Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

A critical review on the bio-mediated green synthesis and multiple

applications of magnesium oxide nanoparticles
Ngoan Thi Thao Nguyen a, b, Luan Minh Nguyen a, b, Thuy Thi Thanh Nguyen b, c,
Uyen P.N. Tran d, Duyen Thi Cam Nguyen a, e, *, Thuan Van Tran a, e, **
a
Institute of Applied Technology and Sustainable Development, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 298-300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho Chi Minh City, 755414, Viet
Nam
b
Department of Chemical Engineering and Processing, Nong Lam University, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
c
Faculty of Science, Nong Lam University, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
d
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Van Hien University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
e
NTT Hi-Tech Institute, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 298-300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho Chi Minh City, 755414, Viet Nam

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Recent advances on bio-mediated syn­

thesis and applications of MgO were
overviewed.
• Morphology, surface area, particle size,
and stabilization characterizations were
discussed.
• Green MgO served as excellent antimi­
crobial agents, adsorbents, and colori­
metric sensors.
• Biomedical potentials against cancers,
oxidants, diseases, dopamine detection
were assessed.
• Green MgO could act as nanocatalysts,
nano-fertilizers, and nano-pesticides.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nowadays, advancements in nanotechnology have efficiently solved many global problems, such as environ­
Magnesium oxide mental pollution, climate change, and infectious diseases. Nano-scaled materials have played a central role in
Green synthesis this evolution. Chemical synthesis of nanomaterials, however, required hazardous chemicals, unsafe, eco-
Biomedical application
unfriendly, and cost-ineffective, calling for green synthesis methods. Here, we review the green synthesis of
Environmental remediation
Agriculture
MgO nanoparticles and their applications in biochemical, environmental remediation, catalysis, and energy
production. Green MgO nanoparticles can be safely produced using biomolecules extracted from plants, fungus,
bacteria, algae, and lichens. They exhibited fascinating and unique properties in morphology, surface area,

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; UV–Vis, ultraviolet–visible; FT-IR, Fourier transform infrared; SEM, scanning electron microscope; TEM, transmission electron
microscopy; BJH, Barrett-Joyner-Halenda; BET, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller measurement; ROS, reactive oxygen species; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration;
DPPH, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2; GC–MS, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry; IC50, half-
maximal inhibitory concentration.
* Corresponding author. Institute of Applied Technology and Sustainable Development, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 298-300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho
Chi Minh City, 755414, Viet Nam
** Corresponding author. Institute of Applied Technology and Sustainable Development, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 298-300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho
Chi Minh City, 755414, Viet Nam
E-mail addresses: ntcduyen@ntt.edu.vn (D.T.C. Nguyen), tranuv@gmail.com, tranvt@ntt.edu.vn, ttran@gradcenter.cuny.edu (T.V. Tran).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137301
Received 1 April 2022; Received in revised form 5 September 2022; Accepted 17 November 2022
Available online 18 November 2022
0045-6535/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
particle size, and stabilization. Green MgO nanoparticles served as excellent antimicrobial agents, adsorbents,
colorimetric sensors, and had enormous potential in biomedical therapies against cancers, oxidants, diseases, and
the sensing detection of dopamine. In addition, green MgO nanoparticles are of great interests in plant patho­
gens, phytoremediation, plant cell and organ culture, and seed germination in the agricultural sector. This review
also highlighted recent advances in using green MgO nanoparticles as nanocatalysts, nano-fertilizers, and nano-
pesticides. Thanks to many emerging applications, green MgO nanoparticles can become a promising platform
for future studies.
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology concentrates mainly on a group of materials with
the dimension of one unit lies within 100 nm, and prominent physical
and chemical properties for a wide variety of fields. In recent years,
nanomaterials have shown outstanding performance in multiple appli­
cations like catalysis (Astruc, 2020), biomedical technology (Canaparo
et al., 2020), environmental science (Theophil Anand et al., 2021),
anti-oxidation (Abdollahi et al., 2021), food packaging (Nikolic et al.,
2021), agriculture (Fatima et al., 2021), sensing technology (Mon­
tes-García et al., 2021), etc. Among the different metal oxide nano­
particles, magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles are economically
viable, highly biocompatible, and stable under extreme conditions
(Faisal et al., 2021; Saied et al., 2021). MgO has unique features such as
superior refractive index (Jebur et al., 2019), excellent corrosion resis­
tance (Lin et al., 2018), high thermal conductivity (Saranprabhu and
Rajan, 2019), and low electrical conductivity (Giwa et al., 2021). These
properties allow MgO nanoparticles to access to catalysis, electronics,
ceramics, additives, photochemical products, and drugs production
(Amina et al., 2020). As an example, MgO nanoparticles have not only
been used as adsorbents for removing organic and inorganic contami­
nants from wastewater but also acted as electrochemical biosensors,
photocatalysts, and refractories (Abinaya et al., 2021). Thanks to high
ionic character, high crystalline and layered structure, and surface
structural defects, MgO nanoparticles can be adopted in rubber vulca­
nization and energy production (Bindhu et al., 2016). .
Conventional synthesis processes use toxic substrates that adversely
affect both the environment and human health. Their secondary prod­
ucts generated during synthesis are also capable of life-threatening.
Meanwhile, physical synthesis requires expensive machinery and
equipment, energy and time consumption (Aboyewa et al., 2021)..
Therefore, green methods have been widely developed to synthesize
MgO nanoparticles in eco-friendly, cost-effective, and energy-efficient
manners (Jadoun et al., 2020). Natural sources like plants (Khan
et al., 2021), bacteria (Ogunyemi et al., 2020), fungi (Fathy and Mah­
fouz, 2021), algae (Pachiyappan et al., 2020) and lichens (Alavi and
Karimi, 2020)contain phytochemicals, biomolecules, amino acids,
polysaccharides, polyphenols, and vitamins, which act as reducing
agents and chemical stabilizers to replace harmful chemicals (David and
Moldovan, 2020; Jeevanandam et al., 2022). Green MgO nanoparticles
are also formed extracellularly or intracellularly by enzymes and pro­
teins in microbial species of fungi and bacteria (Bandeira et al., 2020).
For plants, MgO nanoparticles can be synthesized using natural com­
pounds extracted from different parts, including leaves, flowers, roots,
bark, fruits, stems, and sap. Algae and lichens are also potential pre­
cursors for the synthesis of MgO.
As compared to chemical and physical approaches, the green syn­
thesis of MgO nanoparticles has many advantages such as benignity,
safety, effectiveness, and eco-friendliness. Although several reviews
have mentioned narrow scopes of applications of green MgO, other
promising areas such as biomedical, environmental, agricultural, bio-
sensing and energy production were not still discussed yet. To the best
of our knowledge, such potential areas of green MgO nanoparticles have
been comprehensively reviewed for the first time in this study. We also
hope the present review will provide a fascinating highlight on green
MgO nanoparticles for future applications.
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Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
2. Green synthesis of MgO nanoparticles
2.1. Fundamentals of green synthesis
Green routes to synthesize MgO nanoparticles have been published
by a considerable amount of research groups in the last decades. Green
synthesis minimizes the use of toxic chemicals and the release of sec­
ondary pollutants into the environment (Nguyen et al., 2021b). Another
advantage of synthesis of MgO using green resources is to obtain low
production and energy saving. Their approaches would go in agreement
with the twelve principles of green chemistry. This section provides
biological modes of MgO nanoparticles synthesis towards such green
synthesis. Particularly, these methods employ biological agents,
including plants, fungus, bacteria, and algae instead of conventional
physical and chemical routes (N. T. T. Nguyen et al., 2022b, 2022a).
Some of these methods have been extensively studied, accompanying
proposed mechanism and application expansion.
2.2. Plant extracts
One of the environmentally friendly and cost-effective methods of
synthesizing nanoparticles is using plant extracts. Plant extracts are
considered the most common bio-nano synthesis method and are more
effective than microbial species such as fungi, bacteria, and even algae
and lichens (Tran et al., 2022a). Because the plants are easy to find and
use, there is no need to go through complicated culture or isolation
methods (Nguyen et al., 2021d). Furthermore, plant extracts are rich
sources of functional components such as phenolic compounds, flavo­
noids, phenols, terpenoids, chlorophyll, quercetin, and so on (Ammulu
et al., 2021; Takaidza et al., 2018). These ingredients can all exist in the
collection from different plant parts such as leaves, flowers, roots, fruits,
stems, resins, bark, and peels (R. Sharma et al., 2020). The presence of
phytochemicals in plant extracts can be beneficial and effective for
nanoparticles in many applications such as biomedical (Akintelu and
Folorunso, 2020), catalysis (Muthuvel et al., 2020), adsorption (Silva
et al., 2019), and agriculture (Saratale et al., 2018).
Several mechanisms have been proposed to elucidate the synthesis of
MgO nanoparticles from plant extracts, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Some
studies suggest that a covalent bond can be formed between the bio­
logical compound and the metal, then broken by heat treatment to form
MgO nanoparticles (Abinaya et al., 2021). In particular, natural com­
pounds in plants can act as reducing, chelating, capping, and stabilizing
agents of MgO nanoparticles in place of toxic chemicals (Singh et al.,
2019). The proposed mechanisms for the synthesis of MgO nanoparticles
from plant extracts are mentioned as follows: (i) the tannic acids present
in the plant extracts interact with the magnesium nitrate salts in the
precursor salt solution, (ii) this interaction gives rise to Mg–tannic acid
complexes form, (iii) finally, MgO nanoparticles were formed after
Mg–tannic acid complexes calcination at high temperature of 400 ◦ C
(D’Souza et al., 2021). From these mechanisms, plants are increasingly
believed to synthesize MgO nanoparticles. For example, Kainat et al.
(2021) reported the synthesis of MgO nanoparticles from 50 mL
H. rosa-Sinensis leaf extract with 3 g MgSO4 at 400 ◦ C calcination. In
another study, Younis et al. (2021) demonstrated that compounds such
as flavonoids, anthocyanins, tannins and some aroma components in
roses (determined by GC/MS technique) could synthesize spherical MgO
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
Fig. 1. Proposed mechanism for the synthesis of MgO nanoparticles from plant
extract. The tannic acids present in the plant extracts interact with the mag­
nesium nitrate salts in the precursor salt solution. Then, this interaction gives
rise to Mg–tannic acid complexes, and stabilization. The calcination of the
complexes at a high temperature of 400–600 ◦ C is to form MgO nanoparticles.
Reprinted with permission of Elservier from the reference (D’Souza
et al., 2021).
nanoparticles. The synthesis of MgO nanoparticles using plant extracts is
also influenced by different factors. Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
confirmed that changing pH could affect the size and shape of MgO
nanoparticles, namely that at acidic pH 3, the size was reduced and
transformed into a hexagonal shape. Temperature also affects the syn­
thesis of MgO nanoparticles; if the temperature is not suitable, it can
affect the phytochemicals in reducing and stabilizing the nanoparticles.
Furthermore, the concentration of precursors, extracts and their ratio
also affect the size and shape of the MgO nanoparticles (Khan et al.,
2020). In particular, the high concentration of precursors can cause
multiple nucleation chains during synthesis, which produces in the
nanoparticles being large in size. As the amount of extraction is high,
there is enough phytochemical to cover the nanoparticles to reduce and
chelate (Jeevanandam et al., 2018). Moreover, phytochemicals in plant
extracts also produce nanoparticles with good dispersion because they
can interfere with nanoparticle aggregation during synthesis (Abinaya
et al., 2021). The above studies show that plant extracts are more widely
used to synthesize MgO nanoparticles than bacteria, fungi, algae, or
lichens.
2.3. Fungus
The route of producing nanoparticles through fungi is also a popular,
environmentally friendly method. Hundreds of fungal genera have been
studied to synthesize nanoparticles and yielded positive results (Fouda
et al., 2021a). Fungi can secrete extracellular proteins and enzymes,
which have been shown to play an essential role in reducing MgO
nanoparticles. Biosynthesis can take place in two pathways: extracel­
lular and intracellular in fungi. Extracellular synthesis occurs from
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Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
capturing precursor salts by extracellular proteins and their reduction.
Intracellular synthesis occurs when precursors migrate into the cell
membrane and are reduced by intracellular enzymes (Garg et al., 2020).
The process of intracellular synthesis is described as proposed in Fig. 2.
Firstly, metal ions from precursor salts in water come into contact with
the fungal cell surface by electrostatic interactions between membrane
amino acids. Secondly, metal ions are further reduced by reductase en­
zymes or fungal proteins from high valence to low valence. Thirdly, these
enzymes proceed to complex with M0 and form nanoparticles (Rai et al.,
2021). However, the procedure requires measures, e.g., chemical
treatment, centrifugation, and filtration, to break down the biomass and
release the nanoparticles. Moreover, such process can be more
time-consuming and costly than the extracellular synthesis method
(Guilger-Casagrande and Lima, 2019).
Recently, researchers directly extracted some active substances in
mushrooms and synthesized MgO nanoparticles. For example, El-Sayyad
et al. (2018) synthesized MgO nanoparticles from the extraction of
melanin present in the fungus P. chrysogenum. Saied et al. (2021)
demonstrated that the metabolites produced by the fungus could reduce
NO−3 to NO2, complex with Mg2+ in precursor salt. Then, the formed
Mg2+-metabolite complex was calcined at high temperatures to form
MgO nanoparticles. In another study, Fathy and Mahfouz. (2021) used
five species of fungi, e.g., A. niger, E. cichoracearum, P. citrinum, G.
deliquescence, A. alternata) to synthesize MgO nanoparticles at room
temperature. Fouda et al. (2021b) synthesized MgO nanoparticles from
extracts of functional components of A. niger fungi using gamma rays.
The method of synthesizing MgO nanoparticles from the isolation and
culture of fungi is more effective than using bacteria because they can
secrete more functional active ingredients. In addition, fungi can pro­
vide many metabolites and good tolerance in the biosynthesis of nano­
particles. However, the synthesis of nanoparticles using fungus requires
rigorous and thorough culture conditions; in parallel, the observation of
their ability to regulate functional compounds was paid much attention.
Furthermore, the removal of fungal residues and impurities after syn­
thesizing nanoparticles must use methods such as filtration, dialysis and
ultracentrifugation. This disadvantage results in a costlier and more
time-consuming process than synthetic plant-based operations. Re­
searchers should therefore consider and choose a suitable method to
synthesize MgO nanoparticles.
2.4. Bacteria
Among the methods for synthesizing nanoparticles from extracts of
microorganisms, bacteria are also the microorganisms used to produce
MgO nanoparticles. The bacterial species can secrete bioactive sub­
stances capable of reducing and capping to produce nanoparticles
(Rangarajan et al., 2018). The synthesis of nanoparticles can also be
used in microorganisms’ extracellular and intracellular environments,
as shown in Fig. 3. Similar to the use of fungi, the intracellular synthesis
in bacteria is also more complicated than that of extracellular due to
organelles inside the bacterial cell (Vetchinkina et al., 2018). For the
intracellular synthesis method, metal ions are internalized into the
bacterial cell, and hen, the intracellular DNA and enzymes, proteins
carry out the reduction process of metal ions as well as bioaccumulation
inside the cell (Bandeira et al., 2020). Next, cell duplication takes place,
the bacterial cells are lysed and the nanoparticles are released. For the
extracellular synthesis method, bacterial species directly secrete en­
zymes and proteins out. In the synthetic medium, these types of bio­
molecules act as reducing and capping for metal ions in precursor salts.
Complexation is then followed and stable nanoparticles are formed.
EL-Moslamy (2018) reported that MgO nanoparticles were synthe­
sized from the active ingredients in endogenous S. coelicolor bacteria
cultured from the medium containing O. sanctum leaf extract. In this
study, precursor of 1 M Mg(NO3)2 was used with bacterial biomass of
S. coelicolor (9:1 w/w ratio), then calcined at 700 ◦ C and MgO nano­
particles were formed. Similarly, Abdel-Aziz et al. (2020) used bacterial
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
Fig. 2. Proposed mechanism for the synthesis of nanoparticles from fungi extract. Reprinted with permission of Springer from the reference (Yadav et al., 2015).
Fig. 3. Propose mechanism of nanoparticles from bacteria: intracellular and extracellular. Extracellular synthesis occurs from capturing precursor salts by extra­
cellular proteins and their reduction. Intracellular synthesis occurs when precursors migrate into the cell membrane and are reduced by intracellular enzymes.
Reprinted with permission of Elservier from the reference (Bandeira et al., 2020).
cell filtrate B. rinojensis to synthesize MgO nanoparticles at room tem­
perature. B. rinojensis is known to contain a large number of highly
bio-efficient secondary metabolites that facilitate the production of MgO
nanoparticles. Abdallah et al. (2019b) demonstrated that the
gram-positive bacterium P. polymyxa is capable of producing secondary
metabolites such as lipopeptides, fusaricidins, polymyxins, and amy­
lases. For that reason, Ogunyemi et al. (2020) used this bacterium to
synthesize MgO nanoparticles at room temperature. However, bacteria
are considered to contain fewer functional components than fungi. The
time and cost to isolate bacteria also are relatively expensive, so the
current method of synthesis from bacteria is still limited to provide a
large-scale production process of nanoparticles.
2.5. Algae
Algae are a diverse group of aquatic organisms capable of photo­
synthesis. Some algae are familiar to most people, such as seaweed (such
as kelp or phytoplankton), pond scum, or algae blooms in lakes. In
particular, algae are known for their ability to super-adsorb heavy metal
ions and modify them into more ductile forms (Lin et al., 2020). More­
over, algae extract contains many biological activities such as carbo­
hydrates, proteins, polyphenols, tocopherol and pigments such as
carotenoids, chlorophyll and phycobilin (Osório et al., 2020). For that
reason, algae are often used as a biological material to synthesize
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Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
nanoparticles. The mechanism of synthesizing MgO nanoparticles from
algae is similar to using other microorganisms such as reducing, capping
and stabilizing mechanisms as shown in Fig. 4. The process is carried out
as follows: the obtained live algae biomass will be treated with metal salt
solutions. This mixture is incubated at the right conditions (pH, tem­
perature, time) for biological reduction to take place. In detail, the re­
action occurs between the algae extract and the metal precursor salt; the
color change signifies that nucleation has begun. Then, the nuclei close
to each other begin to combine and grow to form MgO nanoparticles
(Khanna et al., 2019; S.-N. S.-N. Li et al., 2021). To harvest the resulting
nanoparticles, the algal biomass was dried and the dried powder was
treated with distilled water and incubated for several hours (8–16 h) and
the resulting product was then filtered (Uzair et al., 2020). The part
obtained after the filtration process is the MgO nanoparticles.
Pugazhendhi et al. (2019) synthesized MgO nanoparticles from
S. wightii algae extract combined with Mg(NO3)2. The solution changed
color to yellowish-brown and was calcined at 500 ◦ C, forming MgO
nanoparticles. Pachiyappan et al. (2020) worked on the synthesis of
MgO nanoparticles by co-precipitation method using K. alvarezii red
algae extract. At the same trend, Vijai Anand et al. (2020) reported that
MgO nanoparticles from T. ornata brown algae also using
co-precipitation method at 600 ◦ C. MgO nanoparticles from algae
extract come in various sizes and shapes, e.g., flower-like, flake-like, and
spherical, suitable for many applications. Basiclly, the method of
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
Fig. 4. Proposed mechanism of using algae to synthesize nanoparticles. The reaction occurs between the algae extract and the metal precursor salt, the color change
of solution is a sign that nucleation has begun. Then, the nuclei close to each other begin to combine and grow to form nanoparticles. Reprinted with permission of
Elservier with from the reference (Khanna et al., 2019). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of
this article.)
synthesizing nanoparticles from algae can bring about safety and envi­
ronmental friendliness, but it is time consuming, multi-step and the
synthesis performance is worse than the synthetic method from plants.
2.6. Lichens
Lichens are organisms made up of a symbiotic combination of fungi
and algae (or cyanobacteria). This organism can also photosynthesize
and contain biological components similar to plants (Rattan et al.,
2021). Lichen extracts also contain secondary metabolites such as
polysaccharides, phenols, flavonoids and phenolic compounds (Goga
et al., 2021). Therefore, lichen extracts can be used to synthesize MgO
nanoparticles similar to plants. In particular, the antibacterial activity of
lichen was also studied and showed optimal effectiveness. Therefore, the
synthesis of MgO nanoparticles from lichens is considered an excellent
combination for antibacterial applications (Siddiqi et al., 2018). In
contrast to plants, bacteria, algae, and fungi, the applications of lichen
extracts in the synthesis of MgO nanoparticles are largely unknown. The
bioactive substances present in the lichen extract can perform the ability
to reduce metal ions in the precursor salt and perform the role of capping
and stabilizing to generate MgO nanoparticles (Uma Maheshwari Nallal
et al., 2021). For example, Alavi and Karimi. (2020) used P. muralis
lichen extract and MgCl2 as a precursor to synthesis MgO nanoparticles.
In addition, thymol and usnic acid in lichen P. muralis extract could play
a reducing and stabilizing role in synthesizing MgO nanoparticles.
However, the use of lichens for the synthesis of nanoparticles is still
limited compared with the use of plants because the secondary metab­
olites cannot be dissolved in water (Baláž et al., 2020). So, it is necessary
to choose suitable solvents for synthesis, but it increases the cost and
affects the quality of the nanoparticles. Therefore, to make common use
of biologically active substances in lichens to synthesize MgO nano­
particles, it is necessary to have adequate measures to overcome the
above disadvantages.
5
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
3. Characterization of green MgO nanoparticles
3.1. Characterization techniques
Green MgO nanoparticles possess unique physicochemical properties
that must be analyzed by various reliable characterization techniques.
Most prioritized among these properties are morphology, particle size,
surface area, and stability, which have implications for research and
development in their later applications. In this section, we describe a
combinatorial approach of techniques required to characterize these
four main characteristics. To be more specific, Fig. 5 illustrates some
applications of MgO nanoparticles in biomedicine.
3.2. Morphology
The synthesis of MgO nanoparticles from plant extracts can produce
various morphologies such as spherical, hexagonal, irregular, nanorod,
cubic, flower-like and sheet-like shapes as summarized in Table 1
(Bodade et al., 2019; Kgosiemang et al., 2020; Nijalingappa et al., 2019;
Sharma et al., 2021). Morphology of the nanoparticles can be observed
by scanning electron microscope or transmission electron microscope
analysis. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron
microscope that creates an image of a sample by scanning the surface
with a focused beam of electrons. This technique can be used to deter­
mine the surface morphology, shape and size of nanoparticles (Bharati
et al., 2020). Meanwhile, a transmission electron microscope is a mi­
croscope that uses a beam of electrons to visualize samples and produce
high magnification images (Yang et al., 2021). The shapes of the green
MgO nanoparticles may be suitable for particular applications. The
synthesis process significantly and directly affects the shape of the MgO
nanoparticles. It was found that the ratio of extract to precursor could
also affect the morphology of the nanoparticles. Erci et al. (2018)
demonstrated that when the amount of extract is low, the nanoparticles
almost take on shapes such as triangles, hexagons, spheres and irregular
N.T.T. Nguyen et al. Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301

