affecting the emulsification properties of the polysaccharide–protein
Maillard conjugates (Luo et al., 2011). In addition, aquafaba gelation
property might be attributed to protein-polyphenol interaction
involving reversible non-covalent bonding initially, followed by irre­
versible covalent disulfide and non-covalent bonding during heating,
finally formation of gel networks and aggregates after cooling (Wu et al.,
2007).
7.1. Foamability (air/water behavior)
Foam is produced by injecting air into aquafaba under shearing force
or pressure. Prior studies demonstrated inconsistency in the foaming
capacity and stability of aquafaba from commercially canned chickpea
(Table 2). No significant correlation was found between foaming ca­
pacity and stability. These variations were attributed to differences in
chickpea cultivars and canning conditions. Aquafaba from some canned
chickpea brands had comparable foaming capacity (297%) to
34
Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42
commercial egg white liquid (281%) and fresh egg white (311%)
(Mustafa, He, Shim, & Reaney, 2018; Shim et al., 2018). In contrast,
these observations were not supported by other authors who found that
egg white has significantly higher foaming capacity compared to
aquafaba (;Ertaş, 2020; Buhl et al., 2019; Aslan; Stantiall et al., 2018).
Two main factors affecting these contradictory observations include
shorter whipping time and differences in aquafaba composition. Whip­
ping aquafaba for at least 5 min is necessary to obtain foaming capacity
comparable to egg white (Mustafa et al., 2018). In addition, cooking
chickpea seed for longer durations and at different temperatures and
pressure will change aquafaba composition and foaming properties.
Cooking for prolonged periods might increase cell wall breakdown and
transfer of fat to the cooking water which in turn reduces foaming ca­
pacity (Stantiall et al., 2018). The loss of fats upon boiling of chickpea
has previously been reported (Alajaji & El-Adawy, 2006). In addition,
most researchers used aquafaba liquid to measure the foaming capacity.
To obtain consistent and comparable results, aquafaba must contain
consistent protein concentration.
Buhl et al. (2019) demonstrated that changing the pH (from 3 to 8.5)
and the conductivity (16–32 mS/cm) did not affect aquafaba foaming
capacity, however, the foam stability was maximum at pH near the
isoelectric point. Ultrasound treatment of aquafaba enhanced its foam­
ing capacity (from 259% to 548%) and stability (from 45% to 93%) due
to its effect on protein in aquafaba with increased colloidal stability,
partial denaturation, and changes in hydrophobicity (Arzeni et al., 2012;
Higuera-Barraza, Del Toro-Sanchez, Ruiz-Cruz, & Márquez-Ríos, 2016;
Tan, Chin, Yusof, Taip, & Abdullah, 2015). Furthermore, using higher
power intensity (67 W/cm2) ultrasound produced aquafaba with com­
parable foaming capacity to egg white at pH 4 (Meurer et al., 2020). A
decrease in particle size of protein aggregates has a direct correlation to
foam expansion increase. The smaller the protein particle size, the faster
it aggregates at the liquid interface. In addition, sonication contributed
to an increase in exposure of protein hydrophobic amino acid residues,
thus the surface tension at the air-water interface is reduced (Arzeni
et al., 2012). Moreover, the homogenization effect of ultrasound treat­
ment might disperse protein particles in a more uniform way (Jambrak
et al., 2011). During sonication, protein structures would likely become
partially unfolded. Unfolding would promote foaming capacity of food
after whipping.
Foaming capacity of the cooking water from other pulses varies
significantly. For instance, the foaming capacity of haricot cooking
water was lower compared to whole green lentil and split yellow pea due
to its lower protein content. However, the foaming capacity of yellow
soybean cooking water is significantly higher than haricot cooking water
with even similar protein content (Serventi et al., 2018). This is due to
higher foam expansion of soy protein solutions compared with other
legume proteins, especially under lower pH conditions (Aluko, Mofo­
lasayo, & Watts, 2009; Fernández-Quintela, Macarulla, Del Barrio, &
Martínez, 1997).
7.2. Emulsibility (oil/water behavior)
A recent study by Mustafa et al. (2018), demonstrated the emulsion
stability of aquafaba recovered from 10 commercial brands of canned
chickpea varied significantly and ranged between 60% and 80% due to
differences in chickpea cultivars, canning process conditions and addi­
tives applied by different manufacturers. Furthermore, Buhl et al. (2019)
found the emulsions made with aquafaba from canned chickpea
exhibited a significantly higher emulsion capacity and stability than
emulsion prepared by egg white powder with a pH of 6 and conductivity
of 16 mS/cm.
