Chapter 4

OSTEOLOGY
This chapter deals with definition of osteology, ossification, structure and types of bone,
with description of bones with their clinical anatomy.

Definition

Osteology is the branch of anatomy which deals with the study of structure and function
of the skeleton. The framework of the body consisting of bones and cartilages which protect and
support the body is known as skeletal system. These structures are made up of specialized
connective tissue which can bear weight without bending.

Function of skeletal system

It forms the framework of the body.

Protects the viscera like heart, brain etc.

It is responsible for effective production of movement by providing attachments to

muscles and ligaments.

Bone

Bone is a special connective tissue in which the matrix is hardened by impregnation with
certain inorganic salts, mainly calcium phosphate. It is the hardest structure in the body &
constitutes most of the skeleton of higher vertebrates. Os (L), Osteon (G) are the synonyms for
bone from which the words like osteology, ossification, osteoma, osteomyelitis etc. get origin.

Bone components
Structurally the bone has two components: -

 Bone cell
 Bone matrix

Bone cells
The bone cells are of our kind, they are osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and,
osteoclasts.

Osteoprogenitor cells

• These are stem cells of mesenchymal origin that can proliferate & convert themselves
into osteoblasts whenever there is need for bone formation.
 • In the fetus these are numerous at sites where bone formation is to takes place.
• In the adult, osteoprogenitor cells are present over bone surfaces.
Osteoblasts
• These are ovoid cells containing basopholic cytoplasm & an oval nucleus.
• The cells lie at the surfaces of bone, internal to the periosteum & external to the
endosteum and are associated with bone formation.
• They contain the enzyme alkaline phosphatase (are responsible for formation of bone
matrix, ground substance, synthesis of collagen fiber).
Osteocytes
• These are mature osteoblasts imprisoned in the lacunae within the bone matrix.
• Fine cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes extend into the canaliculi
• Osteocytes have faintly basophilic cytoplasm & darkly staining nuclei.
Osteoclasts
• These are multinucleated giant cells (with slightly basophilic cytoplasm in younger cells
& acidophilic cytoplasm containing characteristic vacuoles in older cells).
• Osteoclasts are concerned with bone resorption during growth and remodeling of
skeleton.
• They produce acid phosphatase which dissolves the inorganic constituents of bone. Once
the resorption is complete, the osteoclasts degenerate and disappear.

Matrix

The bone matrix is madeup of 25% of oarganic components and 75% of inorganic components.

• Organic component (1/3 of bone weight) – Comprises chiefly collagen fibres (90%)
glycoprotein (Osteo nectin & Osteo calcin), responsible for the toughness & resilience of
bone.

• Inorganic component ( 2/3 of bone weight) – Consists of the following mineral salts –
calcium phosphate ( 85% ), calcium carbonate ( 10% ) & small amounts of calcium
fluoride & magnesium phosphate; responsible for the hardness & rigidity of bone.

The glycoproteins have affinity toward Ca+ ions, hence leading to calcification of bony
matrix.

There are three terminologies which students should know before reading further.
 Osteoid – Ground substance (Glycoprotein) + Collagen fibre.

Here calcification has not occurred.

Lamellae– after complete calcification the osteoid is termed as Lamellae.

Bone matrix- It is the intercellular substance of bone consisting of collagenous fibers,

ground substance, and inorganic salts.

Macroscopic structure
Macroscopically, bone is of two types
• Compact or lamellar bone – This look solid (except for microscopic spaces) and white
like an ivory.
• Cancellous or spongy bone – This appears as sponge or mesh work of trabeculae.