3.3. Particle size

The structural characterization of the MgO nanoparticles is also

Fig. 5. Different physicochemical techniques for the characterization of
nanoparticles.
shapes. Meanwhile, increasing the number of extracts makes the nano­
particles mostly spherical in shape. This phenomenon may be due to the
sufficient amount of extract to enclose the formed nuclei, facilitating the
growth of spherical nanoparticles. Indeed, J. Suresh et al. (2018) used
C. pictus leaf extract with a precursor/extract ratio of 50 mL/10 mL to
produce hexagonal-shaped MgO nanoparticles. In another study, Das
et al. (2018) synthesized MgO nanoparticles with a flake-like shape, and
this may be because the amount of B. purpurea leaf extract is nine times
less than the amount of MgCl2 salt. In contrast, when increasing the
amount of extract more than the precursor salt (50 mL/20 mL), Amina
et al. (2020) produced MgO nanoparticles from S. costus root extract that
were primarily spherical in shape. Similarly, Ammulu et al. (2021) chose
a 500 mL extract of P. marsupium heartwood with 150 mL Mg(NO3)2 to
create spherical MgO nanoparticles. In addition, pH also affects the
shape of the MgO nanoparticles, as suggested in Fig. 6. For example,
Jeevanandam et al. (2020) indicated that the extract as a capping agent
in low pH could reduce the positive surface charge of the hydrogen ions
to enhance the attraction for the O2 present in the MgO nanoparticles.
This leads to the formation of hexagonal MgO nanoparticles. The above
studies show that the influencing factors in the synthesis process can
affect the morphology of MgO nanoparticles.
highlighted by their particle sizes. The small size of the MgO nano­
particles makes them easy to carry out the operations in the application.
Small particle size can help nanoparticles easily enter cells or some other
advantage to perform a function in biomedical applications (Sangaiya
and Jayaprakash, 2018). In addition, the small particle size has also been
shown to accelerate the photocatalytic reaction and affect the band gap
energy of the nanoparticles (Elahi et al., 2019). Transmission and
scanning electron microscopy techniques are used to determine the
particle size of MgO nanoparticles (Madubuonu et al., 2020). In the
process of green synthesis of nanoparticles, many factors such as pH,
temperature, extract source, the ratio of extract to precursor affect their
particle size. The effect of the synthesis condition on particle size of
green MgO is summarized in Table 1.
The calcination temperature of MgO can fluctuate around a few
hundred degrees Celsius. The more the calcination temperature in­
creases, the more the particle size grows (El-Shaer et al., 2020). It could
be because the increased temperature can increase the migration rate of
molecules and the potential for reactants to collide, resulting in larger
particle sizes (Javed et al., 2021). Annealing temperature at 400 ◦ C was
used to produce MgO nanoparticles with an average particle size of
12.55 nm synthesized from A. niger fungi (Fouda et al., 2021b). By
following, Silva et al. (2021) synthesized MgO nanoparticles from
C. Sinensis leaf extract at a heating temperature of 600 ◦ C, producing
nanoparticles with an average size of about 15.92 nm. When raising the
calcination temperature to 800 ◦ C, MgO nanoparticles from the P. vera
seed extract had a nanoparticle size of 25 nm (Tamoradi et al., 2021).
The ratio of extracts to precursor can also affect the particle size, and
more extracts can produce smaller particle sizes because of a sufficient
amount of crystal seed capping (Ammulu et al., 2021). synthesized MgO
nanoparticles from P. marsupium extract with a ratio precursor/extract
of 150 mL/500 mL, obtaining average particles size of 20 nm (Soltani
et al., 2021). produced MgO nanoparticles from S. Officinalis extract
with an average particle size of 39.7 nm, larger than the one reported by
the previous work, with less than five times the extract of the precursor
salt. It can be seen that the techniques or the increasing and decreasing
factors of the synthesis of MgO nanoparticles also directly affect their
particle size. Therefore, choosing the proper dosages and specifications
is necessary to adjust the size that matches the application’s needs.
3.4. Surface area
The surface area of the particles plays a vital role in chemical ki­
netics. An increasing surface area usually increases the rate of a chem­
ical reaction (Leng et al., 2021). In particular, the surface area of the
nanoparticles directly affects the adsorption efficiency of the material.

