ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH → Issues outgoing instructions

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (Midterms)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Lecture 1: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
➢ Nerves extending from the brain and
Functions of the Nervous System spinal cord
→ Spinal Nerves – carry impulses to
1. Sensory Input and from the spinal cord
– gathering information → Cranial Nerves – carry impulses to
– sensory receptors monitor changes, and from the brain
called stimuli, occurring inside and ➢ Functions
outside the body → Serve as communication lines among
2. Integration sensory organs, the brain and spinal
– nervous system processes and cord, and glands or muscles.
interprets sensory input and decides
whether action is needed – cervical nerves (8 pairs) go out under
3. Motor Output (cervilow); thoracic nerves (12 pairs) go out
– a response, or effect, activates muscles above (taasic).
or glands
Functional Classification
Organizations of the Nervous System
Sensory (afferent) Division
– structural classification is based on the
structures of the nervous system. ➢ Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
➢ Central Nervous System (CNS) → Somatic Sensory (afferent) fibers
➢ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) carry information from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints.
– functional classification is based on the → Visceral Sensory (afferent) fibers
activities of the nervous system carry information from visceral organs.
➢ Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) Division
➢ Motor (efferent) division
➢ Nerve fibers that carry impulses away
Nervous System from the central nervous system organs to
Central Peripheral Nervous effector organs (muscles and glands)
Nervous System (PNS)
➢ Two subdivisions:
System (CNS) – spinal nerves
→ Somatic Nervous System (SNS) =
– brain – cranial nerves
– spinal cord – plexuses voluntary
Somatic Autonomic – consciously (voluntarily) controls
Nervous Nervous skeletal muscles.
System System → Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) =
(SNS) (ANS) involuntary
Para Sympa – automatically controls smooth and
cardiac muscles and glands.
Structural Classification – further divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
➢ Organs
→ Brain – nervous tissue is composed of two types of
→ Spinal Cord cells: neurons and neuroglia (supporting
➢ Function cells).
→ Integration; command center
→ Interprets incoming sensory Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
information
– support cells in the CNS are grouped
together as neuroglia.
– general functions: support, insulate, and
protect neurons
– nervous tissue is made up of two principal
cell types:
1. Supporting Cells (called neuroglia, glial
cells, or glia)
– resemble neurons
– unable to conduct nerve impulses
– never lose the ability to divide
2. Neurons
Central Nervous System Glial Cells
1. Astrocytes
– abundant, star-shaped cells
– brace and anchor neurons to blood
capillaries
– determine permeability and exchanges
between blood capillaries and neurons
– protect neurons from harmful
substances in blood
– control the chemical environment of the
brain
2. Microglia
– spider-like phagocytes
– monitor health of nearby neurons
– dispose of debris
3. Ependymal Cells
– line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
– cilia assist with circulation of
cerebrospinal fluid
4. Oligodendrocytes
– wrap around nerve fibers in the central
nervous system
– produce myelin sheaths
Peripheral Nervous System Glial Cells
1. Schwann Cells
– form myelin sheath around nerve fibers
in the PNS
2. Satellite Cells
– protect and cushion neuron cell bodies
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Neurons = nerve cells
➢ Cells specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses)
➢ Major regions of all neurons
→ Cell Body – nucleus and metabolic
center of the cell
→ Processes – fibers that extend from
the cell body
1. Cell Body
– nucleus with large nucleolus
→ Nissl bodies – rough endoplasmic
reticulum
→ Neurofibrils – intermediate filaments
that maintain cell shape
2. Processes (fibers)
→ Dendrites – conduct impulses toward
the cell body; neurons may have
hundreds of dendrites
→ Axons – conduct impulses away from
the cell body; neurons have only one
axon arising from the cell body at the
axon hillock; end in axon terminals,
which contains vesicles with
neurotransmitters; axon terminals are
separated from the next neuron by a
gap
→ Synaptic Cleft – gap between axon
terminals and the next neuron
→ Synapse – functional junction between
nerves where a nerve impulse is
transmitted
3. Myelin Sheaths
– myelin is a white, fatty material covering
axons
– protects and insulates fibers
– speeds nerve impulse transmission
Oligodendrocytes – produce myeline
sheaths around axons of the CNS; lack a
neurilemma (plays a role in fiber
regeneration).