Microscopic structure
Microscopically, the structures of both compact and spongy bones are same, the difference
being in the relative amount of solid matter and the size and number of spaces in each.
Microscopically, based on the irregular or regular arrangement of lamellae of bone, it is
classified into
1. Lamellar or haversian bone
2. Woven or primitive bone
Haversian bone
This type is seen in the adult bone. It consists of numerous cylindrical units of haversian
systems. Each haversian system consists of the following
• Haversial canal
• Lamellae of bone
• Lacunae
• Canaliculi
Haversian canal
It is the longitudinal canal, about 50µ in diameter, present in the centre of each haversian
system.
It runs parallel to the long axis of bone & contains blood vessels, nerve fibres and areolar
connective tissue
Haversian canals communicate with each other and with the endosteum and periosteum
through transverse or oblique canals called volkmann’s canals.
 Lamellae of bone
The lamellae are thin plates of bone arranged concentrically around the haversian canal
Each lamella consists of the matrix containing collagen fibres in a calcified ground
substance. The collagen fibres lie parallel to each other.
The lamellae are of three kind they are as follows: -
• In the intervals between adjacent Haversian systems, there lie the interstitial lamellae
which run in various directions,
• At the surface, lamellae are oriented circumferentially and run parallel with the surface.
These called Circumferential lamellae.
• The concentric lamellae surround the vascular canal is known as Osteonic lamellae /
concentric lamellae.
Lacunae
These are small spaces between the lamellae & each contains a bone cell.
Canaliculi
These are fine radiating channels which connect lacunae to each other & with the central
canal.
The canaliculi are occupied by protoplasmic processes of bone cells.
Woven bone
In this type the matrix is composed of disorderly arranged bony lamellae. These lamellae
form an irregular network and give a woven appearance.
This type is seen during rapid bone developmSent & in repair of fractures.

Periosteum
Periosteum is a vascular fibrous connective tissue sheath covering the bone surface except at
the articular surface where the periosteum is replaced by articular cartilage.
The periosteum, besides providing a protective sheath, nourishes the underlying bone
through its blood vessels, it helps in bone formation during growth of bone & repair of
fractures, it also provides attachment to muscles, tendons & ligaments.
The periosteum consists of two layers - Outer fibrous layer
Inner osteogenic layer
Outer fibrous layer consist, mainly of white fibrous tissue contain blood vessels, lymphatics
& nerves. Inner osteogenic layer is highly vascular & is composed of fine elastic tissue
forming dense networks. On its deep surface are found bone forming cells, osteoblasts, hence
 this layer is called osteogenic layer. The blood vessels pass from the outer layer through the
osteogenic layer into the volkmann’s canals & ultimately into the haversian canals and the
medullary cavity. Periosteum is richly supplied by nerves.
Fibres of sharpey –
These are white (collagenous) fibers connecting the fibrous layer of the periosteum to the
circumferential lamellae of bone. They are found opposite the site of attachments of muscle
tendons & ligaments and strengthen their anchorage.

Endosteum
Endosteum is the highly vascular membrane lining the medullary cavity of a bone.

Ossification
Ossification is the development & formation of bone. Bone formation occurs only in the
fetal life in two ways
1. Intrmembranous ossification
2. Intracartilaginous ossification
• In membranous ossification, bone develops within the membrane of embryonic
mesenchyme.
• In cartilagenous ossification, first a hyaline cartilaginous model is formed from the
mesenchymal rudiment. The cartilage model is subsequently destroyed & replaced by
bony tissue.
Intramembranous ossification