Table 1
Botanical source and characterization of MgO nanoparticles using plant extracts.
Botanical source Precursor salt Particle size (nm) Potential zeta (mV) Morphology References

P. marsupium (Heartwood, Malabar kino) Mg(NO3)2 15–25 − 2.9 Spherical Ammulu et al. (2021)
A. tricolor (Leaf, Slender amaranth) Mg(NO3)2 44 − 3.39 Hexagon Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
A. blitum (Leaf, Purple amaranth) Mg(NO3)2 25 − 15.4 Spherical Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
A. paniculata (Leaf, Bitterweed) Mg(NO3)2 20 − 11.4 Spherical Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
A. tricolor (Leaf, Slender amaranth) – 43.82 − 3.39 Hexagon Tan et al. (2020)
W. somnifera (Leaf, Winter cherry) Mg(NO3)2 50–70 – Spherical Raveesha et al. (2019)
C. pictus (Leaf, Painted spiral ginger) Mg(NO3)2 30–70 – Hexagonal Suresh et al. (2018)
B. purpurea (Leaf, Butterfly tree) MgCl2 11.4 +2.70 Flakes-like Das et al. (2018)
L. inermis (Leaf, Henna tree) Mg(CH3COO)2 10–100 – Spherical Akshaykranth et al. (2021)
L. acidissima (Fruit, Wood apple) Mg(NO3)2 10–15 – Flower-like Nijalingappa et al. (2019)
P. emblica (Fruit, Indian gooseberry) Mg(NO3)2 <50 – Spherical Ananda et al. (2021)
A. vera (Leaf, Aloe) MgSO4 26–29 – Spherical Suma et al. (2020)
A. indica (Leaf, Neem tree) Mg(NO3)2 70–90 – Sheet-like Sahoo et al. (2022)
S. aromaticum (Flower, Clove) Mg(CH3COO)2 2–4 − 30 Spherical Jain et al. (2018)
S. wightii Mg(NO3)2 43–68 − 19.8 Flower-like Pugazhendhi et al. (2019)

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N.T.T. Nguyen et al. Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301

Fig. 6. The influence of pH on the morphology of MgO nanoparticles. At low pH, H+ ions create attraction for O2 ions present in MgO nanoparticles, thus creating
spherical nanoparticles. At high pH, electronegativity increases due to the addition of OH− ions and causes the nanoparticles to have a spherical shape. (a) pH 9–11;
(b) pH 3–5. Adapted from the reference (Jeevanandam et al., 2019).

The larger the surface area, the more the adsorption capacity of the
nanoparticles can be improved because the more active sites are present
(D. T. C. Nguyen et al., 2022). Surface area is measured by the most
common surface area measurement technique based on the adsorption
of gas molecules on a solid surface and is known as the Bru­
nauer–Emmett–Teller measurement (Kamble et al., 2018). Besides, the
technique of determining the pore size distribution called Bar­
rett–Joyner–Halenda is also applied to measure the specific surface area
of the nanoparticles (Singh and Dutta, 2018). Habiby et al. (2020)
synthesized MgO nanoparticles with a high specific surface area of 75.2
m2/g. Ananda et al. (2021) synthesized MgO nanoparticles from
P. emblica fruit extract with a lower specific surface area of 1.57 m2/g
using Brunauer–Emmett–Teller measurement. Recently, Sahoo et al.
(2022) reported that the surface area of MgO nanoparticles from
A. indica leaf extract was measured at 92 m2/g. Typically, the particle
size affects the surface area, the smaller the particle size, the larger the
surface area. Therefore, factors affecting the particle size can also affect
the surface area of the MgO nanoparticles.
that affect the potentials of the particles helps them stabilize over a long
period to perform their active functions.
4. Biomedical applications
4.1. Background
In this section, objective assessments of MgO nanoparticles in each
biomedical application are provided. An overview of each application
type and approaching formation mechanism of MgO nanoparticles in
each field of biomedicine are also elucidated. In addition, several studies
documenting the biomedical advancements in nanotechnology, specif­
ically MgO were collected and compared. These evidences demonstrate
the special ability of MgO nanoparticles and their potential in future
medical technology. Fig. 7 shows a schematic of the biomedical appli­
cations that will be discussed in this section.
4.2. Antibacterial activity

3.5. Stabilization Recently, the phenomenon of multi-drug resistance to common

One of the important characteristics that need to be investigated

carefully for MgO nanoparticles is the stabilization of them. The stability
of the MgO nanoparticles guarantees their shelf life and may partly
affect the reusability of the material. Their stability is usually deter­
mined by measuring the zeta potential of the material surface. Gener­
ally, the zeta potential value measured from the more negative or more
positive expression nanoparticles is, the more stable. It could be because
the more negative or positive the surface potential is, the stronger the
nanoparticles repel each other, thereby limiting the clustering of parti­
cles, leading to better dispersion and more stability (Jameel et al., 2020).
Conversely, no force will prevent agglomeration if the particles have a
low zeta potential value. Tan et al. (2020) synthesized MgO nano­
particles using A. tricolor leaf extract with − 3.39 mV (Jeevanandam
et al., 2020). synthesized MgO nanoparticles from A. blitum leaf extract
to improve the stability aiming a lower zeta potential value at − 15.4
mV. Moreover, it is believed that the pH influences the zeta potential of
the nanoparticles, as a decrease in pH can increase the positive charge
on the particle surface and vice versa. Therefore, pH directly affects the
zeta potential and stability of the nanoparticles (Fernando and Zhou, Fig. 7. Biomedical applications of MgO nanoparticles, including diabetes
2019). In addition, phytochemicals play a role in capping and increasing treatment, antimicrobes, antioxidant, anticancer, leishmania, and dopa­
the stability of MgO nanoparticles. To sum up, modulating the factors mine detection.