Aquafaba emulsion properties vary among different chickpea culti­
vars, canning processes and treatment conditions. Emulsion capacity
and stability of aquafaba from five chickpea cultivars differed signifi­
cantly with superior emulsification properties of aquafaba obtained
from chickpea CDC Leader (He et al., 2019). Maximizing emulsification
Y. He et al.
properties by optimizing cooking conditions was the focus of several
studies. Lafarga et al. (2019) discovered that lower chickpea-to-water
ratio (1:1.72), acidity (pH of 3.5) and higher cooking time (boiling for
190 min) increased emulsion properties. Although, Alsalman et al.
(2020) obtained the highest aquafaba emulsion properties when
chickpea was cooked under pressure for 60 min with a
chickpea-to-water ratio of 1:1.5. Meurer et al. (2020) indicated that
aquafaba emulsion stability was positively affected by ultrasound
treatment, especially using higher power intensity.
When comparing chickpea aquafaba to the cooking water of other
pulses, significantly higher emulsion capacity was observed for chickpea
aquafaba and whole green lentil cooking water compared with cooking
water of haricot bean, split yellow pea, and yellow soybean (Table 2).
Emulsion capacity of the cooking water from different pulses was posi­
tively correlated with their saponin content (1.4%, 1.2%, 1.0%, and
0.8% for whole green lentil, chickpea, split yellow pea, and haricot bean,
respectively, r2 0.77). High emulsifying stability was also determined for
chickpea aquafaba compared with other pulses cooking water.
7.3. Gelation and thickening properties
Food hydrogel, an intermediate state of hydration between solid and
liquid, is a continuously three-dimensional matrix in which water is
entrapped by a gelling agent to form a rigid structure that is resistant to
flow (Li & Nie, 2016; Zhang, Jiang, & Wang, 2007).
Aquafaba forms a weak hydrogel due to its water binding proteins,
water-soluble carbohydrates, insoluble fibre (mainly cellulose and
pectin), and their interactions (Aydemir & Yemenicioĝlu, 2013; Stantiall
et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2007). Calcium was also reported to strengthen
the gel structure by cross-linking the hydrocolloid (Nussinovitch,
Kopelman, & Mizrahi, 1990) and it may act in this manner with the
cellulose and pectin in aquafaba.
In another study, Bird et al. (2017) discovered longer peak time (6.6
vs. 6.2 min) and lower setback (51 vs. 63 RVU) for gluten-free flour mix
with aquafaba determined in the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) thermo­
gram indicating the gelling ability of aquafaba in the flour mix. Insoluble
fiber and saponins in aquafaba may act as a stabilizer and surfactant,
respectively, and prevent bread staling by delaying starch recrystalli­
sation. Stantiall et al. (2018) studied the gelling ability of chickpea
aquafaba and other pulse cooking waters by testing their ability to
develop an egg-like meringue with a chewy internal structure and lower
crust hardness. There is a significant inverse correlation between the
insoluble fibre content and meringue hardness (r2 0.99). They also found
that chickpea aquafaba had greater gelling ability than other pulse
cooking waters. In addition, the pasting properties of the gluten-free
crackers made with yellow soybean cooking water demonstrated
significantly lower setback (32 vs. 59 RVU) and higher peak time (7.0 vs.
6.3 min) than the control. These results suggest strong antistaling ac­
tivity and water binding ability of soybean cooking water which are
attributed to its thickening properties (Serventi et al., 2018).
There is very limited scientific data directly describing aquafaba
performance as a gelling agent (Table 2). In general, in non-cooked food
products such as mousse, aquafaba demonstrates comparable gelling
properties to that of egg white. However, in cooked food like meringue
or bread, aquafaba has poor gelling ability due to its low content of dry
matter which is mostly insoluble fibre (Stantiall et al., 2018).