Various stages in intramembranous ossification are as follows

At the site where a membrane bone is to be formed the mesenchymal cells become densely
packed to form mesenchymal condensation, this region becomes highly vascular.
Some of the mesenchymal cells lay down bundles of collagen fibers in the mesenchymal
condensation. In this way a membrane is formed.
Some mesenchymal cells (possibly those that had earlier laid down the collagen fibres)
enlarge & acquire a basophilic cytoplasm & may now be called osteoblasts. They come to lie
along the bundles of collagen fibres. These cells secrete a gelatinous matrix in which the
fibres get embedded gradually these fibres get swell up. Hence the fibres can no longer be
seen distinctly. This mass of swollen fibres & matrix is called osteoid.
Under the influence of osteoblasts calcium salts are deposited in osteoid. As soon as this
happens the layer of osteoid can be said to have become one lamellus of bone. Over this
lamellus, another layer of osteoid is laid down by osteoblasts. The osteoblasts move away
from the lamellus to line the new layer of osteoid.
 However, some of them get caught between the lamellus & the osteoid. The osteoid is now
ossified to form another lamellus. The cells trapped between the two lamellae become
osteocytes.In this way numbers of lamellae are laid down one over another, and a typical
membranous bone will be formed.
Endo-chondral ossification
The essential steps in the formation of bone by endochondral ossification are as follows.
At the site where the bone is to be formed, the mesenchymal cells become closely packed to
form a mesenchymal condensation. Mesenchymal cells become chondroblasts and lay down
hyaline cartilage. Mesenchymal cells on the surface of the cartilage form a membrane called
the perichondrium. This membrane is vascular & contains osteoprogenitor cells. The cells of
the cartilage are at first small and irregularly arranged. However, in the area where bone
formation is to begin, the cells enlarge considerably.
Under the influence of alkaline phospatase secreted by the cartilage cells, the intercellular
substance between the enlarged cartilage cells becomes calcified. The nutrition to the cells is
thus cut off and they die, leaving behind empty spaces called primary areolae.
Some blood vessels of the perichondrium now invade the calcified cartilaginous matrix.
They are accompanied by osteoprogenitor cells. This mass of vessels & cells is called the
periosteal bud. It eats away much of the calcified matrix forming the walls of the primary
areolae and thus creates large cavities called secondary areolae.
The walls of secondary areolae are formed by thin layers of calcified matrix that have not
been dissolved. The osteoprogenitor cells become osteoblasts and arrange themselves along
the surfaces of these bars, or plates of calcified matrix. Osteoblasts now lay down a layer of
collagen fibre embedded in a gelatinous ground substance i.e., osteoid, exactly as in intra
membranous ossification. This osteoid is calcified and a lamellus of bone is formed.
Osteoblasts now lay down another layer of osteoid over the first lamellus. This is also
calcified. Thus the two lamellae of bone are formed. Some osteoblasts that get caught
between the two lamellae become osteocytes. As more lamellae are laid down bony
trabeculae are formed. It may be noted that the process of bone formation in endochondral
ossification is exactly the same as in intramembranous ossification. The calcified matrix of
cartilage only acts as a support for the developing trabeculae and is not itself converted into
bone.