7
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
antibiotics of some bacteria directly affects the treatment of some bac­
terial infections. Furthermore, the United Nations General Assembly has
warned of antibiotic resistance as “the greatest and most urgent global
risk” (Sagar et al., 2019) facing humanity. Thus, a strategy of finding a
replacement for current antibiotics to control bacterial growth is being
proposed, for which nanoparticles stand out due to their high antibac­
terial activity. Recently, MgO nanoparticles have attracted attention due
to their potent antibacterial activity. Indeed, the antibacterial activity of
MgO nanoparticles is has been reported against E. coli (Vergheese and
Vishal, 2018), S. aureus (Das et al., 2018), P. aeruginosa, A. baumannii
(Ananda et al., 2021), P. carotovorum ()(Sharma et al., 2020). Fig. 8 il­
lustrates a plausible antibacterial mechanism of MgO nanoparticles.
MgO nanoparticles could induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in
bacteria, which cause oxidative stress, thus severely damaging their
membrane lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids (Cai et al., 2018). Table 2
summarizes the antibacterial performance of green MgO nanoparticles
synthesized using different compounds extracted from plants, fungus,
bacteria, algae, and lichens. For instance, Suresh et al. (2018) synthe­
sized MgO nanoparticles from C. pictus leaf extract, which showed
antibacterial activity (indicated by the zone of inhibition) against
S. aureus (5.50 cm), B. subtilis (10 cm), and E. coli (12.50 cm). However,
MgO nanoparticles from the P. grandis extract showed improved anti­
bacterial activity against S. aureus and S. paratyphi, as indicated by the
optimized inhibition zones of 14 and 15 mm, respectively (Joghee et al.,
2019). Kainat et al. (2021), upon using MgO synthesized from
H. rosa-sinensis leaf extract against P. aurigenosa, P. vulgaris, and E. coli,
found inhibition zones of 19, 22, and 19 mm, respectively. In another
study, Amrulloh et al. (2021) showed the antibacterial ability of MgO
nanoparticles synthesized using M. oleifera, had the minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC) values against S. aureu, E. faecalis, E. coli, and
S. dysenteriae in a range from 300 to 550 μg/mL. Similarly, Younis et al.
(2021) demonstrated that MgO nanoparticles obtained from rose flower
extract have superior antibacterial activity with a MIC for S. epidermidis
(15.63 μg/mL), S. pyogenes (7.81 μg/mL), and P. aeruginosa (31.25
μg/mL). Thus, studies on the antibacterial ability of green synthesis MgO
nanoparticles have been continuously optimized and improved over
8
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
time, with new avenues opening up for improved antibiotic potential.
4.3. Anticancer activity
Cancer is one of the deadliest and most complicated diseases to date.
The uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells affects and damages
nearby normal cells, ultimately causing death (Al-Fahdawi et al., 2020).
Numerous therapies such as surgery, radiation therapy, or chemo­
therapy are suggested to treat cancer (van der Valk et al., 2020). How­
ever, these methods can potentially affect healthy cells, causing many
side effects and possibly relapse of the disease (Hussain et al., 2021).
Recently, the design and fabrication of nanoparticle-based nano­
materials has emerged as a suitable material with potent anti-cancer
activities, especially MgO nanoparticles. Fig. 9 illustrates a plausible
anti-cancer mechanism of MgO nanoparticles.
The anticancer applications of MgO nanoparticles have made sig­
nificant progress in the development of synthesis strategies and tech­
niques. According to Table 3, the MgO nanoparticles synthesized using
marine algae S. wightii exhibited potential anti-cancer activity against
human lung cancer cells, with the highest apoptosis percentage was
obtained about 79.5% (Pugazhendhi et al., 2019). Amina et al. (2020)
synthesized MgO nanoparticles using the S. costus leaf extract, which
showed anti-cancer activity against human breast cancer cells. However,
the MgO nanoparticles from the S. costus leaf extract had a cytotoxicity
percentage (82%) than those obtained from E. tirucalli leaf extract (85%)
(Kgosiemang et al., 2020). Similarly, Abdullah and Mohammed (2021)
obtained anti-cancer activity against human breast cancer cells with the
highest zone of inhibition (18 mm) by using MgO nanoparticles syn­
thesized from Syrian mesquite leaf extract. Fathy and Mahfouz. (2021)
synthesized MgO nanoparticles from fungi such as A. niger, E. cichor­
acearum, P. citrinum, G. deliquescence, and A. alternata. and they showed
a relatively high half-maximal inhibitory concentration value (IC50 =
11.17 μg/mL) against the prostate cancer cell line, demonstrating their
excellent anti-cancer potential. Thus, these valuable study results may
prove benefits in synthesizing high-performance MgO nanoparticles
with potent anticancer activity.
Fig. 8. Illustration of a plausible antibacterial
mechanism of action of MgO nanoparticles. MgO
nanoparticles can enter the bacterial cell by disrupt­
ing the bacterial cell membrane (c). After entering the
cytoplasm, they either generate reactive oxygen spe­
cies (ROS) or directly damage the DNA and enzymes
(b, d), causing protein denaturation and mitochon­
drial damage (a, f). Furthermore, they also disrupt
cellular memory and disrupt trans-tolerant electron
transport (e). From the above damage, bacterial cells
are destroyed, causing leakage of their organelles and
ultimately leading to their death. Reprinted with
permission of Elservier from the reference (Kheiri
et al., 2020).
N.T.T. Nguyen et al. Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Antibacterial activities of green MgO nanoparticles synthesized using com­ Green source Part Main findings Reference
pounds extract from plants, fungus, bacteria, algae and lichens; MIC: minimum
inhibitory concentration. mL), S. aureus (2.5 μg/
mL)
Green source Part Main findings Reference P. emblica (Indian Fruit Inhibition zone for Ananda et al.
T. foenum-graecum Leaf MIC against E.coli (125 Vergheese and gooseberry) P. aeruginosa (9), (2021)
(Fenugreek seeds) μg/mL), Bacillus (250 μg/ Vishal (2018) S. aureus (14 mm),
mL), S.aereus (125 μg/ A. baumannii (6 mm),
mL) E. coli (15 mm),
W. somnifera (Winter Leaf Inhibition zone for E. coli Raveesha et al. K. pneumonia (18 mm)
cherry) (15.56 mm), (2019) A. vera (Aloe) Leaf Inhibition zone (mm) for Suma et al.
P. aeruginosa (17.09 E. coli (10 mm) (2020)
mm), B. cereus (12.9 P. farcta (Syrian Leaf Inhibition zone for Abdullah and
mm), S. aureus (11.13 mesquite) S. aureus (18.21 mm) Mohammed
mm) (2021)
C. pictus (Painted spiral Leaf Inhibition zone for Suresh et al. C. orientalis Leaf Inhibition zone for Nadeem et al.
ginger) S. aureus (5.50 mm), (2018) (Virginsbower) K. pneumoniae (14 mm), (2021)
B. subtilis (10.00 mm), P. aeruginosa (18 mm),
E. coli S. aureus (13 mm), E. coli
(12.50 mm), S. paratyphi (17 mm), B. subtilis (10
(15.00 mm) mm)
B. purpurea (Butterfly Leaf MIC for S. aureus: 625 Das et al. (2018) A. squamosa (Custard Seed Inhibition zone for ()(Sharma et al.,
tree) μg/mL apple) P. carotovorum (23.4 2020)
P. grandis (Lettuce tree) Leaf Inhibition zone for Joghee et al. mm)
S. aureus (14 mm), (2019) D. elata (Creamy Flower Inhibition zone for Priya et al.
B. subtilis (11 mm), peacock) K. pnemoniae (7 mm), (2020)
M. luteus (20 mm), E. coli E. coli (6 mm)
(23 mm), S. paratyphi D. stramonium Leaf Inhibition zone for E. coli Bodade et al.
(15 mm), K. pneumonia (Jimsonweed) (8.5 mm), S. aureus (12 (2019)
(20 mm) mm)
C. sinensis (Green tea) Leaf Inhibition zone for E.coli Khan et al. A. terreus Inhibition zone for Saied et al.
(15 mm), S. marcescens (2021) C. albicans (12.8 mm), (2021)
(21 mm), S.aureus (18.8 E. coli (11.3 mm),
mm), S. pyogenes (21 P. aeruginosa (14.7 mm),
mm) S. aureus (11.3 mm),
M. oleifera (Horseradish Leaf MIC for S. aureu, Amrulloh et al. B. subtilis (13.3 mm)
tree) E. faecalis, E. coli, and (2021) A. niger Inhibition zone for Fouda et al.
S. dysenteriae: 300–550 B. subtilis (12.8 mm), (2021b)
μg/mL S. aureus (11.7 mm),
S. costus (Thistle) Root Inhibition zone for E. coli Amina et al. E. coli (12.3 mm),
(15 mm), P. aeruginosa (2020) C. albicans (13.5 mm)
(16 mm), S. aureus (14 P. chrysogenum Inhibition zone for Fouda et al.
mm) và B. subtilis (10 S. aureus (12.0 mm), B. (2021a)
mm) subtilis (12.7 mm),
C. papaya (Pawpaw) Leaf Inhibition zone for Sharma et al. P. aeruginosa (23.3 mm),
B. subtlities (10.1 mm) (2021) E. coli (17.7 mm),
P. guvajava (Guava), A. Leaf Inhibition zone for Umaralikhan C. albicans (14.7 mm)
vera (Leaf, Aloe) S. aureus (16 mm), E. coli and Jaffar P. chrysogenum Inhibition zone for El-Sayyad et al.
(15 mm) (2018) E. faecalis (22.0), (2018)
D. virginiana Peel MIC for E.coli, S.aureus (R. S. Ali et al., K. pneumoniae (20.0
(Persimmon) (500 μg/mL) 2020) mm),C. albicans (20.0
M. oleifera (Horseradish Leaf Inhibition zone for Fatiqin et al. mm)
tree) S. aureus (6.3 mm), E. coli (2021) S. coelicolor Inhibition zone for E. coli EL-Moslamy
(6 mm) (56 mm), P. vulgaris (75 (2018)
S. trilobatum (Red pea Leaf Inhibition zone for E. coli Narendhran mm), S. typhimurium (62
eggplant) (16.66 mm), B. subtilis et al. (2019) mm), S. flexneri (108
(16 mm), S. pyogenes mm), K. pneumonia (85
(15.66 mm) mm), S. aureus (102
H. rosa-sinensis Leaf Inhibition zone for Kainat et al. mm), S. pneumonia (89
(Shoeblackplant) P. aurigenosa (19 mm), (2021) mm), B. cereus (75 mm)
P. vulgaris (22 mm), A. haussknechtii, P. Inhibition zone for E. coli Alavi and Karimi
E. coli (19 mm) muralis (18 mm), S. aureus (2020)
R. floribunda (Rose) Flower MIC for S. epidermidis Younis et al. (12.33 mm),
(15.63 μg/mL), (2021) P. aeruginosa (10.33 mm)
S. pyogenes (7.81 μg/mL), A. niger, E. MIC for E. coli (25 μg/ Fathy and
and P. aeruginosa (31.25 cichoracearum, P. mL), C. albicans (μg/mL) Mahfouz (2021)
μg/mL) citrinum, G.
L. inermis (Henna tree) Leaf Inhibition zone for Akshaykranth deliquescence, A.
B. subtilis (11 mm), et al. (2021) alternata
S. aureus (9 mm), E. coli S. wightii Inhibition zone for Pugazhendhi
(11 mm), P. vulgaris (8 S. aureus (9 mm), et al. (2019)
mm) P. aeruginosa (8 mm)
L. acidissima (Wood Fruit MIC for E. coli (0.25 μg/ Nijalingappa
apple) mL), K. pneumoniae et al. (2019)
(0.25 μg/mL), 4.4. Antifungal activity
P. aeruginosa (0.25 μg/
Illnesses arising from opportunistic fungal infections make it chal­
lenging to treat immunocompromised patients. The fungus is a natural

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N.T.T. Nguyen et al. Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301

Fig. 9. Illustration of the plausible mechanism of MgO nanoparticles: Electrostatic interactions between the cell surface and the MgO nanoparticles allow it to enter
into the cell via the intracellular pathway. MgO nanoparticles can ROS formation inside the cells, which leads to DNA damage, protein oxidation, mitochondrial
dysfunction, ultimately causing cell death. Reprinted from the reference (Bhardwaj et al., 2020) under an open access Creative Common CC BY license.

MgO nanoparticles. According to Table 4, green MgO nanoparticles

Table 3
showed tremendous resistance against fungi in recent studies (Fouda
Anticancer activities of green MgO nanoparticles synthesized using compounds
et al., 2021a, 2021b). Sharmila et al. (2019) used MgO nanoparticles
extract from plants, fungus, bacteria, algae and lichens; IC50: Half-maximal
inhibitory concentration.
synthesized from the P. alba leaf extract against A. flavus and F. solani,
and found the inhibition zones being about 4 and 3 mm, respectively.
Green source Part Main findings Reference

C. pictus (Painted spiral Leaf % Inhibition of Suresh et al.

ginger) Daltons lymphoma (2018)
ascites: 52%
S. costus (Thistle) Root % Cytotoxicity of Amina et al.
human breast cancer (2020)
cell: 82%
P. farcta (Syrian mesquite) Leaf Inhibition zone for Abdullah and
human breast cancer: Mohammed
18 mm (2021)
E. tirucalli (Indian tree Leaf % Cell inhibition for Kgosiemang et al.
spurge) human breast cancer (2020)
cell: 85%
S. wightii % Apoptosis for Pugazhendhi et al.
human lung cancer (2019)
cell: 79.5%
% Cell viability:
20.5%
Penicillium sp. % Cell viability Majeed et al.
human lung cancer (2018)
cell: 30%
A. niger, E. cichoracearum, IC50 for prostate Fathy and
P. citrinum, G. cancer cell line: 11.17 Mahfouz (2021)
deliquescence, A. alternata μg/mL
Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of the antifungal mechanism of MgO nano­
particles: MgO nanoparticles interact with the fungal cell membranes via
pathogen as it has many similarities with the host cell, hindering the electrostatic interaction, disrupting them and the glucan matrix. Then, they
growth of antifungal compounds (Rodrigues and Nosanchuk, 2020). generate ROS and release Mg2+. Next, they disrupt mitochondria via DNA
Fig. 10 shows a schematic illustration of the antifungal mechanism of damage; then inhibit protein synthesis, disrupt proteins, cause intracellular
leakage, and finally cause fungal cell death.

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Table 4 Table 5
Antifungal activities of green MgO nanoparticles synthesized using compounds Antioxidant activities of green MgO nanoparticles synthesized using compounds
extract from plants, fungus, bacteria, algae and lichens; IC50: Half-maximal extract from plants, fungus, bacteria, algae and lichens; IC50: Half-maximal
inhibitory concentration, MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration. inhibitory concentration, MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration, DPPH:
Green source Part Main findings Reference
(2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate) free radical.
Green source Part Main findings Reference
S. costus (Thistle) Root Inhibition zone for Amina et al.
C. tropicalis (20 mm), (2020) R. floribunda (Rose) Flower IC50 for uperoxide Younis et al. (2021)
C. glabrata (19 mm) anions, hydroxyl,
Z. jujuba (Jujube) Fruit IC50 for S. cerevisiae: 116.5 Sulak and nitric oxide: 26.2,
μg/mL Kavakcıoğlu 31.9, and 52.9 μg/mL,
Yardımcı (2021) respectively
P. alba (Lettuce tree) Leaf Inhibition zone for A. flavus Sharmila et al. P. marsupium Heartwood IC50 against DPPH: Ammulu et al.
(4 mm) and F. solani (3 (2019) (Malabar kino) 89.67 μg/mL (2021)
mm) M. oleifera Leaf MIC against DPPH: Amrulloh et al.
B. rinojensis MIC for F. oxysporum: Abdel-Aziz et al. (Horseradish 290 μg/mL (2021)
15.36 μg/mL; (2020) tree)
concentrations inhibiting A. abrotanum Whole IC50 against DPPH: Dobrucka (2018)
biofilm formation: 1.92 μg/ (Southern plant 4.73 μg/mL
mL wormwood)
A. terreus Inhibition zone for Saied et al. M. pruriens (Velvet Seed IC50 against DPPH: Rahmani-Nezhad
C. albicans (12.8 mm) (2021) bean) 5.34 μg/mL et al. (2017)
A. niger Inhibition zone for Fouda et al. S. trilobatum (Red Leaf IC50 against DPPH: Narendhran et al.
C. albicans (13.5 mm) (2021b) pea eggplant) 72.24 μg/mL (2019)
P. chrysogenum Inhibition zone for Fouda et al. C. orientalis Leaf IC50 against DPPH: Nadeem et al.
C. albicans (14.7 mm) (2021a) (Virginsbower) 22.65 μg/mL (2021)
P. chrysogenum Inhibition zone for El-Sayyad et al. D. elata (Creamy Flower % inhibition hydrogen Priya et al. (2020)
E. faecalis (22.0 mm), (2018) peacock) peroxide: 60%
K. pneumoniae (20.0 mm), P. alba (Lettuce Leaf % scavenging DPPH: Sharmila et al.
C. albicans (20.0 mm) tree) 65% (2019)
A. niger, E. MIC for C. albicans: 50 μg/ Fathy and H. rosa-sinensis Leaf % scavenging DPPH: Kainat et al. (2021)
cichoracearum, P. mL Mahfouz (2021) (Shoeblackplant) 69.2%
citrinum, G.
deliquescence, A.
alternata synthesized from P. marsupium heartwood extract. Accordingly, the
half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value was obtained about
Amina et al. (2020) synthesized MgO nanoparticles from S. costus root 89.67 μg/mL. Similarly, Younis et al. (2021) noticed that the
extract, which showed antifungal action against C. tropicalis, and half-maximal inhibitory concentration values of MgO nanoparticles
C. glabrata with inhibition zones lying between 19 and 20 mm. These from rose flower extract in antioxidant activity (against superoxide an­
results were significantly higher than the study of Sharmila et al. (2019). ions, hydroxyl, nitric oxide) were 26.2, 31.9, and 52.9 μg/mL, respec­
Saied et al. (2021) used MgO nanoparticles using A. terreus fungus tively. This result was significantly lower than that of P. marsupium
against C. albicans at the inhibition zone of 12.8 mm. However, Fouda heartwood extract (89.67 μg/mL) by the study of Ammulu et al. (2021).
et al. (2021a) showed that the antifungal activity of MgO nanoparticles Most optimized, Nadeem et al. (2021) focused on synthesizing MgO
from P. chrysogenum fungus extract was higher against C. albicans (in­ nanoparticles from C. orientalis extract with IC50 value was lowest
hibition zone 14.7 mm) than Saied et al. (2021). This result proved that 22.65 μg/mL, compared with that of many studies above. In another
P. chrysogenum was a better precursor for MgO nanoparticle synthesis study, Amrulloh et al. (2021) investigated the potential of M. oleifera
with better antifungal activities. Sulak and Kavakcıoğlu Yardımcı. extract for such purposes. According to the results, the minimum
(2021) used jujube fruit extract to produce MgO nanoparticles against inhibitory concentration against DPPH has obtained at 290 μg/mL.
S. cerevisiae yeast with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration value of These findings suggest a prospective future for the research on bio-based
116.5 ppm. Therefore, the green synthesis of MgO nanoparticles is a MgO nano-metallic antioxidants.
promising way for diverse antifungal applications.
4.6. Diabetes treatment
4.5. Antioxidant activity
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic glucose metabolism disorder with se­
For a long time, researchers have concluded that free radicals have vere clinical consequences (Zhao et al., 2019). Diabetic patients expe­
adverse effects on human health, which can cause an assortment of rience adverse effects such as reduced overall quality of life, blindness,
diseases such as heart disease, arteriosclerosis, tumors, diabetes, and kidney failure and possibly death. These effects are due to both mac­
aging (Kainama et al., 2020). Thus, the active learning about antioxi­ rovascular and microvascular complications that directly affect different
dants is extended to blocking many of the harmful activities of free organs (Cole and Florez, 2020). In addition to the harmful effects of the
radicals. However, although highly effective, the outstanding antioxi­ disease, diabetes also makes patients susceptible to respiratory diseases
dant active ingredients also bring many side effects. For example, and infections, especially SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory
Edaravone, a free radical scavenger that can prevent lipid oxidation and Syndrome-Coronavirus-2) (Gupta et al., 2020). This was corroborated
treat ischemic stroke, reduces nerve cell damage. But when clinically by a recent study, which found that diabetes was present in 42.3% of the
applied, Edaravone causes many side effects, such as toxicity on the liver 26 COVID-19 deaths in Wuhan, China (Deng and Peng, 2020). Con­
and kidneys, affecting human health (C.-W. Li et al., 2020). Therefore, ventional oral diabetes management faces many challenges, including
antioxidant activities through promoted MgO nanoparticles have the poor bioavailability, enzymatic degradation, and chemical functional
potential to overcome many drawbacks, and their results are listed in instability (Zhao et al., 2020). In recent years, promoting research on
Table 5. For example, Priya et al. (2020) showed the inhibition per­ diabetes treatment using green synthetic nanoparticles has been prior­
centage for hydrogen peroxide of 60% by using MgO nanoparticles from itized. Among nanoparticles, MgO nanoparticles are one of the widely
D. elata aqueous extract. At the same trend, Ammulu et al. (2021) used materials in biomedical research, especially in the treatment of
against 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) using MgO nanoparticles diabetes with a plausible mechanism as proposed in Fig. 11. According