8. Characteristics of common plant-based rheological additives
and aquafaba
The demand for eco-friendly and plant-based rheological additives
(foaming agents, emulsifiers, gelling and thickening agents, etc.) to
replace egg and dairy is increasing. The global egg replacement market
is projected to grow at a CAGR of 6.01% from 2019 to 2026 and ex­
pected to reach USD 2.1 billion by 2026 (Fiormarkets, 2020). On the
other hand, the dairy alternatives market is estimated to reach USD 35.8
35
Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42
billion registering a CAGR of 13.6% over the same period (Research and
Markets, 2020).
8.1. Common plant-based rheological additives as egg and dairy
substitutes
Common plant-based rheological additives used as egg and dairy
substitutes include plant-based proteins, soymilk, starch, hydrocolloids,
banana, and fiber. These additives are used to make emulsions
(mayonnaise, salad dressing), baked goods (cake, muffins), cheese, ice
cream, chocolate, and other food formulations (Table 3).
However, finding a suitable and simple 100% egg replacer is still
challenging in the food industry. Replacing egg or milk with one plant-
based substitute seems to lead to poor consistency and lower sensory
scores of the new formulated food products compared with the con­
ventional product (Herald, Aramouni, & Abu-Ghoush, 2008; Ghazaei,
Mizani, Piravi-Vanak, & Alimi, 2015; N. F. Rahmati & Mazaheri Tehrani,
2015). Multiple ingredients were combined and tested as an egg
replacer. For example, eggs in muffins and yellow cake were substituted
by mixtures composed of roasted soy flour with wheat gluten, corn syrup
solids, and sodium alginate; or sugar cane fiber mixed with xanthan gum
and guar gum (Geera et al., 2011; Ratnayake, Geera, & Rybak, 2012).
Nevertheless, none of these egg replacements produced acceptable
quality when they were used to completely replace egg. The eggless cake
had significantly lower moisture loss, internal texture appearance,
softness volume index, taste score, and overall acceptability (N. F.
Rahmati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2015). In addition, 100% substitution of
egg yolk with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified potato starch
in a reduced-fat mayonnaise formulation was not desirable due to the
large droplet size, low consistency, and poor sensory scores of the
mayonnaise samples (Ghazaei et al., 2015).
To create good quality food products without completely changing
the initial egg-based recipe, the rheological additives have to be com­
bined with other thickening agents or emulsifiers to replace one or two
attributes of egg functionality (Arozarena, Bertholo, Empis, Bunger, &
de Sousa, 2001; Ghoush, Samhouri, Al-Holy, & Herald, 2008; Campos,
Antoniassi, Deliza, Freitas, & Felberg, 2009; N. F. Rahmati & Mazaheri
Tehrani, 2014; Julianti, Rusmarilin, Ridwansyah, & Yusraini, 2016; J.
P.; Singh, Kaur, & Singh, 2016; Lin, Tay, Yang, Yang, & Li, 2017). For
instance, Raymundo, Franco, Empis, and Sousa (2002) produced stable
emulsions by replacing egg with lupin protein and xanthan gum. The
emulsion had comparable physical properties compared to those of
egg-based mayonnaise. Nikzade, Tehrani, and Saadatmand-Tarzjan
(2012) completely replaced egg yolk and produced cholesterol and
fat-reduced mayonnaise products by using a mixture of guar and xan­
than gums with soymilk and mono- and diglycerides. The mayonnaise
had similar characteristics to full-fat mayonnaise prepared with egg
yolk.
8.2. Advantages of aquafaba compared to other rheological additives
Aquafaba replaces more than one functionality of egg as it has
multiple functional properties including foaming, emulsifying, and
gelling. Aquafaba is very stable even if it is repeatedly frozen, thawed,
and heated. This stability is attributed, in part, to its content of LEAPs
known for their heat stability (Shim et al., 2018).
Aquafaba is an ecofriendly rheological additive. Unlike other rheo­
logical additives such as plant protein, soymilk, or hydrocolloids, which
are prepared purposely for their functionalities, aquafaba is a by-
product generated during pulse canning/boiling processes, production
of hummus, and frozen pulse seed production. For instance, the average
aquafaba volume in a standard 540 mL commercial chickpea can is 186
mL (Shim et al., 2018), which is over 1/3 of total can volume. This
means a large amount of wastewater could potentially be diverted from
sewage treatment plants or rivers to reduce the energy and cost of
sewage treatment or decrease environmental pollution if this is used as
Y. He et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Egg and milk substitutes and their applications in food products. Sources totally Applications Conclusion References
Sources totally Applications Conclusion References replacing egg or
replacing egg or milk
milk
Combined Mazaheri Tehrani,
Plant proteins Emulsifier in Emulsion had Raymundo et al., soymilk with 2015
(white lupin, food oil comparable 2002; Ghoush et al., emulsifiers
wheat, lentil, emulsions physical 2008 (0.49% DGMS),
soy, pea, rice, (mayonnaise, properties to 0.5% lecithin and
maize) salad dressing) those of 0.01% SMS give
commercial better quality
mayonnaise. eggless cake.