Schwann Cells – wrap axons in a jelly roll-
like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin sheath.
→ Neurilemma – part of the Schwann cell
external to the myelin sheath
→ Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin
sheath along the axon
Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside
the CNS in the PNS
Tracts – bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
Nerves – bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
White Matter – collections of myelinated
fibers (tracts)
Gray Matter – mostly unmyelinated fibers
and cell bodies
Functional Classification
Sensory (afferent) Neurons
– carry impulses from the sensory receptors
to the CNS
– receptors include:
→ cutaneous sense organs in skin detect
pain, temperature, touch, pressure
→ proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
detect stretch
Motor (efferent) Neurons
– carry impulses from the central nervous
system to viscera and/or muscles and glands
Interneurons (association neurons)
– cell bodies located in the CNS
– connect sensory and motor neurons
Structural Classification
– based on number of processes extending
from the cell body
→ Multipolar Neurons – many extensions
from the body; all motor and
interneurons are multipolar; most
common structural type
→ Bipolar Neurons – one axon and one
dendrite; located in special sense
organs, such as nose and eye; rare in
adults
→ Unipolar Neurons – have a short single
process leaving the cell body; sensory
neurons found in the PNS ganglia;
conduct impulses both toward and away
from the cell body
Functional Properties of Neurons
1. Irritability – ability to respond to a
stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse
2. Conductivity – ability to transmit the
impulse to other neurons, muscles, or
glands
– electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s
membrane
→ the plasma membrane at rest is inactive
(polarized)
→ fewer positive ions are inside the
neuron’s plasma membrane than
outside
– K+ is the major positive ion inside the
cell
– Na+ is the major positive ion outside
the cell
→ the polarized membrane is more
permeable to K+ than to Na+
→ as long as the inside of the membrane
is more negative (fewer positive ions)
than the outside, the cell remains
inactive
→ 2NaOut 2KIn
Action Potential Initiation and Generation
→ a stimulus changes the permeability of the
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
→ sodium channels now open, and sodium
(Na+) diffuses into the neuron
→ the inward rush of sodium ions changes
the polarity at that site and is called
depolarization
→ a graded potential (localized
depolarization) exists where the inside of
the membrane is more positive and the
outside is less positive
→ if the stimulus is strong enough and
sodium influx great enough, local
depolarization activates the neuron to
conduct an action potential (nerve
impulse)
Propagation of the Action Potential
→ if enough sodium enters the cell, the action
potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire axon
→ all-or-none response means the nerve
impulse either is propagated or is not
→ fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve
impulses more quickly
Repolarization
→ membrane permeability changes again –
becoming impermeable to sodium ions
and permeable to potassium ions
→ potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the
neuron, repolarizing the membrane
→ repolarization involves restoring the inside
of the membrane to a negative charge and
the outer surface to a positive charge
Transmission of the Signal at Synapses
→ Step 1: When the action potential reaches
the axon terminal, the electrical charge
opens calcium channels.
→ Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny
vesicles containing the neurotransmitter
chemical to fuse with the axonal
membrane.
→ Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon
terminal causes pore-like opening to form,
releasing the neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft.
→ Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind
to receptors on the membrane of the next
neuron.
→ Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is
released, a graded potential will be
generated. Eventually, an action potential
(nerve impulse) will occur in the neuron
beyond the synapse.
→ Step 6: The electrical charges prompted
by neurotransmitter binding are brief. The
neurotransmitter is quickly removed from
the synapse either by reuptake or by
enzymatic activity. Transmission of an
impulse is electrochemical (transmission
down neuron is electrical; transmission to
next neuron is chemical).