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N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
to Table 6, Tan et al. (2020) demonstrated that MgO nanoparticles ob­
tained from A. tricolor extract had an anti-diabetes activity, with glucose
concentration being significantly reduced to only 0.01 μg/mL. Similary,
Jeevanandam et al. (2020) also used A. tricolor extract to synthesize
MgO nanoparticles for diabetes treatment. The cell viability percentage
(32%) was lower than that of the MgO nanoparticles from A. blitum
(33%) and A. paniculata (34%) extract at the same conditions. In addi­
tion, the total glucose in Vero cell decreased by five times after treat­
ment using MgO nanoparticles. Ammulu et al. (2021) pointed out that
MgO nanoparticles produced from P. marsupium extract, inhibited pro­
tein denaturation, which is thought to be responsible for the inflam­
mation in diabetes with IC50 = 81.69 μg/mL. More interestingly, MgO
nanoparticles also delay the breakdown of starch into glucose, thereby
controlling glucose levels in diabetic people by inhibiting alpha-amylase
with IC50 = 56.32 μg/mL. This result was more significantly optimized
than that of MgO nanoparticles from H. rosa-sinensis extract (3.27 × 105
μg/mL) seen in the study of Kainat et al. (2021).
4.7. Leishmania treatment
Parasitic diseases remain a major global health concern affecting
billions of people worldwide. Leishmania donovani is the sole causative
agent of systemic visceral leishmaniasis, which has a high mortality rate.
The disease is found to be widespread in over 90 countries, especially in
tropical and subtropical regions (Oliveira et al., 2021). People with
clinical evidence of infection often display a fever, weight loss, an
enlarged spleen and liver (swelling), and abnormal blood profiles
(Fernández-Arévalo et al., 2020). Long-term use of conventional Leish­
mania drugs leads to resistance and yields a more severe and
difficult-to-control form of the disease (Javed et al., 2020). Female
sandflies carry Leishmania parasites and need blood for the develop­
ment of eggs when they feed on the blood of infected people or animals
and infect other individuals, parasites in the host’s blood (Staniek and
Hamilton, 2021). To date, the proposed mechanisms for this process are
not understood and well elucidated. According to Table 7, Esmael et al.
(2020) studied Leishmania treatment using MgO nanoparticles from
F. benghalensis leaf extract, a red blood cell count revealed that
post-treatment, the number of red blood cells infected with the parasite
decreased by seven times as compared to the untreated, i.e., 80% of
Fig. 11. Illustration of how MgO nanoparticles help in the treatment of dia­
betes. Firstly, MgO nanoparticles bind to the surface of diseased cells (1, 2, 3).
Secondly, they release Mg2+ and O2− ions and activate intracellular enzymes
(4,5). Thirdly, these enzymes promote the reversal of insulin resistance and
enter the cell to the glucose transporter 4 in the plasma membrane (6,7,8).
Fourthly, a glucose transporter allows glucose to be absorbed into cells, where
insulin performs glucose reduction and ATP formation (9,10, and 11). Reprin­
ted with permission of Springer Nature from the reference (Jeevanandam
et al., 2020).
12
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
Leishmania deaths. These results were significantly higher than that of
Ag nanoparticles from M. arvensis extract (50%) by the study of Javed
et al. (2020). Without a doubt, MgO nanoparticles show better thera­
peutic potential than the ones using Ag nanoparticles. Similarly, Kainat
et al. (2021) produced MgO nanoparticles from shoeblack plant leaf
extract to cure two forms of Leishmania disease - promastigote (anterior
flagellum) and amastigote (no visible external flagellum). According to
the results, the promastigote and the amastigote mortality percentages
were 44% and 54%, respectively.
4.8. Anti-aging activity
Our skin is the organ exposed to the external environment, has the
most significant volume of the body and is affected by many internal and
external aging factors (Mohiuddin, 2019). The deterioration of the skin
morphology and physiology is the earliest conspicuous harbinger of the
aging process, which progressively manifests with increasing age. In
addition to causing direct damage to the skin, free radicals also trigger
the formation of harmful enzymes inside the body (Rochette et al.,
2020). The enzymes include collagenase, elastase and tyrosinase, which
not only break down collagen and elastin but also melanins formation,
thereby resulting in skin damage and hyperpigmentation (Eun Lee et al.,
2019). Therapies to treat and inhibit these enzymes from preventing
skin aging and its diseases are being actively studied (Deniz et al., 2020;
H. H. Li et al., 2020; Senol Deniz et al., 2021). Among them, nano­
particles are emerging as a superior anti-aging skin treatment (Jan et al.,
2021b). Younis et al. (2021) used MgO nanoparticles obtained from rose
flower extract against collagenase, elastase, tyrosinase, and hyaluroni­
dase with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging
between 58.7 and 196.1 μg/mL. These results showed better optimiza­
tion than when using ZnO nanoparticles from A. pubiflora leaf extract, as
in the study of (Jan et al., 2021a)where the inhibition percentage for
elastase and hyaluronidase was in the range of 7.51–8.73%. This proves
the superiority of MgO in anti-aging skin applications in particular and
biomedical applications in general.
4.9. Dopamine detection
Dopamine is a neuroregulatory molecule that has several important
cellular functions. It is an organic compound belonging to the cate­
cholamine and phenethylamine families. The human nervous system
produces dopamine, which helps send messages between nerve cells
(Klein et al., 2019). It’s responsible for a person’s feelings of excitement,
happiness and is therefore popularly known as the “happy hormone”
(Pareek and Satapathy, 2021). Consequently, they are important parts of
the human ability to think and plan. However, besides the positive ef­
fects, they are also an indicator for certain dangerous diseases like
Parkinson’s, schizophrenia, and Huntington’s, where their levels in the
blood are way over the permissible limits (Wei et al., 2019). To date,
various methods to detect dopamine levels in the blood are increasingly
being developed by researchers to make the diagnosis of diseases easier.
Using conventional methods requires modern, complicated and expen­
sive equipment, which is low sensitivity and time-consuming (Tha­
milselvan et al., 2019). In addition, the clinical diagnosis is increasingly
challenging when performed in human blood containing confounding
factors like ascorbic acid and uric acid. Green MgO nanoparticles can be
used as an electrode modification catalyst for sensitive electrochemical
sensing that detects dopamine in the blood. Soltani et al. (2021) proved
the potential of MgO nanoparticles obtained from S. officinalis extract in
dopamine detection. The study was conducted by drawing blood from
healthy volunteers and pumping dopamine, uric acid, and ascorbic acid
into the serum. The researchers then used electrochemical techniques to
measure dopamine levels in the presence of interfering factors. The re­
sults obtained included the detection of dopamine (79.47 μM), uric acid
(79.31 μM), and ascorbic acid (101.47 μM) with a recovery efficiency of
99.33%. These results were higher than those obtained from chemically
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
Table 6
Performance of green MgO nanoparticles synthesized using compounds extract from plants for diabetes treatment; IC50: Half-maximal inhibitory concentration.
Green source Part Main findings
P. marsupium (Malabar kino) Heartwood IC50 for alpha–amylase inhibition: 56.32 μg/mL, IC50 for protein inhibition: 81.69 μg/mL
A. tricolor (Slender amaranth) Leaf Cell viability: 32%
Extracellular glucose: 0.09 mg/mL
Intracellular glucose: 0.71 mg/mL
A. blitum (Purple amaranth) Leaf Cell viability: 33%
A. paniculata (Bitterweed) Leaf Cell viability: 34%
H. rosa-sinensis (Shoeblackplant) Leaf IC50 for alpha–amylase inhibition: 327 mg/mL
IC50 for alpha–glucosidase inhibition: 400 mg/mL
A. tricolor (Slender amaranth) Leaf Glucose concentration: 0.01 μg/mL
synthesized Ag/CuO nanoparticles (95.7%) in the absence of interfering
molecules from the report of Y.-Y. Li et al. (2021). In general, all
mentioned studies set a benchmark for the future development of di­
agnostics in medicine.
5. Environmental applications
5.1. Detection of toxic chemicals
Metal ions are discharged from wastewater from factories or daily
life is an urgent problem for the environmental ecosystem. Living or­
ganisms and even humans accidently consuming water contaminated
with these metal ions can develop dangerous health problems (Chan­
draker et al., 2019). Therefore, determining the presence of metal ions in
water helps the technology to treat tap water and wastewater increas­
ingly develop (Roto et al., 2019). The metal ion detection methods
include thermoelectric atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic
absorption spectrometry, and inductive plasma mass spectrometry.
Although these methods are susceptible, the equipment is complex, re­
quires sophisticated technical expertise to operate, and is expensive
(Sengan et al., 2020). Nanoparticles using the green approach are
considered an alternative and promising solution for metal ion detection
(Table 7). The ability of MgO nanoparticles to bind metal ions is the key
to measuring the ability to detect metal ions in water. Jain et al. (2018)
chose S. aromaticum flower extract to synthesize MgO nanoparticles to
colorimetric sensing of Fe3+. Accordingly, the limit of detection was
acquired 23 μM in the presence of 14 other interfering metal ions, e.g.,
Ca2+, Cd2+, Co2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, Fe2+ and a concentration five times
higher than the concentration of Fe3+. Besides Fe3+, MgO nanoparticles
are also capable of detecting lead in water. Lead is known to be a toxic
substance which are colorless, odorless and difficult to detect in the
aquatic environment, potentially harmful to humans and living things.
In some areas, the concentration of Pb2+ in children’s blood was
measured at an average of 1.00 μg/L, exceeding the safe threshold (Roto
et al., 2019). Kumar et al. (2018) showed MgO nanoparticles
S. aromaticum flower extract to detect Pb2+ with the detection limit of
about 24 μM. In this study, the survey was carried out at pH 3 to find a
decrease in the fluorescence intensity of the MgO nanoparticles. This
may be due to the specific interaction of the Pb2+ ions with the MgO NPs
at this pH, while other metal ions do not.
One of the applications of MgO nanoparticles in detecting toxic
compounds is sensing liquefied petroleum gas. Liquefied petroleum gas
is widely used in civil, commercial, transportation and industrial ap­
plications, especially in cooking in urban and rural households (Kypri­
demos et al., 2020). When they escape from the container, they will turn
into gas, which is difficult to store. Moreover, although they are raw
materials, they are susceptible to fire and explosion when leaked, even
in scarce quantities (Siddik Hasibuan and SyafriwelIdris, 2019). Typi­
cally, a leak accident of liquefied petroleum gas at a restaurant in Xi’an,
China, left 11 people dead and 31 injured in 2011. Physically, the ex­
plosion affected 12 shops in the area and 53 vehicles, with total direct
economic damage of 9.9 million yuan (Yue et al., 2020). Therefore, the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends a
13
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
Reference
Ammulu et al. (2021)
Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
Jeevanandam et al. (2020)
Kainat et al. (2021)
Tan et al. (2020)
maximum exposure level of 1000 ppm (Husain et al., 2020). Green
synthesized nanoparticles, notably MgO nanoparticles, are gradually
proving that they have the potential to bring advantages over other
conventional gas sensing devices. Indeed, Thirupathi et al. (2018)
fabricated the liquefied petroleum gas sensors based on MgO nano­
particles using aloe leaf extract, with the highest sensitivity percentage
being 38% for 1000 ppm of liquefied petroleum gas. At the same trend,
Poonguzhali et al. (2021) noticed that MgO from lemon fruit extract
with the result of detection of liquefied petroleum gas (80%) was
significantly higher than that of study by Thirupathi et al. (2018). This
result proves that the MgO nanotechnology applied to gas sensors has
become more advanced and optimized.
5.2. Removal of heavy metals
For the development of modern technology, the population is
increasing and the demand for clean water is rising to provide for ac­
tivities such as sustainable agriculture, promoting industrial develop­
ment in factories and daily activities. In parallel, wastewater from these
sources is also a concern for human health and aquatic animals (Mariana
et al., 2021). Especially, heavy metals, e.g., Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, Fe, Hg and Ni
are some of the most toxic and common agents in wastewater. These
metals cannot be metabolized in the body, accumulating and being toxic
to humans and other living animals (Chai et al., 2021). In addition,
heavy metal-contaminated plant species may experience reduced
enzyme activity, reduced seed germination, and decreased chlorophyll
synthesis (Sankaran et al., 2020). Materials science is increasingly
developing to find the optimal and radical methods to protect the
environment from removing heavy metals (Nguyen et al., 2021c). In
particular, the adsorption method by nanoparticles from green synthesis
is one of the most outstanding methods with high efficiency and envi­
ronmental friendliness (Fouda et al., 2021b). noticed the synthesis of
MgO nanoparticles from A. niger fungus to remove a wide range of heavy
metals. Accordingly, the removal efficiency was obtained for Co
(63.4%), Pb (72.7%), Cd (74.1%), Ni (70.8%), and Cr (94.2%). More
optimized, Saied et al. (2021) investigated the ability of MgO nano­
particles from A. terreus fungus to remove chromium in water with the
removal efficiency of 97.5%. In another study, Sahoo et al. (2022) chose
the leaf of A. indica to synthesize MgO nanoparticles that the nano­
material to remove Cr(IV). The highest adsorption capacity was ac­
quired, about 132.72 mg/g. In terms of reusability, the removal
efficiency ranges from 97% to 93% with 5 recycles. Recent advances in