Replacing egg in Soymilk replaces
food emulsions 100% of whole
required other dairy milk in
thickening agents muffins and
(xanthan gum, popovers without
guar gum, iota- influencing their
carrageenan and texture and
glycerides) overall
Foaming agent Replacing egg Arozarena et al., 2001; acceptability
in baking goods with lupine Jarpa-Parra et al., Milk substitute vegan cheese Ahmad, Li, Yang,
(cake, muffin) proteins caused 2017; Abu-Ghoush, in cheese (tofu, sufu, etc.) Ning, and Randhawa
undesirable Herald, & Aramouni, (2008)
volume collapse 2010; Julianti et al., Starch and Emulsifiers in 100% Ghazaei et al. (2015)
of cake, which 2016; Lin et al., 2017 modified food oil substitution of
could be reduced starch (from emulsions egg yolk with
by using both potato, wheat, (mayonnaise, OSA-modified
MDG and corn) salad dressing) potato starch
hydrocolloids produced
(xanthan gum). products with
Muffins made poor consistency
with lentil protein and sensory
had comparable scores compared
sensory to control
acceptability to mayonnaise
the control. The products
angel cake Foaming agent Eggless cake with Kohrs, Herald,
formulated with in baking goods xanthan gum and Aramouni, and
proteins from soy, (cake, muffin) wheat starch had Abughoush (2010)
pea, rice, zein did lower volume,
not perform as softer texture, and
well as the control stickier mouthfeel
egg-contained compared to the
cake. Eggless cake control. But if
with soy protein combining whey
isolate and 1% protein, the
MDG was more formulation was
affordable and significantly
mimicked most of higher in
the structural acceptability to
properties of the that of the control
traditional cakes. Ice cream Egg alternatives Herald et al. (2008)
Eggless cake with (MCS and SPI)
a mixture of soy exhibited
protein isolate, significantly
maize starch and lower flavor and
xanthan gum had acceptability
acceptable scores compared
sensory with the control
properties Hydrocolloids Foaming agent Good quality Ashwini, Jyotsna, and
Soymilk Emulsifier in Egg yolk could be Campos et al., 2009; (Arabic, guar, in baking goods eggless cake Indrani (2009)
food oil completely Nikzade et al., 2012; xanthan, (cake, muffin) could be prepared
emulsions replaced by K. Rahmati, Mazaheri carrageenan by HPMC and
(mayonnaise, soymilk and gums Tehrani, & Daneshvar, gums, HPMC) emulsifier SSL as
salad dressing) (guar and 2014 egg replacers
xanthan), Ripe banana and Foaming agent Banana and Agrahar-Murugkar,
maltodextrine, yoghurt in baking goods yoghurt replace Zaidi, Kotwaliwale, &
CMC or MDG in (cake, muffin) eggs in gluten- Gupta, 2016;
mayonnaise free cake without Agrahar-Murugkar,
products significant Zaidi, & Dwivedi,
Foaming agent Soymilk replaces Swanson, Mckemie, difference for 2018
in baking goods up to 75% of eggs Sabrin, & Milly, 2012; batter textural
(cake, muffin, without affecting N. Rahmati & and sensory
popover) the cake’s Mazaheri Tehrani, properties
attributes 2014; N. Rahmati & compared to
negatively. control
(continued on next page)

36
Y. He et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

Table 3 (continued ) meringue, and mayonnaise has recently been published. Cake is tradi­
Sources totally Applications Conclusion References tionally made by combining egg white foam or whole egg with flour and
replacing egg or sugar to form a batter that is baked to form a solid foam cake. Aquafaba
milk has been added as a foaming and texturizing agent to replace the egg
Peanut and Milk substitute Vegetable milk Aidoo, Sakyi-Dawson, white in this application (Table 4). The colour, appearance, and texture
cowpea in vegetable made from 1:2 Tano-Debrah, & of aquafaba eggless sponge cake were similar to those of sponge cake
milk chocolate ratios of peanuts: Saalia, 2010; Aidoo, made with egg white (Mustafa et al., 2018). However, aquafaba cake
cowpea produced Sakyi-Dawson, Abbey,
exhibited an obvious sunken centre and large interspace void, which
the most Tano-Debrah, &
preferred Saalia, 2012 made aquafaba sponge cakes less springy and less cohesive than egg
chocolates. The white cakes. Aslan and Ertaş (2020) found that aquafaba can only be
optimum used to replace half of the egg required for the cake recipe to have
ingredient acceptable volume index, firmness, and uniformity index values. Cake
formulation for
acceptable
made with 100% substitution of egg by aquafaba had high firmness
vegetable milk values and low colour, smell, and pore structure scores.