Development of a typical long bone

Endochondral ossification starts in the central part of the cartilaginous model, this area is
known as primary center of ossification. Gradually the ossification extends from this primary
centre to the ends of the shaft; mean while there will be progressive enlargement of the
cartilaginous model.
Soon after the appearance of the primary centre of ossification perichondrium becomes
active, which contain osteoprogenitor cells on its deeper surface, these cells lay down bone
 on the surface of the cartilaginous model by intra-membranous ossification. This periosteal
bone completely surrounds the cartilaginous shaft and is therefore called periosteal collar.
The periosteal collar which got formed initially at the primary centre of ossification rapidly
extends towards the ends of the cartilaginous model. It gives strength to the cartilaginous
model at the site where it is weakened by the formation of secondary areolae.
At the time of birth, the developing bone consists of -
A) diaphysis (shaft) - Which is bony and formed by the primary centre of ossification.
B) Ends those are cartilaginous.
At varying time after birth in the cartilages which form the ends of the bone one or more than
one secondary centres of endochondral ossification appears. The portion of bone formed
from one secondary centre is called an epiphysis.
There will be cartilaginous plate, which separate the diaphysis from epiphysis known as
epiphyseal plate. This plate is formed by cartilage into which ossification has not extended
either from the diaphysis or from the epiphysis; this plays a vital role in growth of the bone.
Growth in length of long bone
At this stage of formation of bone the ossifying cartilage shows four zones
Zone 1: - A central region where bone has been formed.
As we move away from this area we see -
Zone 2: - A region where cartilaginous matrix has been calcified and surrounds dead and
dying cartilage cells. This zone is also known as zone of calcification.
Zone 3: - A zone of hypertrophied cartilage cells in an un-calcified matrix, this zone is also
known as zone of uncalcified cartilage.
Zone 4: - Normal cartilage in which there is considerable mitotic activity, this zone is known
as zone of resting cartilage.
If we see the same cartilage some time later we find that ossification has now extended into
zone 2, and simultaneously the matrix in zone 3 has become calcified. The deeper cells of
zone 4 have meanwhile hypertrophied, while the more superficial ones have multiplied to
form zone 5, in this way formation of new cartilage keeps pace with the loss due to
replacement by bone.
To understand lengthwise growth of bone, we should look at the epiphyseal plate.
Depending on the arrangements of cells, three zones namely zone of resting cartilage, zone of
proliferating cartilage, and zone of calcification can be recognized. Next to the zone of
calcification, there is a zone where cartilage cells are dead and the calcified matrix is replaced
by bone.
 Growth in length of the bone takes place by continuous transformation of the cartilage to bone
in the epiphyseal plate. Meanwhile the thickness of the epiphyseal plate is maintained by
proliferation of cells in its zone of proliferating cartilage. This process of proliferation
continues until bone reaches its full length. But the process of ossification continues until
entire thickness of epiphyseal plate get convert into bone and diaphysis becomes continuous
with epiphysis.
Growth in width of long bone
The periosteal collar formed from periosteum around primary centre of ossification gradually
extends to the whole length of the diaphysis. As more layers of lamellae are laid down over
it, the bone becomes thicker, but it is neither necessary nor desirable for it to become too
thick. Hence osteoclasts remove the bone from internal surface. As a result of this shaft
grows in diameter and at the same time its wall does not become too thick.
Meanwhile trabeculae lying in the centre of the bone that were formed by endochondral
ossification get removed by the osteoclast and form medullary cavity. Gradually most of the
bone formed from the primary centre is removed, and replaced by periosteal bone, except
near the bone ends.

Metaphysis
Metaphysis is the portion of the diaphysis adjoining the epiphyseal plate, which is the region
of active bone formation with rich blood supply. This region is strong as it does not have
marrow cavity and give attachment to numerous muscles and ligaments. The metaphysic is a
major depot of calcium.

Classification of bone
Following are the classification of bone: -
Based on location
Based on location bone is of two type

 Axial skeleton – Bone of the head and trunk.

 Appendicular skeleton – Bone of the limbs.

Based on shape
Based on shape bone is of following types

 Long bone
 Short bone
 Flat bone
 Irregular bone
 Pneumatic bone
 Sesamoid bone
 Accessory bone

1. Long bone – The bone in which length is more than its breadth. Each long bone has a
shaft (diaphysis), and two expanded ends (epiphysis). They are of three types,