nanoparticles studies indicate that MgO nanoparticles have high
promise in heavy metal removal activities.
5.3. Removal of organic dyes
To date, water sources are increasingly seriously polluted by many
toxic agents, metals, and dyes. Along with the development of the
textile, leather, printing and ink industries, a large number of dyes have
been released (Weldegebrieal, 2020). According to survey data, about
1000 tons of dyes per year are discharged into wastewater from factories
and companies (Javaid et al., 2021). According to the US Environmental
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
Table 7
Performance of green MgO nanoparticles synthesized using compounds extract from plants for other applications including Leishmania treatment, detection of
dopamine and heavy metals, liquefied petroleum gas detection, adsorptive and catalytic removal of heavy metals, adsorptive and photocatalytic degradation of organic
dyes, plant pathogens, metal phytoaccumulation, plant cell and organ cultures, nanopesticides, seed germination, catalytic reduction, activator for nitrile rubber
vulcanization and biodiesel production. IC50: Half-maximal inhibitory concentration, MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration, DPPH: (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-
hydrazyl-hydrate) free radical.
Green source
Leishmania treatment
H. rosa-sinensis
(Shoeblackplant)
F. benghalensis (Banyan)
Anti-aging
R. floribunda (Rose)
Detection of dopamine
S. officinalis (Leaf, Culinary
sage)
Detection of heavy metals
S. aromaticum (Clove)
S. aromaticum (Clover)
Liquefied petroleum gas detection
A. vera (Aloe)
C. limon (Lemon)
A. barbadensis (Aloe)
Removal of heavy metals
A. niger
A. terreus
A. indica (Neem tree)
Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes
S. costus (Thistle)
A. abrotanum (Southern
wormwood)
A. vera (Aloe)
P. dactylifera (Date palm)
P. emblica (Indian
gooseberry)
A. niger
Adsorptive removal of organic dyes
T. stans (Yellow bells)
M. pruriens (Velvet bean)
S. aromaticum (Clover)
A. terreus
Plant pathogens
M. chamomilla (Chamomile)
R. officinalis (Rosemary)
P. polymyxa
Metal phytoaccumulation
S. thea (Mock buckthorn)
Plant cell and organ cultures
M. officinalis (Lemon balm)
Nanopesticides
H. rosa-sinensis
(Shoeblackplant)
P. chrysogenum
Seed germination
Mushroom
A. barbadensis (Leaf, Aloe)
Plant
T. ornata
Catalytic reduction
C. filiformis
A. squamosa (Custard apple)
Activator for nitrile rubber vulcanization
C. sinensis (Green tea)
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
Part Main findings Reference
Leaf % promastigote mortality: 44% Kainat et al. (2021)
% amastigote mortality: 54%
Leaf The number of the parasites: 130.1 × 104 cell/mL (untreated: 637 × 104 cell/mL) (Esmael et al., 2020)
Flower IC50 for collagenase, elastase, tyrosinase, hyaluronidase: 58.7, 82.5, 158.5 and 196.1 μg/mL, Younis et al. (2021)
respectively
Found (μM) dopamine (79.47), uric acid (79.31), and ascorbic acid (101.47) Soltani et al. (2021)
Flower Limit of detection Fe3+: 23 μM Jain et al. (2018)
Flower Limit of detection Pb2+: 24 μM Kumar et al. (2018)
Leaf % Sensitivity: 38% Thirupathi et al. (2018)
Fruit % Sensitivity: 70% Poonguzhali et al. (2021)
Leaf % Sensitivity: 80% Kaur et al. (2018)
Removal efficiency: Co (63.4%), Pb (72.7%), Cd (74.1%), Ni (70.8%), Cr (94.2%) Fouda et al. (2021b)
Removal efficiency: Cr (97.5%) Saied et al. (2021)
Leaf Adsorption capacity Cr4+: 132.72 mg/g Sahoo et al. (2022)
Root 92% methylene blue was degraded under ultraviolet irradiations Amina et al. (2020)
Whole plant >50% methyl orange was degraded under sunlight irradiations Dobrucka (2018)
Leaf 60% methylene blue was degraded under sunlight irradiations Suma et al. (2020)
Seed 64% methylene blue was degraded under visible light condition Sackey et al. (2020)
Fruit 92.2% evans blue was degraded under ultraviolet irradiations Ananda et al. (2021)
% degradation real textile wastewater: 93.5% and 4th recycles: 73.1% under sunlight irradiations Fouda et al. (2021b)
Flower, bark, Removal efficiency: Congo red (99.7%), crystal violet (90.8%); 3rd recycles: Congo red (90.0%), Nguyen et al. (2021a)
leaf crystal violet (73.5%)
Seed Removal efficiency: methyl orange, methylene blue (90%) Rahmani-Nezhad et al.
(2017)
Flower Removal efficiency: methylene blue (90%), Rhodamine 6G (40%) Kumar et al. (2018)
% decolorization in the biotreatment of tanning: 97.7% Saied et al. (2021)
Flower Inhibition zone for X. oryzae strain RS-2: 19 mm Ogunyemi et al. (2019)
Flower Inhibition zone for X. oryzae: 5.1 mm Abdallah et al. (2019a)
+ MIC against X. oryzae: 3.5 μg/mL; Ogunyemi et al. (2020)
+ For rice leaf, shoot length increase by 29.37 cm, root length by 11.33 cm, fresh weight by 1.55 g,
dry weight by 0.21 g
Leaf + Percentage lead accumulation in R. sativus: leaf (40.28%), stem (16.19%), root (72.35%); Hussain et al. (2019)
+ DPPH antioxidant activity in R. sativus: leaf (86.93%), stem (68.22%), root (56.29%), plant
(93.02%)
Leaf Fresh weight (333.90 mg); control (268.34 mg); percentage of 114 volatile components Rezaei et al. (2019)
(0.11–25.93%)
Leaf % mortality against 3rd instar A. aegypti larvae: 49.2% Kainat et al. (2021)
% mortality against A. stephensi: 1st (91.8%), 2nd (88.2%), 3rd (81.4%), 4th (72.8%), against Pupa Fouda et al. (2021a)
(69.2%)
Chlorophyll content of peanut seed increase >50% Jhansi et al. (2017)
The seed germination rate for red gram seed: 100%; shoot length (7.05 cm); root length (5.73 cm); Rani et al. (2020)
fresh biomass (0.71 g); dry biomass (0.57 g)
% germination on T. aestivum: 93.31%; shoot length (2.66 cm); root length (3.82 cm) Bayat and Zargar (2021)
% germination on V. radiata: 100%; shoot length (4.2 cm); root length (9.2 cm) Vijai Anand et al. (2020)
Leaf + Catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol: 100% after 270 s; Nasrollahzadeh et al.
+ Catalytic for reduction for 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to 2,4-diaminophenylhydrazine: 100% after (2018)
160 s
Seed Synthesis of 2-phenylbenzimidazole from o-phenylenediamine and benzaldehyde (S. K. Sharma et al.,
2020)
Leaf First-order kinetic rate at 160 ◦ C, k160◦ C × 10− 4: 7.3 ± 1 s− 1; chemical crosslinking density, [X]C: Silva et al. (2021)
9.93 × 10− 5 mol/cm3
(continued on next page)
14
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
Table 7 (continued )
Green source Part Main findings
Biodiesel production
Z. mauritiana (Indian jujube) Leaf % yield of fatty acid methyl esters: 98%; 6th recycles: 84%
P. vera (Pistacia) Seed % yield of catalytic performance: 94.45%
Protection Agency, dyes are classified as hazardous waste because of
their ability to cause cancer, damage to organs in the human body and
aquatic animals (Ihsanullah et al., 2020). Recently, many studies have
been published on the photocatalytic performance of advanced mate­
rials to degrade persistent pollutants (Tahir et al., 2022). For example,
the nanocomposite WO3–TiO2@g-C3N4 has been applied in the photo­
catalytic degradation of acetylsalicylate and methyl-theobromine from
the aqueous environment (Tahir et al., 2019). Arif et al. (2022) syn­
thesized the K-doped material on CsSrF3 to enhance the optical prop­
erties and make it a favorable candidate for dye degradation
photocatalyst application. However, the disadvantages of such materials
are complex multi-step synthesis and consume toxic chemicals. Biolog­
ically synthesized MgO nanoparticles can be promising approaches to
removing dyes from water sources. More importantly, they can remove
dyes by different techniques such as photocatalysis and adsorption.
The photocatalytic ability of MgO nanoparticles is demonstrated
through properties such as high stability and optical transparency. In
particular, the large band–gap also helps MgO nanoparticles efficiently
promote photocatalysis. Many studies show that the band gap of MgO
nanoparticles ranges from 4.7 to 5.6 eV, which is suitable for photo­
catalytic activities (Ananda et al., 2021; Pachiyappan et al., 2020;
Raveesha et al., 2019; Suma et al., 2020). Thanks to wide band gaps,
MgO materials adsorb irradiation sources such as UV light, exciting the
electron transfer, creating more electron-hole pair for higher perfor­
mance of photocatalytic reaction. For that reason, MgO materials can
photocatalytically decompose organic dyes into low toxic intermediates
such as CO2 and H2O. Besides, the surface areas of MgO nanoparticles
are relatively large, about 100 m2/g (Sahoo et al., 2022). Owning high
surface area brings MgO nanoparticles more active sites, enhancing the
photocatalytic activity due to increased interactions and collisions be­
tween nanoparticles and dye molecules (Gautam et al., 2020).
Indeed, Suma et al. (2020) adopted MgO nanoparticles from aloe leaf
extract to remove methylene blue under sunlight (Table 7). Accordingly,
the degradation percentage (60%) was smaller than that of MgO nano­
particles from P. dactylifera extract (64%) under visible irradiation by
the study of Sackey et al. (2020). Compared with these studies, Amina
et al. (2020) removed methylene blue with a higher degradation per­
centage of 92% by MgO nanoparticles from S. costus root extract. At the
same trend, Ananda et al. (2021) surveyed the ability of MgO nano­
particles from A. niger extract to remove real textile wastewater. In this
work, the results changed 93.5%–73.1% for 4th recycles. For the pho­
tocatalytic aspect, the large band gap of the MgO nanoparticles still
hinders this process, making it difficult to extract the electron energy
from the material. A low band gap is one of the necessary conditions to
easily activate the photocatalysis process under normal light without
using energy-consuming irradiation lights. Compared with ZnO, the
band gap of ZnO nanoparticles fluctuates only about ~3.2 eV (Murali
et al., 2020), lower than that of MgO nanoparticles and higher effi­
ciency. In comparison with doping materials, green MgO nanoparticles
had the same photocatalytic performance. For example, WO3-doped
carbon and rare metal materials have been synthesized to degrade
multiple dyes (98%) in the presence of visible-light activation (Bilal
Tahir and Sagir, 2019). Doping of dopants with low band gap (e.g., CdS,
WO3) can reduce the bandgap of composite, and enhancing photo­
catalytic activity. Indeed, Siddique et al. (2022) doped ZnO nano­
particles with CdS to reduce the band-gap to 2.69 eV, which was suitable
for the application of pollutant degradation. BiVO4/Ag/NiFe2O4 mate­
rials were synthesized in many steps and resulted in photocatalytic
degradation of azo dyes in only 30 min with 98% (Nawaz et al., 2022).
15
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
Reference
Saman et al. (2021)
Tamoradi et al. (2021)
As a result, green MgO nanoparticles should be investigated by modi­
fying the material surface or doping with such low-bandgap dopants to
enhance their photocatalytic activity.
Adsorption is one of the effective, easy-to-use, cost-effective ap­
proaches to remove dye waste from aqueous media (Noreen et al.,
2020). This method is one of the effective, easy-to-use, cost-effective
approaches to remove dye waste from aqueous media (L. M. Nguyen
et al., 2022; Tran et al., 2022b). For example, Leong et al. (2017) has
selected activated carbon material for the simultaneous adsorption of
phenol and 4-chlorophenol. In another study, activated carbon was
produced from rubber seed shells and KOH to adsorb CO2 (Borhan et al.,
2019). MgO nanoparticles are known as a novel and effective adsorbent
for water treatment due to their high recovery and efficiency in
removing organic dye pollutants. This may be because they have prop­
erties such as high ionic character, crystal structure and large surface
area (Priyadarshini et al., 2021). The surface area of MgO nanoparticles
measured from recent studies shows a range of 17.2–92 m2/g (Ananda
et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2018; Sahoo et al., 2022). Kumar et al. (2018)
displayed the degradation efficiencies of Rhodamine 6G (40%) using
MgO nano-catalyst from S. aromaticum flower extract. With optimized,
Saied et al. (2021) focused on the adsorbent MgO nanoparticles from
A. terreus extract for biotreatment of tanning removal. According to the
results, the decolorization percentage was obtained about 97.7%. In
another study, Nguyen et al. (2021d) used many parts of T. stans con­
sisting of flower, bark, and leaf to remove dyes. In this study, the
removal efficiency was acquired for congo red (99.7%), and crystal vi­
olet (90.8%). In terms of reusability, the degradation of dyes as order:
crystal violet (73.5%) < Congo red (90.0%) at 3rd recycles. This study
achieved competitive adsorption efficiency compared with other
chemically synthesized materials. Specifically, Isiyaka et al. (2021)
synthesized MIL-101(Cr) material from hydrothermal method and di­
camba adsorption with an efficiency of 99.4%. From the above studies, it
is undeniable that the excellent dyes adsorption capacity of MgO
nanoparticles. However, their reusability is limited as most studies stop
at the 3rd reuse. This may be due to the poor recovery of MgO nano­
particles since they are easily denatured when in water for a long time.
Future advances need to promote their reusability and find a method to
increase the stability of MgO nanoparticles in the aquatic environment.
6. Agricultural applications
6.1. Plant pathogens
Bacterial diseases cause much damage to crops and directly affect the
quality and quantity of agricultural products. In the worst-case scenario,
plant diseases can even result in a complete failure to harvest seeds and
thereby can have a disastrous impact on global food security. A typical
example is the rice bacterial leaf blight, a common disease in rice-
producing countries that is highly destructive and causes yield losses
of up to 50% depending on rice variety, growth stage, and farming
conditions (Siriwong et al., 2021). Rice (Oryza sativa) is a well-known
staple food with high nutritional values, which is important for human
food supply needs (Verma and Srivastav, 2020). Rice blight is a bio­
logical barrier that has caused extensive damage to farming and agri­
cultural development, often resulting in harvest crises in the global food
production system (Ahmed et al., 2020). Fig. 12 illustrates a general
action mechanism of MgO nanoparticles against bacteria phytopatho­
gens. The causative agent of these damages is X. oryzae, a gram-negative
bacterium, which infects rice plants via hydathodes and spreads to the
N.T.T. Nguyen et al. Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301

