Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Local Related Studies

According to Briones 2017, the fertilizer policy in the country Philippines has evolved

from pervasive interventionism in the 1970s to today's market-oriented regime. Government

has abandoned price policies and subsidies, focusing rather on standard setting, quality

regulation, and training. Over the same period, domestic demand for fertilizer has continually

increased, though recently, resurgent fertilizer prices have reduced total utilization. Evidence

suggests that farmers (at least in the case of rice) are under applying fertilizer, forfeiting

efficiency gains at the margin. On the supply side, imports have in the past few decades

emerged as the main source of fertilizer, as domestic production has dwindled. Priorities for

research and policy are therefore understanding the behavior of farmers in terms of fertilizer

application, and addressing internal price disparities, perhaps by improved transport

infrastructure and logistics.

For almost three decades, farmers in the Philippines have been using chemical

fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators in their crop production strategies. Despite the high

cost of these inputs, and the farmers' awareness that they can adversely affect soil fertility,

food quality, human and animal health, and environmental quality, they are used extensively

because there are few alternatives that would be considered practical and feasible. One reason

for this is that university-based research has strongly promoted the use of agricultural

chemicals as the best means of achieving the highest possible crop yields. The predominant

question then is how can the farmers shift from a chemical-intensive agriculture to one that is

based on the utilization of natural systems, and still maintain their economic Viability. It is
encouraging that there are some efforts now underway by university researchers, the Philippine

government, and the private sector to develop nature farming as an alternative to chemical-

based agriculture. The government, in cooperation with non-government agencies, needs to set

forth certain policy initiatives that would promote the necessary research for the development

of productive, profitable, and sustainable natural farming systems, and to ensure that such

knowledge is transferred effectively to the farmers (Mendoza, 2015).

For the last 20 to 30 years, farmers in the Philippines have been practicing a chemical

based agricultural production strategy. The detrimental effects from the use of agricultural

chemicals (fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, growth hormones, and antibiotics) on the

farmer, the farm, the wealth of the nation, the environment, and future generations have been

well documented and discussed (Aspiras, 1987) Under these conditions, there is a resurgence

of new pests, evolution of new biotypes and physiologic races. A sudden shift or withdrawal in

the use of fertilizers and pesticides may cause drastic yield reductions. Field trials show that

yields may be reduced by as much as 50 to 60 percent (FSSRI Annual Report, 1987). Such yield

reductions are obviously unacceptable to farmers, to society, and to the nation as a whole.

Yield reductions may mean massive food shortages and incalculable or unimaginable

consequences. These apprehensions or issues raised against a nature farming approach may

not be real in practice. The fear of yield decline could be avoided. This paper presents the

results of a university-based research initiative on nature farming, and a case study of a farmer-

initiated nature farming system, including a discussion of its implications and some policy

imperatives. (FSSRI Annual Report, 1987)

Related Literature and Studies

On Spoiled Rice

According to Martin (2000), Spoiled rice is cooked rice left standing at room temperature

where spores can grow into bacteria. These bacteria will multiply and may produce toxins

(poisons) that cause vomiting or diarrhea. The longer cooked rice is left a room temperature,

the more likely it is that the bacteria or toxins could make the rice unsafe to eat.

Food waste is important in the kitchen because after a noxious meal there is a bigger

possiblity that there is a waste of food. Fertilizers are organic or inorganic , natural or synthetic

substances that added to soil to enhance plant growth and production (Turing et. al.., 2006).

Plants depend on the nutrients in soil to carry out metabolic reactions because soil contains

basic chemicals for plant growth. Fertilizers also provide large amount of macronutrients such

as nitrogen , phosphorous and potassium while natural soil may not contain sufficient amount

of its macronutrients. Organic fertilizer are natural fertilizer that are made up from animals,

plants and minerals Organic fertilizers improve the quality of the soil and produce crops with

better yield and quality (Joseph, 2004).

Much research work on the spoilage of cooked rice and its prevention has been

recorded, but to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on spoilage after cooking of

rice varieties commonly consumed in Sri Lanka. We therefore, investigated cooked rice spoilage

of some common rice varieties in Sri Lanka (Kora, red raw rice, white raw rice, and samba) and

compared the time taken to spoil by the different rice varieties. Some people use aluminium

pots to cook rice whereas some use clay pots. Information about the effect of these pots on

cooked rice spoilage is not recorded so far. Thus, the present study was further extended to

compare the effect of these pots on the cooked rice spoilage. We also studied the potentiality to
put off cooked rice spoilage in the traditionally used cooking substances rampe (Pandanas

latifolia), curry leaves (Murraya koenigiii and turmeric (Curcuma domestica) as people add these

substances into rice in order to make food more appetizing and also for decoration. It has been

recorded, especially in ayurvedic medicine that some of these substances have anti-bacterial

activity. Curry leaves are considered to be stomachic, appetizing and antiseptic and are useful

in treating diarrhea, dysentery and vomiting (Warrier et al., 1995). Turmeric is also used to

treat diarrhea and dysentery in ayurvedic medicine. Thus, it's important to find if these

substances have any effect on delaying cooked rice spoilage (Warrier et al., 1995).