Reflexes
– rapid, predictable, and involuntary
responses to stimuli
– occur over neural pathways called reflex
arcs
– two types of reflexes: somatic reflexes and
autonomic reflexes
Somatic Reflexes – reflexes that stimulate the
skeletal muscles; involuntary, although
skeletal muscle is normally under voluntary
control; e.g., pulling your hand away from a hot
object
Autonomic Reflexes – regulate the activity of
smooth muscles, the heart, and glands; e.g.,
regulation of smooth muscles, heart and blood
pressure, glands, digestive system
Five Elements of a Reflex Arc
1. Sensory Receptor – reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory Neuron – carries message to the
integration center
3. Integration Center (CNS) – processes
information and directs motor output
4. Motor Neuron – carries message to an
effector
5. Effector Organ – is the muscle or gland to
be stimulated
Two-Neuron Reflex Arcs – simplest type;
e.g., patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
Three-Neuron Reflex Arcs – consists of five
elements: receptor, sensory neuron,
interneuron, motor neuron, and effector; e.g.,
flexor (withdrawal) reflex
Central Nervous System
– functional anatomy of the brain
– brain regions: cerebral hemisphere,
diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
→ cerebral hemispheres are paired (left
and right) superior parts of the brain
– include more than half of the brain
mass
– the surface is made of ridges (gyri)
and grooves (sulci)
– fissures are deeper grooves
– lobes are named for the cranial bones
that lie over them
→ left brain: MALL (math, analytical, logic,
language)
→ right brain: MICA (music, insight/judgment,
creativity, arts)
Three Main Regions of Cerebral
Hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray
matter
Cerebral Cortex
→ primary somatic sensory area
→ located in parietal lobe posterior to central
sulcus
→ receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors
– pain, temperature, light touch (except
for special senses)
→ sensory homunculus is a spatial map
→ left side of the primary somatic sensory
area receives impulses from right side
(and vice versa)
– cerebral areas involved in special senses:
→ Visual area (occipital lobe)
→ Auditory area (temporal lobe)
→ Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
Cerebral Cortex
→ Primary Motor Area
– located anterior to the central sulcus in
the frontal lobe
– allows us to consciously move skeletal
muscles
– motor neurons form pyramidal
(corticospinal) tract, which descends to
spinal cord
– motor homunculus is a spatial map
→ Broca’s Area (Motor Speech Area)
– involved in our ability to speak
– usually in left hemisphere at the base
of the precentral gyrus
→ Other specialized areas
– anterior association area (frontal lobe)
– posterior association area (posterior
cortex)
– speech area (for sounding out words)
Cerebral White Matter
– composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray
matter
– corpus callosum connects hemispheres
– tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are
known as commissures
– association fiber tracts connect areas within
a hemisphere
– projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum
with lower CNS centers
Basal Nuclei
– “islands” of gray matter buried deep within
the white matter of the cerebrum
– regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to skeletal
muscles by the primary motor cortex
Diencephalon (Interbrain)
– sits on top of the brain stem
– enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
– includes four structures: subthalamus,
hypothalamus, epithalamus, and thalamus
(SHET)
1. Thalamus
– encloses the third ventricle
– relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the cerebral cortex
2. Hypothalamus
– makes up the floor of the diencephalon
– important autonomic nervous system
center
– regulates body temperature, water
balance, metabolism
– houses the limbic center for emotions
– regulates the nearby pituitary gland
– houses mammillary bodies
– reflex centers for olfaction (smell)
3. Epithalamus
– forms the roof of the third ventricle
– houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
– includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem
– provides pathway for ascending and
descending tracts
– produce programmed behaviors key for
survival
– includes three structures: midbrain, pons,
and medulla oblongata
1. Midbrain
– extends from the mammillary bodies to
the pons inferiorly
– cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects
the third and fourth ventricles
– two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral
peduncles, convey ascending and
descending impulses
– four rounded protrusions, corpora
quadrigemina, are visual and auditory
reflex centers
2. Pons
– the rounded structure protruding just
below the midbrain
– mostly composed of fiber tracts
– includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
3. Medulla Oblongata
– the most inferior part of the brain stem
that merges into the spinal cord
– includes important fiber tracts
– contains important centers that control:
heart rate, blood pressure, breathing,
swallowing, and vomiting
– fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons
and medulla
4. Reticular Formation
– diffuse mass of gray matter along the
brain stem
– involved in motor control of visceral
organs
– reticular activating system (RAS): plays
a role in awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness; filter for incoming sensory
information
Cerebrum
– two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
– outer cortex of gray matter and inner region
of white matter
– controls balance
– provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity and coordination of body movements
– fibers connect to the cerebellum from the
inner ear, eye, proprioceptors of skeletal
muscles, and more
Protection of the Central Nervous System
→ in addition to bony protection of the brain
and spinal cord, the central nervous
system is also protected by: meninges,
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and blood-brain
barrier
Meninges:
1. Dura Mater
– outermost leathery layer
– double-layered external covering:
1. Periosteal Layer – attached to the
inner surface of the skull
2. Meningeal Layer – outer covering of
the brain
– folds inward in several areas: falx
cerebri and tentorium cerebelli
2. Arachnoid Layer
– middle layer
– web-like extensions span the
subarachnoid space to attach it to the pia
mater
– subarachnoid space is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
– arachnoid granulations protrude
through the dura mater and absorb
cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
3. Pia Mater
– internal layer
– clings to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid
– similar to blood plasma in composition
– formed continually by the choroid plexuses
(capillaries in the ventricles of the brain)
– CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain and spinal cord
– circulated in the arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of
each ventricle.