chocolates: cocoa Meringue is traditionally made from whipped egg white and sugar.
liquor (18%), Aquafaba was applied in meringue as a foaming and gelling agent.
sugar (30.75%),
Stantiall et al. (2018) showed that meringues made from aquafaba and
peanut-cowpea
milk (28.93%), split yellow pea cooking water revealed good palatability and overall
and cocoa butter quality that was comparable to egg white meringue. The colour pa­
(22.32%) rameters and sensorial scores of meringues made using egg white or
Milk substitute Optimum coffee Malundo and aquafaba were comparable; however, aquafaba meringue had lower
in coffee whitener Resurrecion (1994)
whitener formulation is
hardness and inferior consistency. The texture and colour of aquafaba
1:3–1:4 peanut- meringue were improved when aquafaba was pretreated by ultrasound
water ratios and (Lafarga et al., 2019; Meurer et al., 2020). Conversely, flat structure due
0.6–1.6% to the low gelling ability of haricot bean, and the unappealing teste
emulsifier (MDG)
caused by bitter flavors from saponins and phenolics of whole green
Milk substitute The peanut-based Santos, Resurreccion,
in cheese cheese spreads and Garcia (1989) lentil cooking water limit their applications in food products (Stantiall
had higher et al., 2018).
protein and oil Cream mousse is made by mixing whipped cream, egg white foam,
contents than and sugar. Aquafaba replaces egg white functionality due to its foaming
commercial
and emulsifying properties. Cream mousse made with chickpea aqua­
samples
BCF Foaming agent BCF and xanthan Singh et al. (2016) faba and split yellow pea cooking water were highly rated for palat­
in baking goods gum can be used ability, colour, and glossiness (Damian et al., 2018). No defects in aroma
(cake, muffin) as viable (bean odour) were detected. Nevertheless, lower perceived sweetness
functional
and smoothness were observed in aquafaba mousse due to their mineral
ingredients in the
preparation of (especially sodium) and saponin content.
gluten-free Aquafaba can also be applied as a texture improver in gluten-free
eggless muffins baking products due to its gelling properties and water holding capac­
MDG, mono- and diglycerides; CMC, carboxymethylcellulose; DGMS, distilled ity. Serventi et al. (2018) incorporated soybean cooking water in
glycerol mono stearate; SMS, sorbitan monostearate; OSA, octenyl succinic an­ gluten-free crackers and produced a product with improved water ab­
hydride; MCS, modified corn starch; SPI, soy protein isolate; HPMC, hydrox­ sorption and stronger yellow colour. Soybean cooking water increased
ypropylmethylcellulose; SSL, sodium searoyl-2-lactylate; BCF, black carrot the product’s softness and moisture content. Crackers made with this
pomace dietary fibre. water did not harden when stored for 2 day at room temperature.
However, such crackers had a significantly higher rate of breakage than
aquafaba. The agricultural sector is a large contributor to global energy control crackers due to their weak starch-protein network resulting from
use, environmental degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions the foaming and emulsifying capacities of soy protein. A similar prin­
(Camargo, Ryan, & Richard, 2013). Moreover, the loss of biodiversity ciple was applied by Bird et al. (2017), who used aquafaba in gluten-free
and the over-supply of reactive nitrogen have been cited as the most bread. Results indicated that aquafaba could reduce crumb hardness and
out-of-balance factors in the global environment (Biabani et al., 2011). enhance crumb homogeneity and gas retention.