Filipinos regularly eat boiled rice three times a day where most of the consuming

population belongs to below poverty line and depends highly on white rice for their cheap

source of carohydrates and protein. To save on fuel cost, cooking rice once in the morning

enough for the whole day’s consumption is a common practice. In the absence of a refrigerator,

cooked rice is usually kept at ambient temperature. This practice prevents rice retrogradation

caused by refrigeration. However, in several instances, food poisoning caused by the

consumption of unrefrigerated cooked rice has been reported. Homemakers have also noted

that cooked rice spoils easily during hot weather and when using specific cooking pans, or when

cooking a particular rice variety. The issue of rice spoilage has been raised but the specific

causes have not been identified. The presence of Bacillus cereus, a Gram-positive bacteria is

often associated with rice spoilage which can cause foodborne illnesses where its toxin can be

fatal in some cases. (Bandonill, 2014)

Food waste is food material that is unused, discarded and not safe to be consumed by

human for avoidable reasons. Food waste is edible animals and plants that are harvested to be

consumed but not evenly consumed by human because it is spoilt and discarded (Pleissner &

Carol, 2013). Food waste can be reduced by converting into useful form organic fertilizers to
reduce health problem caused by food wastes disposal (Pleissner & Carol, 2013). Food wastes

can be recycled into organic fertilizer to reduce amount of food waste on the land fill (Pleissner

& Carol, 2013).

Food waste materials can be fermented or composed into compost without adding any

carbon rich materials. However, the production of organic fertilizers can be enhanced by the

additional of carbon source such as brown sugar and molasses. The composting of food waste

can be increased by adding sugar source because most of the microorganism is sugar loving

organism and they utilize the sugar to break down food waste in fermentation or composting

process (Zhang et al., 2013).

On Fertilizers

Fertilizers are organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic substances that added to soil to

enhance plant growth and production (Turing et al., 2006). Plants depend on the nutrients in

soil to carry out metabolic reactions because soil contains basic chemicals for plant growth

(Turing et al., 2006). However, the supply of basic chemicals in soil to plants is limited. When

plants are being harvested, the nutrient content reduces and causes the reduction of quantity

and quality of plants. Fertilizers are applied to replace the chemical materials in soil that are

utilized by plants during growth and development (Miller, 2014).

Different types of fertilizers are applied to different types of crops to improve crop

growth and production (Turing et al., 2006). The types of fertilizers are divided according to the

amount of nitrogen and other elements (Joseph, 2014). The examples of fertilizer are sodium

nitrates, ammonium sulphate and ammonium salts. Sodium nitrates fertilizer enhances the

growth of plants such as wheat, barley and root vegetables because it contains nitrogen that is

easily release to plants (Joseph, 2014).

 According to a one study, there is a small controlled study in three fields on an organic

farm at Obere Lobau, Austria (Idinger et al. 1996) found that numbers of species, but not

abundance of spiders (Araneae) and ground beetles (Carabidae) were higher in arable fields

with compost rather than inorganic fertilizer applications. Numbers of ground beetle species

were higher in compost and unfertilized plots (18 species) than inorganic plots (12), as was

species diversity (Shannon’s H: unfertilized 2.1, compost 1.8, inorganic 1.2). Ground beetle

abundance did not vary with treatment (4-5 individuals/trap). There were variations in the

responses of different species with treatment. Numbers of spider species were higher in

compost and unfertilized plots (30) compared to inorganic plots (21), species diversity did not

differ (Shannon’s H: 2.2-2.3). Seven money spider (Linyphiidae) species made up approximately

85% of spiders in all treatments, thus numbers of additional species varied. Spider abundance

did not vary with treatment (6-7/trap). Two plots (185 x 10 m) in a 4 ha wheat/rye field were

either unfertilized since 1989 or fertilized with compost (80 t/ha in 1989 and 1991). A 7.6 ha

field (potatoes/bean/cereal) received inorganic fertilizer (1990: 30 N, 75 P, 120 K kg/ha, 1991:

112 N, 104 Ca kg/ha) and herbicides. Five ground photoeclectors (0.25 m²) were placed 20 m

apart in the centre of plots to sample arthropods. Traps were moved each month and emptied

every two weeks, 5-6 times between May-November 1991-1992. (Idinger et al. 1996)

Of all 2000 literature reviewed, looked at which agricultural practices can be altered to

benefit ground beetles (Carabidae). It found four European studies (Purvis & Curry 1984, Hance