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into
the subarachnoid space via the median
and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows
through the central canal of the spinal
cord.
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid
space.
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous
sinuses via the arachnoid villi.
CSF Flow Mnemonic Device
Come – choroid plexus
Let’s – lax ventricle
Formally – foramen of Monroe
Take – third ventricle
Sylvia – Sylvian aqueduct
For – fourth ventricle
Lunch – foramen of Luschka
Mamaya sa – foramen of Magendie
Ayala – arachnoid villi
Brain Dysfunctions
Traumatic Brain Injuries
1. Concussion – slight brain injury; typically,
little permanent brain damage occurs
2. Contusion – marked nervous tissue
destruction occurs; coma may occur
3. Death may occur after head blows due to
intracranial hemorrhage or cerebral
edema
4. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) or
Stroke – results when blood circulation to
a brain area is blocked and brain tissue
dies; loss of some functions or death may
result
→ Hemiplegia – one-sided paralysis
→ Aphasia – damage to speech center in left
hemisphere
5. Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) –
temporary brain ischemia (restriction of
blood flow); numbness, temporary
paralysis, and impaired speech
Spinal Cord
→ extends from the foramen magnum of the
skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra
→ provides a two-way conduction pathway to
and from the brain
→ protected by vertebrae and meninges
→ 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the
spinal cord
– cauda equina is a collection of spinal
nerves at the inferior end
Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal
Roots
→ internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
→ posterior (dorsal) horns house
interneurons: receive information from
sensory neurons in the dorsal root; cell
bodies housed in dorsal root ganglion
→ ventral (anterior) horns house motor
neurons of the somatic (voluntary)
nervous system: send motor information
out ventral root
→ gray matter surrounds the central canal,
which is filled with CSF
White Matter of the Spinal Cord
→ composed of myelinated fiber tracts
→ three regions: dorsal, lateral, and ventral
columns
→ sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses
toward brain
→ motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from
brain to skeletal muscles
Peripheral Nervous System – consists of
nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.