a) Typical long bone – These have following features

 One diaphysis and two epiphysis
 Contain medullary cavity
 Origin from endochondral ossification
 Found in the limbs
 Lie vertically
 They bear the weight
 Example – femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, and ulna.
b) Miniature long bone – These bones are much shorter than typical long bone, and
have a diaphysis and a single epiphysis. Example – metacarpals, metatarsals, and
phalanges.
c) Modifies long bones – These are the long bones with few atypical feature like
they does not have medullary cavity, develop from membranous ossification, and
placed horizontally in the body. Example – clavicle.
2. Short bone – These are very short bone with six surfaces, and usually cuboid in
shape. Example – carpal bones, tarsal bones.
3. Flat bone – These are flat plate like bone which form boundaries of body cavity.
Example – parietal, squamous part of frontal bone, temporal, occipital, scapula, ribs,
sternum, ribs, etc.
4. Irregular bone – These are the bone which has a highly irregular in shape. Example –
vertebra, bones of the base of skul, hip bone.
5. Pneumatic bone – These are the bones which contain air filled spaces within them,
found mainly around the nasal cavity and the spaces are known as paranasal sinuses.
The cavity acts as an air-conditioning chamber for inspired air, add resonance to
voice and make the skull lighter. Example – frontal, maxilla, sphenoid, and ethmoid
bones.
6. Sesamoid bone – These are seed like bones, found in the tendons of certain muscles
or joint capsule.
Characteristic feature: - Do not have periosteum
Do not have haversian system
Ossify after birth from multiple centers
They are related to articular or non-articular surface of adjacent bone, and their
articular surface is covered by hyaline cartilage, and lubricated by synovial membrane
or by a bursa. Example – patella, fabella, pisiform, etc.
 Functions – They resist pressure
Reduce friction
Alter the direction of pull of muscle
Acts as a pulley for muscle contraction
7. Accessory bone – They are not generally present in the body, when present do not
cause any harm. They are formed due to-
a) Appearance of extra ossification centre as in skull bone, example wormian/sutural
bone.
b) Non fusion of epiphysis, example – i) Os trigonum – non fusion of posterior
tubercle of talus.
ii) Os Vesalianum – Non fusion of styloid
process of 5th metatarsal.
iii) Patella cubitti – Non fusion of olacranon
with rest of the ulna.

Based on origin

Based on the origin the bone is of three types

 Membranous bone – The bone which is formed from intramembranous ossification.

 Cartilaginous bone – The bone which is formed from endochondral ossification.
 Membrano-cartilaginous bone – The bone which is formed from both intramembranous
ossification and endo-chondral ossification.

Based on macroscopic structure

Based on the macroscopic structure bone is of three type

 Compact bone – The compact bone is solid and appears white like ivory, found in the
shaft of long bone.
 Spongy bone – Appears like sponge due to meshwork of trabaculae, found in the ends of
a long bone.
 Diploic bone – It is a special variety of bone where spongy bony tissue lie between harder
inner and outer wall of the bone. Best example for diploic bone is flat bones of skull.
Based on microscopic structure

Based on macroscopic structure the bone is of two types which is based on arrangement of
different components of matrix.

Lamellar bone - These are the mature human bones, lamellar bone has orderly arranged
lamellae
Woven bone – These are found in young fetal bone and callus at the site of fracture healing.
Woven bone has disorderly arranged lamellae. These lamellae form an irregular network and
give appearance woven fabric.

Blood supply to the bone

Blood supply of long bone
Nutrient artery – Nutrient artery is a single large blood vessel, it supplies medullary
cavity, inner 2/3rd of cortex and metaphysic. Artery enters the diaphysis through the
nutrient foramen. The artery passes obliquely through the cortex and reach medullary
cavity where it divide into ascending and descending branch, which in turn divide into
number of small parallel branches. These branches terminate in the metaphysis by
anastamosing with metaphyseal, epiphyseal, and peiosteal arteries.
Metaphyseal vessels – They enter directly into the metaphysic and reinforce metaphyseal
branch of nutrient artery.
Periosteal vessels – These are numerous, found beneath the attachments of muscle or
ligament. These vessels ramify deep to periosteum and enter the cortex through
Volkmann’s canal. It supplies outer 1/3rd of the cortex.
Epiphyseal artery – These arteries derived from periarticular arterial arcades which are
found on the non-articular bony surface, and enter the epiphysis through numerous
vascular foramina in this region.

Blood supply of other bone

Short bones – Periosteal vessels
Vertebra – Body of the vertebra is supplied by anterior and posterior vessels, where as
arch is supplied by large vessels entering the transverse process. Venous blood from
vertebra is drained by basivertebral vein.
Ribs – Supplied by nutrient artery and periosteal arteries.