& Gregoirewibo 1987, Humphreys & Mowat 1994, Idinger 1995) showing that adding organic

manure or compost to agricultural soil increased the numbers of ground beetles relative to sites

treated with mineral fertilizer. (Holland & Luff 2000)

Related Literature and Studies

Alugbati Plant (Basella alba)

Basella alba L. (Synonym: Basella rubra Roxb.) is an extremely heat tolerant (Grubben

and Denton, 2004), fast growing perennial vine which belongs to family Basellaceae (Rathee et

al., 2010). It is commonly known as Malabar spinach, Indian spinach, Ceylon spinach, vine

spinach (Roy et al., 2010), climbing spinach (Sen et al., 2010), East-Indian spinach, Chinese

spinach (Bamidele et al., 2010) and cyclone spinach (Nirmala et al., 2011). Basella is native to

tropical Southern Asia, probably originated from India or Indonesia (Saroj et al., 2012). Basella

alba is particularly abundant in Malaysia, Philippines, tropical Africa, the Caribbean and tropical

South America (Palada and Crossman, 1999), Southeast of Brazil (Echo plant information sheet,

2006). Due to easy adaptation to a variety of soils and climates Basella alba is considered one

of the best tropical spinach throughout the tropical world (Palada and Crossman, 1999). Basella

alba is one of the wild leafy vegetables, which is rare in its natural habitat (Wambugu and

Muthamia, 2009) but nowadays it is an important leafy vegetable grown for its nutritive value

(Varalakshmi and Devaraju, 2010) throughout the temperate regions as an annual and the

tropics as a perennial (Bamidele et al., 2010, Echo plant information sheet, 2006). Almost in

every part of India, Basella is grown as a pot herb (Khare, 2007).

According to Burkhill 2000, Ceylon spinach is cultivated throughout Malaya for use as

pot herb. The purpled leaves are used in both India and Malaya to poultice sore16. The laxative

property of the plant is used for treating constipation in children in Indonesia. Ceylon spinach is

listed as food plant of the Philippine, where it is boiled and eaten like spinach. It is cultivated

extensively by Chinese gardener and is on sale in Manila market throughout the year. The white

variety had been introduced into Fiji shortly before 1956. It has been also reported from
Ethiopia, Mozambique, Sierra and Camroons16. The present article provides review on of

Basella rubra Linn. and pharmacological studies conducted till date.

According to a one study of Olaniyan (2013), the antioxidant activity of two species of

leafy vegetable Basella was investigated. The leaves of Basella spp. are very low in calories

(95–110/100 g) and fats, but hold a good amount of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. The

EC50 values were found high in BAW extract (3.4 mg/mL) for DPPH radical scavenging activity.

BAW extract (1.04) at 50mg/mL showed high ferric reducing antioxidant power and least in

BAM extract. Various extracts from leaves with different constituents were shown dose

dependent antioxidant and high scavenging abilities which play a key role in combating the

reactive oxygen species 24.

Agriculture plays an important role in economy of developing countries like Pakistan.

However, rapid crop production with inappropriate farming practices deteriorate organic matter

in soil, which results in decreased microbial activity that eventually affect its physical, chemical,

and biological conditions which leads to decline in land productivity and crop yields. To solve

this problem, synthetic fertilizers were always thought to be a better way to improve the soil

fertility and crop productivity but unfortunately the excessive use of these creates a number of

serious environmental and health risks. To minimize these hazards, naturally occurring organic

fertilizers, namely, animal and plant manures, fall residues, and food and urban wastes are

better alternate of commercially available fertilizers. Reports proved that organic farming

improves soil composition, fertility, and soil fauna which in the long run have a beneficial effect

on crop production. For example, organic modification of soil with rice husk was found effective

in the yield of many crops like cowpea and rice which saved 31–70% Parkia biglobosa from

wilting caused by Fusarium solani and under diverse irrigation period can give good rice stand,

improved grain yield, and higher water use efficiency (Gonçalves & Bergmann, 2007).
 Antioxidant activities, total phenolic, flavonoid and ascorbic acid contents of B. alba

commonly consumed in Nigeria are determined. A high and significant correlation existed

between antioxidant activity and total phenolic content indicating that total phenolic content is

the major contributor to the antioxidant activity of the plant. Ascorbic acid fairly correlated with

antioxidant and phenolic content (Azeez, 2011). Basella alba has been used from a long time

back for the treatment of many diseases like dysentery, diarrhea, anemia, cancer etc. It has

also been utilized for different kinds of healing activities. Various kinds of extract like aqueous

extract, methanolic extract, petroleum extract, chloroform extract has been prepared from

different parts of the plant has been utilized in the treatment of many diseases since time

immortal all over the world. India and China are the two major countries harboring this plant

and utilizing it for the benefit of human being. It also consists of compounds that can be used

for the preparation of medicine by pharmacological industry. The chemical composition of the

leaf extract has been found to be: proteins, fat, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K,

vitamin B9 (folic acid), riboflavin, niacin, thiamine and minerals such as calcium, magnesium

and iron. Some unique constituents of the plant are basellasaponins, kaempherol and betalain.