Structure of a Nerve
→ nerves are bundles of neuron fibers found
outside the CNS
→ protective connective tissue covering:
– endoneurium is a connective tissue
sheath that surrounds each fiber
– perineurium wraps groups of fibers
bound into a fascicle
– epineurium binds groups of fascicles
→ mixed nerves – contain both sensory
and motor fibers
→ sensory (afferent) nerves – carry
impulses toward the CNS
→ motor (efferent) nerves – carry impulses
away from the CNS
Cranial Nerves
→ 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head
and neck
→ only the pair of vagus nerves extends to
thoracic and abdominal cavities
→ longest cranial nerve: CN10 (vagus)
→ largest cranial nerve: CN5 (trigeminal)
Cranial Nerves Mnemonic
Oh – olfactory (se)
Oh – optic (se)
Oh – oculomotor (mo)
To – trochlear (mo)
Touch – trigeminal (mi)
And – abducens (mo)
Feel – facial (mi)
Virgin – vestibulocochlear (se)
Girl’s – glossopharyngeal (mi)
Vagina – vagus (mi)
Ah! – accessory (mo)
Heaven – hypoglossal (mo)
I. Olfactory – purely sensory; carries
impulses for the sense of smell
II. Optic – purely sensory; carries impulses
for vision
III. Oculomotor – purely motor; supplies
motor fibers to four of the six muscles
(superior, inferior, and medial rectus, and
inferior oblique) that direct the eyeball; to
the eyelid; and to the internal eye
muscles controlling lens shape and pupil
size
IV. Trochlear – purely motor; supplies motor
fibers for one external eye muscle
(superior oblique)
 V. Trigeminal – mixed nerve; conducts
sensory impulses from the skin of the
face and mucosa of the nose, mouth, and
corneas; also contains motor fibers that
activate the chewing muscles
VI. Abducens – purely motor; supplies
motor fibers to the lateral rectus muscle,
which rolls the eye laterally
VII. Facial – mixed nerve; activates the
muscles of facial expression and the
lacrimal and salivary glands; carries
sensory impulses from the taste buds of
anterior tongue
VIII. Vestibulocochlear – mixed nerve;
vestibular branch transmits impulses for
the sense of balance, and cochlear
branch transmits impulses for the sense
of hearing; small motor component
adjusts sensitivity of sensory receptors
IX. Glossopharyngeal – mixed nerve;
supplies motor fibers to the pharynx
(throat) that promote swallowing and
saliva production; carries sensory
impulses from taste buds of the posterior
tongue and from chemical and pressure
receptors of the carotid artery
X. Vagus – mixed nerve; fibers carry
sensory impulses from and motor
impulses to the pharynx, larynx, and the
abdominal and thoracic viscera; most
motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers
that promote digestive activity and help
regulate heart activity
XI. Accessory – purely motor fibers activate
the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles
XII. Hypoglossal – purely motor fibers
control tongue movements
Spinal Nerves
→ 31 pairs
→ formed by the joining of the ventral and
dorsal roots of the spinal cord
→ named for the region of the spinal cord
from which they arise
→ spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the
spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and a
ventral ramus
– Ramus – branch of a spinal nerve;
contains both motor and sensory
fibers
– Dorsal Rami – serve the skin and
muscles of the posterior trunk
– Ventral Rami (T1 – T12) – form the
intercostal nerves that supply muscles
and skin of the ribs and trunk
– Ventral Rami (except T1 – T12) – form
a complex of networks (plexus) for the
anterior
→ plexus – networks of nerves serving motor
and sensory needs of the limbs
→ form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in
the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
→ four plexuses: cervical, brachial, lumbar,
and sacral
Autonomic Nervous System
→ motor subdivision of the PNS
– consists only of motor nerves
– controls the body automatically (and
is also known as the involuntary
nervous system)
– regulates cardiac and smooth
muscles and glands
– two subdivisions: somatic nervous
system and autonomic nervous
system
Lecture 2: SPECIAL SENSES
→ special senses include: smell, taste, sight,
hearing, and equilibrium
→ special sense receptors:
– large, complex sensory organs (eye
and ear)
– localized clusters of receptors (taste
buds and olfactory epithelium)
Part I: THE EYE AND VISION
→ 70% of all sensory receptors are in the
eyes
→ each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers
carrying information to the brain
Anatomy of the Eye
→ accessory structures include the: extrinsic
eye muscles, eyelids, conjunctiva, and
lacrimal apparatus
External and Accessory Structures
1. Eyelids
– meet at the medial and lateral
commissure (canthus)
2. Eyelashes Internal Structures: The Eyeball
– tarsal glands produce and oily