Legumes, as nitrogen fixing plants, produce plant available nitrogen Mayonnaise is a semi-solid oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion made from a
while releasing less reactive nitrogen to the environment (Biabani et al., mixture of egg yolk, edible vegetable oil, acetic or citric acid, and other
2011). Therefore, pulse products are preferred by those customers who ingredients such as salt, spice, and natural sweetener. Aquafaba was
wish to lower their greenhouse gas footprint and contribute to agricul­ studied to replace egg yolk functionality because of its emulsification
ture sustainable development. Using aquafaba in food formulation not and stabilizing properties. Aquafaba mayonnaise showed significantly
only addresses the vegan market demand for plant-based food but also deeper appearance and a higher colour intensity compared with egg-
stimulates demand for canned chickpea products and reduces waste­ based mayonnaise (Lafarga et al., 2019). There were no differences
water from food processing operations. between the flavor and texture scores for mayonnaise made with
aquafaba or egg, although the overall acceptance score of aquafaba
9. Aquafaba-based food formulation mayonnaise was lower than the control. Raikos et al. (2019) optimized
aquafaba mayonnaise formulations using different aquafaba-to-oil ratio
People are using aquafaba to make many recipes, from meringues or (A/O). The best emulsion stability, at 4 ◦ C and up to 21 days, was ob­
cakes to ice cream or even cheese (Fig. 4, Table 4). However, commer­ tained with A/O ratio (15/80%) with a droplet size distribution < 4 μm,
cial production of aquafaba-based food is still limited to just a few which was comparable to the microstructure of traditional egg yolk
products such as vegan mayonnaise and butter. mayonnaise. They also noted that the stability, firmness, and adhe­
A few studies regarding the potential use of aquafaba in cake, bread, siveness of the aquafaba-based mayonnaise decreased (P < 0.05) when
the aquafaba ratio was increased to more than 15%.

37
Y. He et al.
Fig. 4. Aquafaba food products.
10. Challenges and future opportunity
Aquafaba is well-known and popular within the vegan community;
however, its source and market is still relatively small or not completely
explored when compared with other egg/dairy alternatives market, such
as proteins (whey, wheat, and pea), starch (wheat, potato, and corn) and
hydrocolloids (guar gum, xanthan gum, and carrageenan). Scientific
data and aquafaba fans’ work showed that aquafaba replaces some of the
milk and egg functionalities. However, aquafaba contains less protein,
amino acids, and vitamins compared to eggs or milk. This nutritional
profile makes it difficult to convince consumers to completely replace
egg or milk with aquafaba alone. In addition, the boiling and canning
processes provide cooked chickpea, but these processes are not stan­
dardized to produce aquafaba. Pulse canners typically include additives
such as salt, disodium EDTA, or calcium chloride to decrease cooking
time and energy cost. These additives affect aquafaba functional prop­
erties and, thereby, create challenges in using aquafaba in food prod­
ucts. Therefore, there is considerable variation in aquafaba quality
between batches and within brands (Shim et al., 2018). Feedback and
comments obtained from consumers following sensory evaluations
revealed that the quality and the stability of aquafaba recovered from
chickpea cans is inconsistent. The investigation of the effects of canning
additives on consumer’s perception and aquafaba quality and func­
tionality would be very important in developing aquafaba-based
products.