xylem vessels, thereby causing damage to rice plants (Jiang et al., 2020).
The synthetic green MgO nanoparticles have great potential for anti­
bacterial activities, including acting as an antagonist to X. oryzae,
helping to combat bacterial blight. Abdallah et al. (2019b) reported that
R. officinalis flower extract could be used to synthesize MgO nano­
particles for the antibacterial action against X. oryzae, as evident from
the zone of inhibition (5.1 mm) in vitro. Likewise, Ogunyemi et al.
(2019) showed MgO nanoparticles produced from M. chamomilla extract
showed a superior antibacterial activity against X. oryzae than the one
obtained from R. officinalis extract, with the inhibition zone being 4
times higher than that of MgO in the study by Abdallah et al. (2019b). In
another study, Ogunyemi et al. (2020) studied how MgO nanoparticles
from P. polymyxa extract generate X. oryzae resistance in rice plants.
They found an increase in shoot and root length and fresh weight by
29.37, 11.33 cm and 1.55 g, respectively. These showed that the syn­
thesized MgO nanoparticles might contribute significantly to the bac­
terial disease treatment in plants.
6.2. Metal phytoaccumulation
Heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, As and Hg, in addition to residuals in
the aquatic environment, also accumulate in the soil, ultimately causing
difficulties to remove and collect them. Contrary to other organic pol­
lutants, since heavy metals cannot be degraded in the soil, they can enter
plants and cause restrictions on plant growth (Shah and Daverey, 2020).
Moreover, heavy metals can directly affect animals and humans through
the food chain (Wu et al., 2021). The current heavy metal recovery
methods from the soil, e.g., ion exchange, reverse osmosis, chemical
precipitation, and solvent extraction, are not only costly and
labor-intensive but also impact soil fertility (R. Ali et al., 2020). One of
the most user-friendly and effective methods to remove heavy metals
from soil is phytoremediation (Wei et al., 2021). This method uses plants
with good tolerance of heavy metals and solar energy, and when they
grow, they accumulate the heavy metals from the soil in various plant
parts, after which they are removed. In particular, in this method,
growth promoters are used to stimulate the ability of heavy metal
accumulation of the plants used (Yan et al., 2020). Since MgO nano­
particles are well known in agricultural activities for enhancing nutrient
absorption and improving crop yield, they are potential candidates for
enhancing heavy metal accumulation in plants. Indeed, Hussain et al.
(2019) used MgO nanoparticles from S. thea extract and R. sativus, which
are extremely efficient heavy metal accumulating plants. In this study,
the highest lead accumulation percentage was 72.35% on a root, fol­
lowed 40.28% on leaf and 16.19% on a stem. Moreover, when the
amount accumulated in plant parts is too large, it can cause stunted
growth and oxidative stress due to the production of many free radicals.
In this study, MgO nanoparticles not only enhanced lead accumulation
but also removed free radicals in plants. The DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-pi­
crylhydrazyl) antioxidant activity (%) was found in the leaf (86.93),
stem (68.22), root (56.29), and whole plant (93.02). However, in this
study, MgO nanoparticles had a synergistic effect with the plant growth
regulator thiodiazuron. When using MgO nanoparticles alone, the lead
accumulation efficiency is still not high (16.09–43.77%). Therefore, it is
necessary to find the optimal methods without the support of other
growth agents.
6.3. Plant cell and organ cultures
Plant secondary metabolites, e.g., terpenes, terpenoids, nitrogen-
containing compounds, phenolic compounds, are a group of organic
compounds produced by plants to interact with biotic and abiotic factors
and establish defense mechanisms (Khare et al., 2020). They have been
used as pharmaceuticals, flavors, fragrances, agrochemicals, colors and
food additives (Mahajan et al., 2020). Secondary metabolites are typi­
cally produced by growing crops and extracting phytochemicals from
the plants for essential applications. However, these traditional methods