The pharmacological activities of Basella alba has been tested by both in-vitro as well as in-vivo

methods. Antioxidant activity, antimutagenic activity has been carried out by the scientist to

explore the dynamics of the plant for the advancement in the treatment of the diseases. CNS

depressant activity, anti inflammatory activity has also been observed for this plant. Knowing

that plants have a large number of chemical substances, which have several pharmacological

actions; we should exploit more natural products, which in the future could show the cure for

many illnesses. It is hoped that compilation of this review will serve as a guide to all those

involved in this particular field of research (Shruthi, 2012).

On Rice Husks

Rice husk is one of the by-products of rice production, left after the burning of rice husk.

It can cause environmental pollution, as its disposal is difficult. Hence its proper reuse is

necessary, and because it is mainly composed of carbon and silica, it could be used in

adsorption processes for removal of toxic heavy metals from water and wastewaters. Rice husk

is available in ample amount. Because of its high specific surface area, it has proven to be a

potential low-cost material in the applications of water treatment and building materials. This

literature reviews the properties, uses, and the importance of rice husk and provides an

effective collection of studies to utilize rice husk derivatives. This economically valuable

agriculture waste product is a great source of silica and has many comprehensive applications

(Uddin, 2017).

The burning of rice husk for power generation in industries has generated a new residue

consisting of a mixture of ash, charred hull and fresh rice husk fractions. The proportions of

these components can vary according to the combustion efficiency, but the residue has been

designated by the generic term rice husk ash (RHA). On average, RHA corresponds to 15 % of

the mass of the rice husk used in the process (Gonçalves & Bergmann, 2007) and does, in

itself, not represent a high damaging potential for the environment. According to the norms of

ABNT), RHA can be classified as a nonhazardous and non-inert residue (class II). Nevertheless,

since industrial production is concentrated in urban areas, the large residue volume poses a real

risk of pollution in these environments. (NBR 10004, 2004).

Intense research has focused on the use of RHA in several branches of economic

activity. However, most of these studies have been conducted at the laboratory level, and the

resulting scientific knowledge has not yet been translated into appropriate technologies for
commercial production. Due to these technological difficulties of a full exploitation of RHA on an

industrial scale, its use in agricultural soils seems to be the most reasonable alternative for the

disposal of this residue. (Chandrasekhar et al., 2003).

Rice husk (a residue of the agricultural activity) was used to prepare activated carbon

with high surface area for the adsorption of Pb(II) from aqueous solution. The adsorption

capacity of the carbon sample was related to the porosity and the surface chemistry. Lead

adsorption was dramatically enhanced after the carbon was oxidized, which indicated that

adsorption was mainly dependent on coordination with surface functional groups. It was found

that solution pH exhibited remarkable impact on the adsorption process and the maximum

amount adsorbed was obtained at pH 5 (Youssef, 2014). Microwave incinerated rice husk ash

(MIRHA), produced from the rice husk has been used as an adsorbent for heavy metals in used

engine oil (Habib, 2014). In another conducted study using rice husk as an adsorbent by

batch adsorption experiments, the maximum percentage removal (99%) of Cr(VI) was observed

under optimum operating conditions. A hybrid mathematical model was proposed to simulate the

dynamic behavior in this study, which could also be potentially applicable to any similar other

solid–liquid adsorption–diffusion system (Sarkar,2013).

In principle, the threshold dose depends on the effects of RHA on the soil properties. It

can increase the pH and nutrient availability and can affect the hydro-physical properties as

well. The magnitude of these effects depends on the characteristics of the proper RHA and the

soil, the RHA dosage, and the interaction between soil and RHA. Among these effects, the

increase in pH is the most immediate and far-reaching for affecting a number of other

properties and processes in the soil and can therefore serve as initial guide to determine the

threshold dose of a particular RHA a soil can receive. To estimate the effect of RHA on the soil
pH, its ability of soil acidity correction must be quantified. (Silva et al., 2008; Pinto et al., 2009;

Sandrini, 2010)

Burning the husk under controlled temperature below 800 °C can produce ash with silica

mainly in amorphous form (Chandrasekhar,2003 ). Recently, (Nair et al). reported an

investigation on the pozzolanic activity of RHA by using various techniques in order to verify the

effect of incineration temperature and burning duration. He stated that the samples burnt at

500 or 700 °C and burned for more than 12 hours produced ashes with high reactivity with no

significant amount of crystalline material. The short burning durations (15 - 360 minutes)

resulted in high carbon content for the produced RHA even with high incinerating temperatures

of 500 to 700 °C only (Nair, 2006).