Most research has been identified in peer reviewed articles, reviews
and books. However, additional information is available in patent ap­
plications that describe novel products, processes for producing said
novel products and new uses for aquafaba. For example, a patent
application entitled: Food dough and method for producing such a
dough, was published in 2018 (Desjardins-Lavisse, Gillet, & Gressin,
2018; pending). In this art, sugar is replaced by egg white, chickpea
aquafaba, whey, milk, and/or saponin extract to produce foam in a food
dough of baked goods such as meringues or macarons. The process
produces a food dough with a good appearance, a good aerated texture,
a good gustatory quality, while incorporating a reduced amount of sweet
flavor. To produce a savory meringue, foam is obtained by expanding 80
g of chickpea aquafaba using a food processor fitted with a whisk. A gel
is prepared by dissolving 10 g of corn flour and 10 g of maltodextrin in
38
Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42
100 g of water, heated up to 60 ◦ C and incorporated into the foam to
produce to dough and baked in a conventional oven at 100 ◦ C for 180
min. In 2019, a patent application was published under the number
16/079786 by the Hershey Company (Shah, Mongia, & Pascua Cubides,
2019; pending). This application reports the process of producing an
air-stable edible solid foam. Examples are mainly made by combining
70 g of aquafaba, 40 g of sucrose, 1.2 g of sucralose, and other natural
additives. The combined ingredients are whipped until stiff peak is
reached and baked at 93 ◦ C until completely dried to form a stable,
baked solid foam. In addition, a patent application entitled: Food
product for chewing or swallowing difficulty, discloses snack food
products comprising a foamed aquafaba-containing substrate network, a
polysaccharide-based viscosity-increasing component, and a starch
(Barewal, Masoni, & Ball, 2019; pending). The disclosed examples have
a crunchy initial mouthfeel, yet readily dissolve to a consistency that is
safe to swallow without chewing forces for dysphagic individuals or
those without capacity to chew food. These examples are regarded as
transitional food, defined as a food that starts at one texture and changes
to another texture when combined with water or saliva. The last patent
published in 2020 under the number 16/537175 was deposited by
Carter (2020, pending). The patent relates to a method of producing
pouch packaged aquafaba in liquid form. In a specific example of
aquafaba production, 10 kg of dried chickpea is added to the
pressure-cooking vessel along with 75 kg of water. Seeds are cooked for
40 min at 200 mbar. A method of making egg-free meringue using
aquafaba is also illustrated. Aquafaba is whisked about 15 min until stiff
peaks are formed. Sugar is gradually added to the aquafaba and whisked
with a ratio of 6:4 by weight, until a suitable meringue consistency is
obtained. The meringue mixture is baked in a fan assisted oven at 100 ◦ C
for 55–95 min and packaged suitably.
Optimization and standardization of aquafaba production indepen­
dently of chickpea canning remains a big challenge on the way to
commercializing aquafaba and aquafaba-based products. For instance,
more research is needed to investigate different extraction methods such
as microwave-assisted extraction and ultrasound, as well as to study
parameters that affect aquafaba extraction and technological properties
such as improved chickpea cultivars and genotypes, pH, hydrolyzing
enzymes, additives, etc. Further studies could also focus on evaluating
the functional components which endow aquafaba with various
Y. He et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 27–42

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Applications of aquafaba and pulse cooking water in food formulations and their Aquafaba Formulation Performances Challenges References
performances. recipes
Aquafaba Formulation Performances Challenges References and overall
recipes acceptance) of
Sponge 110 mL AQ, AQ sponge cake AQ sponge cake Mustafa meringues made
cake 3 g apple had similar exhibited et al. using egg or AQ
vinegar, 130 colour and obvious sunken (2018) Mousse 250 g fresh AF mousse Not showing Damian
g powdered texture with egg centre and large cream, 100 g showed significant et al.
sugar, 130 g white sponge interspace granulated comparable difference, but (2018)
wheat flour, cake voids. It was sugar and 80 appearance lower perceived
7 g baking less springy, g AQ compared with sweetness and
powder and less traditional egg smoothness
cohesive than white mousse were observed
egg white cake and were highly in AQ mousse
100 g wheat AQ can be used Cake made with Aslan and acceptable for for their
flour, 50 g to replace 50% 100% Ertaş colour and containing of
shortening, of the eggs with replacement of (2020) glossiness. No minerals
75 g sugar, 8 acceptable egg by AQ had defects in aroma (sodium) and
g milk volume index very high (beany smell) saponin
powder, 0.2 values, firmness firmness values were detected
g salt, 3 g values, and and the lowest Gluten-free 200 g gluten- Adding AQ in Pores Bird et al.
baking desired colour scores, bread free flour gluten-free distribution in (2017)
powder, 1 g uniformity smell scores and mix, 80 g bread reduces AQ loaf was less
vanillin, 0.5 index values pore structure water, 8 g crumb hardness homogeneous,
g DATEM, scores canola oil, 4 and get more particularly in
0.5 g g sugar, 4 g homogeneous the centre part
xanthan salt, 4 g crumb structure
gum, 25-50- yeast, 84 g and gas
75-100% chickpea retention
ratio AQ cooking
instead of 60 water
g egg Gluten-free 105 g rich Adding AQ in AQ recipe had a Serventi
French 50 g AQ, 40 g Texture and AQ French Meurer cracker flour, 105 g gluten-free significantly et al.