secretion that lubricates the eye → three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the
– ciliary glands are located between the eyeball:
eyelashes – fibrous layer: outside layer
3. Conjunctiva – vascular layer: middle layer
– membrane that lines the eyelids and – sensory layer: inside layer
eyeball → humors are fluids that fill the interior of the
– connects with the transparent cornea eyeball
– secretes mucus to lubricate the eye → lens divides the eye into two chambers
and keep it moist Fibrous Layer = sclera + cornea
4. Lacrimal Apparatus = lacrimal gland +
ducts → Sclera
– lacrimal gland – produces lacrimal – white connective tissue layer
fluid (tears); situated on lateral end of – seen anteriorly as the “white of the
each eye eye”
– tears drain across the eye into the → Cornea
lacrimal canaliculi then the lacrimal – transparent, central anterior portion
sac, and into the nasolacrimal duct, – allows for light to pass through
which empties into the nasal cavity – repairs itself easily
→ tears contain: dilute salt solution, mucus, – the only human tissue that can be
antibodies, and lysozyme (enzyme that transplanted without fear of rejection
destroys bacteria) due to lack of blood vessels
→ function of tears: cleanse, protect,
Vascular Layer
moisten, and lubricate the eye
5. Extrinsic Eye Muscles → Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer that
– produce gross eye movements contains a pigment (prevents light from
– six muscles attach to the outer scattering)
surface of the eye: (superior rectus, → Choroid is modified anteriorly into two
lateral rectus, inferior rectus, inferior smooth muscle structures:
oblique, medial rectus, and superior ➢ Ciliary Body – attached to lens by a
oblique) suspensory ligament called the ciliary
– SO4LR6 (others is 3) zonule
➢ Iris – regulates amount of light
Lateral moves eye VI
Rectus laterally (abducens) entering eye; pigmented layer that
Medial moves eye III gives eye color
Rectus medially (oculomotor) ➢ Pupil – rounded opening in the iris
elevates eye
Superior III Sensory Layer
and turns it
Rectus (oculomotor)
medially → Retina contains two layers:
depresses – outer pigmented layer absorbs light
Inferior eye and III and prevents it from scattering
Rectus turns it (oculomotor) – inner neural layer contains receptor
medially
cells (photoreceptors): rods and cones
elevates eye
Inferior III – electrical signals pass from
and turns it
Oblique (oculomotor) photoreceptors via a two-neuron
laterally
depresses chain: bipolar cells and ganglion cells
Superior eye and IV – signals leave the retina toward the
Oblique turns it (trochlear) brain through the optic nerve
laterally – optic disc (blind spot) is where the
optic nerve leaves the eyeball; cannot
see images focused on the optic disc
Rods
– most are found toward the edges of the
retina
– allows vision in dim light and peripheral
vision
– all perception is in gray tones
Cones
– allow for detailed color vision
– densest in the center of the retina
– Fovea centralis – lateral to blind spot (optic
disc); area of the retina with only cones;
visual acuity (sharpest vision) is here
→ no photoreceptor cells are at the optic disc,
or blind spot
Cone Sensitivity
– three types of cones (blue cones, green
cones, and red cones)
– each cone type is sensitive to different
wavelengths of visible light
Lens
→ flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure
→ held in place by a suspensory ligament
attached to the ciliary body
→ divides the eye into two segments, or
chambers
1. anterior (aqueous) segment –
anterior to the lens; contains aqueous
humor, a clear, water fluid
2. posterior (vitreous) segment –
posterior to the lens; contains
vitreous humor, a gel-like substance
Aqueous Humor
– watery fluid found between lens and cornea
– similar to blood plasma
– helps maintain intraocular pressure
– provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
– reabsorbed into venous blood through the
scleral venous sinus, or canal of Schlemm
Vitreous Humor
– gel-like substance posterior to the lens
– prevents the eye from collapsing
– helps maintain intraocular pressure
Ophthalmoscope
– instrument used to illuminate the interior of
the eyeball and fundus (posterior wall)
– can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis,
degeneration of the optic nerve and retina
Physiology of Vision
→ pathway of light through the eye and light
refraction
– light must be focused to a point on the
retina for optimal vision
– light is bent, or refracted, by the
cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and
vitreous humor
– the eye is set for distant vision (over
20 feet away)
– accommodation – the lens must
change shape to focus on closer
objects (less than 20 feet away)
– image formed on the retina is a real
image