Fig. 12. Illustration of the general mechanism of MgO nanoparticles against plant pathogenic bacteria, like R. solanacearum, X. oryzae. Upon exposing the MgO
nanoparticles to bacteria, they bind to the cell membrane surface since the positively charged MgO nanoparticles directly adhere to the negatively charged bacterial
cell membrane. First, the MgO nanoparticles initiate ROS formation that damages the cell membrane structure and causes cytoplasmic leakage within the cell. In
addition, the MgO nanoparticles inhibited biofilm formation and reduced the mobility of bacteria. Finally, the ROS generated from MgO nanoparticles can damage
DNA and bacterial organelles, thus leading to bacterial death. The MgO nanoparticles can eliminate pathogens caused by bacteria on plants. Reprinted from the
reference (Cai et al., 2018) under an open access Creative Common CC BY license.

16
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
are not feasible when limitations exist, such as low yield, unstable sec­
ondary metabolite content due to variations in geography, climate, soil,
water, and heavy labor use (Çalışkan et al., 2019). Thus, plant cell and
organ culture have emerged as a green factory to produce secondary
metabolites and eliminate the drawbacks of conventional production
methods (Krasteva et al., 2021). MgO nanoparticles represent significant
potential in this method of phytochemical production. Indeed, Rezaei
et al. (2019) produced phytochemicals by culturing the organ of
M. officinalis with MgO nanoparticles from lemon balm leaf extract. In
this study, the authors added perlite in the synthesis of MgO nano­
particles to facilitate the culture process, i.e., increase hydraulic con­
ductivity and help with nutrient absorption, aeration or water retention.
According to the results, GC–MS analysis identified 114 volatile com­
ponents present in the shoots of M. officinalis invitro with the proportion
of compounds in the range of 0.11%–25.93%.
6.4. Nanopesticides
Insects adversely affect both human health and crop yields. Some
insects, such as caterpillars, aphids, earworms, thrips, red spiders, cause
plant diseases and damage crops. For example, the Colorado beetle can
defoliate potato plants and attack other nearby trees (Güney et al.,
2021). Cabbage caterpillars are pests of mainly cruciferous crops, e.g.,
cabbage, broccoli and kale, which sometimes cause damage to other
crops, including tomatoes, peppers, peas, etc. (El-Sheikh, 2020). In
addition, some insect species, like some species of mosquitoes belonging
to the genera Ades, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, directly affect
human health globally (Vinoth et al., 2019), with numerous dangerous
diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, lymphatic filariasis, Zika virus,
yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis (Anoopkumar and Aneesh,
2021). Current popular chemical pesticides cause many drawbacks such
as environmental pollution, costly, dangerous to humans (especially
children) and animal health. Children living in agricultural areas are
often exposed to pesticides, which can risk growth disorders. According
to the study by Kartin et al. (2019) in agricultural areas of Indonesia, the
percentage of growth disorders in school-age children by chemical
pesticides reached 30.7%. Therefore, the technology of producing bio­
logical pesticides from green synthetic nanoparticles is gradually
becoming a hot research topic of many scientists. For example, Kainat
et al. (2021) extracted the leaf of H. rosa-sinensis to synthesize MgO
nanoparticles against A. aegypti larvae and achieved a mortality per­
centage of 49.2% for the third instar of larvae. This result was lower than
that of MgO nanoparticles synthesized from P. chrysogenum in the study
of Fouda et al. (2021b), with the mortality percentage against
A. stephensi at many level instar of larvae: 1st (91.8%) > 2nd (88.2%) >
3rd (81.4%) > 4th (72.8%) > pupa (69.2%). These studies demonstrated
that MgO nanoparticles from the green approach have great potential as
bio-pesticide. Therefore, the development and research activities should
be encouraged to investigate their insecticidal abilities in the future.
6.5. Seed germination
With the rapid urbanization and globalization, the demand for food
and other important crops is increasing, and therefore, there is an urgent
need to maintain the development of seeds, which support the entire
agriculture framework. Therefore, it’s necessary to adopt new technol­
ogies that improve yields, germination rate and maintain crop quality
(Rifna et al., 2019) for better global food security. Various innovative
technologies like seed germination stimulation with warm water, edge
cutting, or overnight soaking, have been tested (Javed et al., 2020).
Advances in nanoscience and material chemistry have afforded great
opportunities to design and optimize the green synthesis of nano­
structures for agricultural applications. MgO nanoparticles are believed
to stimulate seed germination and increase crop production. They can
enter plant cells, enhance water absorption inside seeds, increase cell
duplication, and improve cell division, thereby stimulating seed
17
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
germination (Jhansi et al., 2017). (Rani et al., 2020) reported that MgO
nanoparticles synthesized from aloe leaf extract stimulated the germi­
nation of red gram seed, with a 100% seed germination rate being
achieved. Along with that, the seedlings growth was also observed after
germination, as evident from the increase in shoot length (7.05 cm), root
length (5.73 cm), and fresh biomass (0.71 g). Vijai Anand et al. (2020)
achieved a surprising result with a 100% seed germination rate of
V. radiata using MgO synthesized from T. ornata extract. Accordingly,
shoot and root length increases were about 4.2 cm and 9.2 cm, respec­
tively. Similarly, Bayat and Zargar (2021) tested the
germination-promoting ability of MgO nanoparticles on the seeds of
T. aestivum and found that the germination percentage on this plant
reached 93.31%. These findings clearly indicate that studying the sup­
port role of MgO nanoparticles in seed germination is useful in culti­
vating crops in large-scale agricultural production.
6.6. Nano-fertilizers
Agriculture is increasingly developing, considered a key factor for
the national economy, especially in rural areas of developing countries.
The development of agriculture parallels the increasing production and
consumption demand (de Janvry and Sadoulet, 2020). Therefore, to
promote production speed and increase crop yield following economic
conditions, many types of fertilizers were introduced as a trend for the
cultivation process (Schut and Giller, 2020). Such disadvantages include
failure to achieve the required efficiency due to losses due to evapora­
tion, leaching, hydrolysis, and microbial or photolytic breakdown of
nutrients (Manjunatha et al., 2019). Moreover, the amount of pesticides
on crops is only about 50–70%, and the rest can pollute the soil and
water environment and cause damage to many living organisms,
including humans (Marchiol, 2019). Innovative strategies for
cost-effective and environmentally compatible biopesticides are needed
in modern and future precision agriculture. Recently, MgO nano­
materials have been evaluated as suitable for plant nutrition, acting as
an effective bio-pesticide. Khalid et al. (2021) showed that MgO nano­
particles research in fertilizer activity is full of potential with an increase
in chlorophyll content, increased protein formation and antioxidant
activity in C. bonducella. Possible mechanisms of nanoparticles as fer­
tilizer are through the leaves and the soil. The mechanism of passage
through leaves is initiated by their route through the stomata and
moving from the leaf epidermis to the apoplast and into the cytoplasm to
perform their nutrient providing function by releasing Mg2+ ions (Xiao
et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2020). Similarly, the soil traversal mechanism
also provides nutrients through migration into the apoplast, the central
pillar of the root, and plant tissues (Yadav et al., 2020). However, their
toxicity to plants is still a matter of concern but has not been studied
extensively. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that MgO nanoparticles can
become a hope for future fertilizer technology in agriculture and
horticulture.
7. Nanocatalysts
Currently, the size and shape-selective synthesis of MgO nano­
particles and their diverse catalytic applications are attracting much
interest in nanochemistry. The properties of MgO nanoparticles are good
thermodynamic stability, low refractive index and dielectric constant
(Aziz and Karim, 2019). One of the standard catalytic reaction models to
test catalytic activities is the reduction of 4–nitrophenol to
4–aminophenol. 4–nitrophenol occurs as a crystalline solid, can cause
severe skin and eye irritation, and is toxic when ingested (Abdullah and
Kuo, 2019). Therefore, they are converted to an intermediate form,
4–aminophenol, a compound that has applications in the manufacture of
dyes, antipyretic and photographic materials (Subhan et al., 2019).
Nasrollahzadeh et al. (2018) reduced 4–nitrophenol to 4–aminophenol
by MgO nanoparticles from C. filiformis leaf extract. As a result, the
catalyzed reduction conversion to 4–aminophenol reached 100% after
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
270 s. Moreover, this study also used MgO nanoparticles as catalysts in
reducing 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, a common water pollutant, to 2,
4-diaminophenylhydrazine. Accordingly, 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
was reduced entirely to 2,4-diaminophenylhydrazine just in 160 s
under the catalyst loading of 10 mg MgO. Not only catalyzing the
reduction reactions, but MgO nanoparticles also catalyze a number of
synthesis reactions of new compounds. For instance, Sharma et al.
(2020) used A. squamosa extract-derived MgO nanoparticles to produce
2-phenylbenzimidazole from o-phenylenediamine and using benzalde­
hyde as an additive. The authors determined the presence of 2-phenyl­
benzimidazole through Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance with strong signals compared to when not
using MgO nanoparticles catalyst.
8. Activators for rubber vulcanization
Natural rubber is converted into a more durable material through a
chemical process called vulcanization. This process typically uses ZnO to
improve the mechanical properties of the rubber by cross-linking un­
saturated polymer chains (Maciejewska et al., 2021). It was recently
discovered that MgO nanoparticles can act as an activator in the
vulcanization process of rubber. Indeed, Silva et al. (2021) used MgO
nanoparticles using C. sinensis leaf extract as an activator in nitrile
rubber vulcanization to replace ZnO. In this study, the authors compared
the vulcanization ability of MgO green nanoparticles with commercial
MgO and referenced ZnO. The results showed that the fastest reaction
rate (k) belongs to MgO green synthesis (7.3 × 10− 4), which is higher
than that of commercial MgO (5.7 × 10− 4) and significantly higher than
the reference rate of ZnO (1.56 × 10− 7). Furthermore, the green syn­
thetic MgO exhibits excellent potential to replace ZnO, evidenced by the
obtained chemical crosslinking density 1.5 times higher than commer­
cial ZnO. In another study, da Silva et al. (2021) confirmed that the
rubber vulcanization ability of MgO nanoparticles from the green syn­
thesis method is far superior to that of ZnO. The evidence is that the
resulting rubber material has a lower phase angle, a higher modulus of
elasticity, and a higher cross-linking density. In particular, the property
of elasticity for compounds with MgO is higher than that of ZnO and
contributes to lower stress at 100% elongation during relaxation. It can
be seen that MgO nanoparticles have great potential in rubber vulca­
nization. In the future, more targeted investigations are needed on the
suitability of novel MgO nanoparticles to convert them into green
vulcanizers.
9. Energy production
Industrialization and modernization leading to high energy use,
rapid increase in oil prices and other harmful effects leading to green­
house effect have led people to turn their attention to alternative energy
sources (Rizwanul Fattah et al., 2020). The challenge is to find potential
energy sources that are renewable, biodegradable and especially
non-toxic and environmentally friendly. Biodiesel is a renewable,
clean-burning, domestically produced alternative with the potential to
replace diesel. In addition, using biodiesel as a vehicle fuel enhances
energy security improves air quality and the environment, and provides
safety benefits (Ong et al., 2021). Normally, biodiesel is produced using
free chain fatty acids or triacylglycerols from cooking oils such as tallow
or waste cooking oil (Jume et al., 2020). However, the former com­
mercial production is expensive and does not fit biodiesel production’s
economic criteria (Awogbemi et al., 2021). Recently, homogeneous acid
catalysts, e.g., sulfonic acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid, have
been developed to reduce production costs (Rizwanul Fattah et al.,
2020; Tan et al., 2021). Although these catalysts are low-cost, the con­
version efficiency is limited, making the process economically compet­
itive due to increased energy demands (Silitonga et al., 2020). In the
midst of this, nanoparticles are optimal materials as additives and pro­
moters to improve the catalytic performance and thermal and chemical
18
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
stability of the ester conversion. Indeed, Tamoradi et al. (2021) syn­
thesized MgO nanoparticles from P. vera seed extract as a catalyst for the
transesterification methyl esters process to produce biodiesel. In this
work, the yield of catalytic performance was obtained at 94.45%.
Although this is a potential result, the reusability effect of MgO nano­
particles has not been discussed. At the same trend, Saman et al. (2021)
improved this problem by synthesizing MgO nanoparticles from
Z. mauritiana leaf extract, followed by doping them with CuFe2O4
nanoparticles and a graphene derivative for catalyzing biodiesel pro­
duction. The yield of fatty acid methyl esters reached 98%, higher than
that of alone MgO nanoparticles from the study by Tamoradi et al.
(2021). More interesting, the catalytic performance of the material in
this study could still reach more than 84% after a repeated test 6 times,
which made it a potential promising green process. These studies sug­
gest that the growth of MgO nanoparticles from green synthesis as a
catalyst could provide an environmentally friendly platform for bio­
diesel production. Also, mixing MgO with metal nanoparticles or other
materials is needed to optimize catalytic performance, forming highly
efficient catalytic systems in energy production applications.
10. Challenges and solutions
Along with the presented results, green MgO nanoparticles still have
many limitations to achieve higher efficiency in each application. First
of all, the utilization of MgO photocatalysts under visible-light irradia­
tion conditions to remove pollutants is still narrowed due to their large
band gap. It recommends that green MgO should be doped with some
semiconductor materials such as ZnFe2O4, CdS, and WO3 with low band
gap energy to enhance visible light absorption. Besides, the surface area
and pore volume of MgO nanoparticles are still not high, suggesting that
the synthesis of MgO nanomaterials should be combined with porous
carbon and metallurgical frameworks. This can help to improve the
structural morphology of the MgO-based materials and increase the
adsorption efficiency. Moreover, taking advantage of reused MgO
nanoparticles has not been reported previously. Disposing of MgO
without treated procedure can lead to secondary pollution. Further re­
searches should focus on the use of spent MgO by modifying MgO into
value-added products to fit the target applications. For example, used
MgO can be modified into efficient catalysts for reactions convert
biomass into biofuels or bio-fertilizers in agriculture. In addition, chal­
lenges in biomedical applications, such as biocompatibility of MgO
materials has not insightfully been elucidated. It should be required by
more studies on the benignity and safety of green MgO. At the same
trend when MgO-based nanomaterials have been recently applied in
cancer treatment, the problem is that the selectivity between cancer cells
and healthy cells directly in the human body must be assessed. From the
challenges and solutions given, the development of green MgO materials
is expected to contribute greatly to solve global issues such as environ­
mental pollution, climate change, energy security, and circular economy
for a better future.
11. Conclusion
This review comprehensively addressed the unique properties of
MgO nanoparticles for a wide range of applications such as biomedical,
environment, agriculture, and energy production. Green MgO nano­
particles could be produced using safe, sustainable and eco-friendly
sources such as the extraction of plants, fungi, bacteria, algae, and li­
chens. Many factors including pH, temperature and extraction ratio
profoundly affected the morphology, size, surface area, and stability of
MgO nanoparticles. More interestingly, green MgO nanoparticles
showed excellent performance of antimicrobial activities, disease
treatment, removal of heavy metals. They also exhibited a massive po­
tential as biosensors, adsorbents, nanocatalysts, nano-fertilizers, and
many other applications in agriculture. To improve the photocatalytic
performance of green MgO nanoparticles for wastewater treatment,
N.T.T. Nguyen et al.
doping and surface functionality should be incorporated. This review
recommended that green MgO nanoparticles can become an effective
platform for future studies.
Author contribution statement
Ngoan Thi Thao Nguyen: Conceptualization; Data curation; Investi­
gation; Methodology; Writing - original draft. Luan Minh Nguyen: Data
curation; Investigation; Validation; Writing - original draft. Thuy Thi
Thanh Nguyen: Writing - review & editing; Data curation; Validation;
Validation. Uyen P. N. Tran: Writing - review & editing; Data curation;
Validation. Duyen Thi Cam Nguyen: Conceptualization; Writing - review
& editing; Validation; Data curation; Supervision. Thuan Van Tran:
Conceptualization; Writing - review & editing; Validation; Data cura­
tion; Supervision; Project administration.
Funding information
There was no external funding for this study.
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
Availability of data and material
The authors declare that all data and materials support their pub­
lished claims and comply with field standards.
Compliance with ethical standards
The authors declare that.
The manuscript has not been published anywhere nor submitted to
another journal.
The manuscript is not currently being considered for publication in
any another journal.
All authors have been personally and actively involved in substantive
work leading to the manuscript, and will hold themselves jointly and
individually responsible for its content.
Research does not involve any Human Participants and/or Animals.
Code availability
The authors declare that software application or custom code sup­
ports their published claims and comply with field standards.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
The authors would love to appreciate the effort of researchers all
over the world in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. We also
acknowledge Mina Rees Library, The Graduate Center of the City Uni­
versity of New York (CUNY) for granting access to databases, Freepik
company projects at http://www.freepik.com, and Canva® graphic
design platforms at http://www.canva.com for many graphic resources
reproduced in this work.
19
Chemosphere 312 (2023) 137301
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