meringue powdered colour of the meringue had et al. corn starch, cracker recipe higher (2018)
sugar French less hardness (2020) 4 g baking adds a stronger breakdown
meringue made and consistency powder, 4 g yellow colour than the control
with ultrasound compared with salt, 30 g and increases cracker,
treated AQ egg white canola oil, softness and indicating its
showed meringue 147 g AQ moisture weak starch-
significant content of the protein network
improvement product during
than not treated a 2-day storage
samples. at room
Adhesiveness of temperature
treated AQ Mayonnaise rapeseed oil The appearance Sensory Raikos
meringue did 70–80%, AQ and mean evaluation has et al.
not have 15–25%, 4% spherical not been made (2019)
significant vinegar, equivalent to determine
difference 0.5% sugar diameter of the consumer
compared to the and 0.5% salt AQ mayonnaise acceptability
egg white droplets are
meringue comparable to
160 g AQ, The taste of Moisture Stantiall the
115 g icing meringues made content of AQ et al. microstructure
sugar, 115 g with PCW meringues was (2018) of traditional
caster sugar (haricot beans significantly mayonnaise
and whole green lower than that made from egg
lentils) showed of the yolk
low acceptance conventional 500 g A visible colour The overall Lafarga
by sensory product. sunflower difference acceptance et al.
analysis. Meringues oil, 150 g AQ between AQ score of AQ (2019)
Meringues from made with split (pH adjusted mayonnaise and mayonnaise
AQ and split yellow pea using lemon control sample was lower than
yellow pea CW resulted in juice), 1 g was observed. control egg
showed high significantly table salt AQ mayonnaise mayonnaise
acceptance, higher hardness showed deeper
similarly to that than egg white appearance and
of the egg white meringues a higher colour
meringue intensity
160 g AQ, No differences Further Lafarga compared with
230 g caster were observed sensorial et al. egg mayonnaise
sugar between the studies using a (2019)
AQ, aquafaba; DATEM, diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides and
colour larger group of
diglycerides.
parameters and panelists are
sensorial scores expected
(flavor, texture,

39
Y. He et al.
functional abilities, or developing commercial aquafaba food products,
especially the coproduction of pulse proteins and starch. Food product
formulas with aquafaba as an emulsifier, foaming agent, or binder in
mayonnaise, salad dressing, cake, bread, meringue, cheese, and ice
cream could be developed as well. Sensory studies could be designed to
evaluate consumer acceptance of aquafaba and determine the impact of
aquafaba on food product flavor and texture. Furthermore, plant-based
protein by-products could be also investigated to produce emulsifying
and foaming agents comparable to aquafaba.
In summary, the future directions of aquafaba research could range
from the standardization of aquafaba quality to aquafaba food product
development. Such studies could provide compelling evidence on the
efficacy of aquafaba in commercial food and nutritional applications.
11. Conclusion
Aquafaba, an eco-friendly by-product liquid separated from canned
and/or boiled chickpea seed, is emerging as a clean label pulse-based
rheological additive which has largely been used by the vegan com­
munity and others as an egg and dairy substitute. Aquafaba has various
nutrients including protein, simple sugars, polysaccharides, minerals,
and phytochemical compounds (saponins and phenolic compounds),
which contribute to its functionality (foamability, emulsibility, gelation,
and thickening properties). Due to its functionality, aquafaba is used in
food products such as confectioneries (meringue, cream mousses),
baking (crackers, sponge cake, gluten-free bread), and condiments
(mayonnaise). Exploiting aquafaba meets the global effort to minimize
by-product waste from the pulse processing industry, maintains agri­
culture sustainability, and lowers greenhouse gas footprint.
More thorough research is needed to demonstrate aquafaba charac­
teristics and standardize aquafaba extraction conditions so that aqua­
faba quality and functional properties are consistent.
Funding sources
This research was supported by the Saskatchewan Ministry of Agri­
culture’s Agriculture Development Fund (20180091) and by the
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, BLE Devolved
Scholarship (University of Saskatchewan, Canada).
Author contributions
Yue He: Writing-Original draft preparation, Reviewing and Editing;
Venkatesh Meda: Validation, Supervision; Martin JT Reaney: Vali­
dation, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing-Reviewing and Edit­
ing; Rana Mustafa: Conceptualization, Writing-Reviewing and Editing.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
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