– real images are: reversed from left to
right, upside down, and smaller than
the object
→ visual fields and visual pathways to the
brain
1. Optic Nerve – bundle of axons that
exit the back of the eye carrying
impulses from the retina
2. Optic Chiasma – location where the
optic nerves cross; fibers from the
medial side of each eye cross over to
the opposite side of the brain
3. Optic Tracts – contain fibers from the
lateral side of the eye on the same
side and the medial side of the
opposite eye; synapse with neurons in
the thalamus
4. Optic Radiation – axons from the
thalamus run to the occipital lobe;
synapse with cortical cells, and vision
interpretation (seeing) occurs
monocular
Optic Nerve
blindness (left/right)
bitemporal
Optic Chiasm hemianopsia
(contralateral)
Optic Tract homonymous
Optic Radiation hemianopsia
Occipital Cortex (contralateral)
→ summary of the pathway of impulses from
the retina to the point of visual
interpretation
1. optic nerve
2. optic chiasma
3. optic tract
4. thalamus
 5. optic radiation
6. visual cortex in occipital lobe of brain
→ visual fields
– each eye “sees” a slightly different
view
– field of view overlaps for each eye
→ binocular vision results and provides:
– depth perception (three-dimensional
vision)
Eye Reflexes
1. Convergence – reflexive movement of the
eyes medially when we focus on a close
object
2. Photopupillary Reflex – bright light
causes pupils to constrict
3. Accommodation Pupillary Reflex –
viewing close objects causes pupils to
constrict
Eye Problems
1. Emmetropia – eye focuses images
correctly on the retina
2. Myopia (nearsightedness) – distant
objects appear blurry; light from those
objects fails to reach the retina and are
focused in front of it; results from an
eyeball that is too long
3. Hyperopia (farsightedness) – near
objects are blurry, whereas distant objects
are clear; distant objects are focused
behind the retina; results from an eyeball
that is too short or from a “lazy lens”
4. Astigmatism – images are blurry; results
from light focusing as lines, not points, on
the retina because of unequal curvatures
of the cornea or lens
Part II: THE EAR: HEARING AND
BALANCE
→ ear houses two senses: hearing and
equilibrium (balance)
→ receptors are mechanoreceptors
→ different organs house receptors for each
sense
Anatomy of the Ear
→ the ear is divided into three areas: external
(outer) ear, middle ear, and internal (inner)
ear
External (outer) Ear
→ auricle (pinna)
→ external acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
– narrow chamber in the temporal bone
– lined with skin and ceruminous
(earwax) glands; glands secrete
cerumen (earwax), which traps
foreign object and repels insects
– ends at the tympanic membrane
(eardrum)
→ external ear is involved only in collecting
sound waves
Middle Ear Cavity (Tympanic Cavity)
→ air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the
temporal bone
→ involved only in the sense of hearing
→ located between tympanic membrane
(laterally) and medially by a bony wall with
two openings: oval window and round
window
→ pharyngotympanic tube (auditory lube) –
links middle ear cavity with the throat;
equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity
so the eardrum can vibrate
→ three bones (ossicles) span the cavity:
malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and
stapes (stirrup)
→ functions of the ossicles: transmit and
amplify vibrations from tympanic
membrane to the fluids of the inner ear
→ vibrations travel from the hammer → anvil
→ stirrup → oval window of inner ear
Internal (inner) Ear
→ includes sense organs for hearing and
balance
→ bony labyrinth (osseous labyrinth)
consists of: cochlea, vestibule, and
semicircular canals
→ bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph
→ membranous labyrinth is suspended in
perilymph and contains endolymph
Hearing
Spiral Organ of Corti
– located within the cochlear duct
– receptors = hair cells on the basilar
membrane
– gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells
– cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex
on temporal lobe
Pathway of Vibrations from Sound Waves
1. auricle (pinna)
2. external acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
3. tympanic membrane
4. ossicles amplify the sound waves
5. oval window
6. basilar membranes in the spiral organ of
Corti
7. hair cells of the tectorial membrane are
bent when the basilar membrane vibrates
against it
8. an action potential starts in the cochlear
nerve (CN8, vestibulocochlear)
9. impulse travels to the auditory cortex in the
temporal lobe
– high-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff
fibers of the basilar membrane; receptor cells
close to the oval window are stimulated
– low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy
fibers of the basilar membrane; specific hair
cells further along the cochlea are affected
Equilibrium
→ equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are
called the vestibular apparatus
→ vestibular apparatus has two functional
parts: static equilibrium and dynamic
equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
→ maculae – receptors in the vestibule
– report on the position of the head
– help us keep our head erect
– send information via the vestibular
nerve (division of CN8) to the
cerebellum of the brain
→ anatomy of the maculae
– hair cells are embedded in the otolithic
membrane
– otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel
around hair cells
– movements cause otoliths to roll and
bend hair cells
Dynamic Equilibrium
→ crista ampullaris
– responds to angular or rotational
movements of the head
– located in the ampulla of each
semicircular canal
– tuft of hair cells covered with cupula
(gelatinous cap)
– if the head moves, the cupula drags
against the endolymph
– hair cells are stimulated, and the
impulse travels the vestibular nerve to
the cerebellum
Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits
→ Deafness is any degree of hearing loss
1. Conduction Deafness – results when
the transmission of sound vibrations
through the external and middle ears
is hindered; external ear is affected
2. Sensorineural Deafness – results
from damage to the nervous system
structures involved in hearing
3. Ménière’s Syndrome – affects the
inner ear and causes progressive
deafness and perhaps vertigo
(sensation of spinning); inner ear is
affected
Part III: CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND
TASTE
→ chemoreceptors
– stimulated by chemicals in solution
– taste has five types of receptors
– smell can differentiate a wider range of
chemicals
→ both senses complement each other and
respond to many of the same stimuli
Olfactory Receptors and the Sense of
Smell
→ olfactory receptors are in roof of nasal
cavity
– olfactory receptor cells (neurons) with
long cilia known as olfactory hairs
detect chemicals
– chemicals must be dissolved in mucus
for detection by chemoreceptors
called olfactory receptors
→ impulses are transmitted via the olfactory
filaments to the olfactory nerve (CN1)
→ smells are interpreted in the olfactory
cortex
 Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste
→ taste buds house the receptor organs
→ locations of taste buds: most are on the
tongue, soft palate, superior part of the
pharynx, and cheeks
→ the tongue is covered with projections
called papillae that contain taste buds
– vallate (circumvallate) papillae
– fungiform papillae
– filiform papillae
→ gustatory cells are the taste receptors
– possess gustatory hairs (long
microvilli)
– gustatory hairs protrude through a
taste pore
– hairs are stimulated by chemicals
dissolved in saliva
→ impulses are carried to the gustatory
complex by several cranial nerves
because taste buds are found in different
areas:
– facial nerve (CN7)
– glossopharyngeal nerve (CN9)
– vagus nerve (CN10)
→ taste buds are replaced frequently by
basal cells
→ five basic taste sensations
– sweet receptors respond to sugars,
saccharine, and some amino acids
– sour receptors respond to H+ ions or
acids
– bitter receptors respond to alkaloids
– salty receptors respond to metal ions
– umami receptors respond to the
amino acid glutamate or the beefy
taste of meat
→ the eye continues to grow and mature until
age 8 or 9
→ the newborn infant can hear sounds, but
initial responses are reflexive
→ by the toddler stage, the child is listening
critically and beginning to imitate sounds
as language development begins
→ taste and smell are most acute at birth and
decrease in sensitivity after age 40 as the
number of olfactory and gustatory
receptors decreases
Age-Related Eye Issues
→ presbyopia – “old vision” results from
decreasing lens elasticity that
accompanies aging
– causes difficulty to focus for close
vision
→ lacrimal glands become less active
→ lens become discolored
→ dilator muscles of iris become less
efficient, causing pupils to remain
constricted
Age-Related Ear Problems
→ presbycusis – type of sensorineural
deafness that may result from otosclerosis
→ otosclerosis – ear ossicles fuse
→ congenital ear problems usually result
from missing pinnas and closed or missing
external acoustic meatuses

Part IV: DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS OF THE

SPECIAL SENSES

→ special sense organs are formed early in

embryonic development
→ maternal infections during the first 5 or 6
weeks of pregnancy may cause visual
abnormalities as well as sensorineural
deafness in the developing child
→ vision requires the most learning
→ the infant has poor visual acuity (is
farsighted) and lacks color vision and
depth perception at birth