EDUC 201 Module Module in Educ 201 Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

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Module in EDUC 201 Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching
BS Education (Tarlac State University)
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TSU VMGO
VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier

university in Asia and the Pacific.
VISION Tarlac State University commits to promote and sustain the

offering of quality and programs in higher and advanced
education ensuring equitable access to education for people
empowerment, professional development, and global
competitiveness.
Towards this end, TSU shall:
Provide high quality instruction trough qualified, competent
and adequately trained faculty members and support staff.
Be a premier research institution by enhancing research
undertakings in the fields of technology and sciences and
strengthening collaboration with local and international
institutions.
Be a champion in community development by strengthening
partnership with public and private organizations and
individuals.
CORE VALUES The six(6) core values institutionalize as a way of life of the
university community are:
E – xcellence and Enhanced Competence

Q – uality
U – nity
I – ntegrity and Involvement
T – rust in God, Transparency and True Commitment
Y – earning for Global Competitiveness

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COURSE: EDUC 201-FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

DEVELOPED/COMPILED BY:
DR. MELLANY G. MASANGKAY

Email address: mellany_masangkay@yahoo.com
DR. MA.THERESA A. ACOSTA

Email address: theresaacosta3168@gmail.com
DR. LEODIVINA P. TAGAMA

Email address :tagamaleodivina@yahoo.com
DR. ROSALINA C. GARCIA

Email address: rosalinagarcia_30@yahoo.com.ph
MISS ROSE ANN TUBAY

Email address: tubay.123@yahoo.com
TITLE:
Flexible Instructional Module on EDUC 201- Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course explores the fundamental principles, processes and practices
anchored on learner-centeredness and other educational psychologies as these
apply to facilitate various teaching-learning delivery modes to enhance learning.
This also course emphasizes contemporary theories and research on the
cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, socio-cultural and individual difference
factors in the acquisition of knowledge. It is structured to cover the three (3) key
dimensions; learner, learning and classroom process
RATIONALE:
This module is designed as one of the most appropriate teaching techniques
in distance learning in order to help the students grow and develop at her/his own
pace. This will serve as a guide for the different lessons that will be discussed in this
course.
INSTRUCTION TO THE USERS

ü Answer the pretest before each lesson
ü Read and study the content of each lesson in the module
ü Do/answer the activity after each lesson
ü Use other resources as your reference in this subject
ü Microsoft Teams will also be used as platform in the class. The students are
advised to download and install such application and just login using the TSU
account ( @student.tsu.edu.ph).
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Table of Contents
Chapter I. Theories of Development
I. Review of Theories of Development.............................................................4

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Freud’s Personality and Psychosexual Development
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory
II. The Nature of Learning……………………………………………………………………… .6

Types of Learning
Nature of theories of Learning
Defining “Leaner-Centered”
Chapter II. Dimensions of Learner - Centered Learning
Developmental and Socio-cultural Dimensions of learning……………………16
Defining key terms related to social constructivism

The Socio- Constructivist view of Learning
The Situated Learning Theory……………………………………………………..22
How children think and learn………………................................................23

Adolescent Learning………………………………………………………………………… 25
Adult Learning………………………………………………………………………………….28
Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners
Chapter III. Student Diversity
Individual differences in Learning……………………………………………………...35

Concepts of Individual differences in Learning
Factors of Individual differences………………………………………………………...39
Benefits of Individual differences…………………………………………………….….41
Teacher’s Strategies in Handling Individual Differences……………….………..41
Learning and Thinking Styles……………………………………………………...……..43
Multiple Intelligences……………………………………..................................... 47
Learners with exceptionalities/ children with Special Needs……............... 51
Diversity in designing and assessing Learning activities

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Chapter IV . Behaviorist Perspective…………………………………………63
Definition of Terms
Classical Conditioning by Pavlov/ Watson………………………………………..63
Connectionism Theory by Thorndike………………………………………..……. 67
Operant Conditioning by Skinner
Neo- Behaviorism………………………………………………………………………….73
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism……………………………………………………..73
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory……………………………………………………75

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PRE-TEST
DIRECTION:
Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer at the space
provided before each number.
_____ 1. “The principal goal of education in the A. Lawrence Kolhberg
schools should be creating men and women
who are capable of doing new things, not
simply repeating what other
generation have done. “
_____ 2. “Healthy children will not fear life if B. Lev Vygotsky

their Elders have integrity enough not to fear
death”.
_____3. “ Right action tends to be defined in c. Sigmund Freud

terms
Of general individual rights and standards that
have been
Critically examined and agreed upon by the
whole society”.
_____4. “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats D. Jean Piaget

with one-seventh Of its bulk above water”.
_____5. “ What a child can do in cooperation E. Erik Erickson

today, tomorrow she/he will be able to
do alone”.
MODULE 1 _______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1

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CHAPTER 1
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
“Learning is creation, not consumption. Knowledge is something a learner

absorbs, but something learner creates.” – George Courds
LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of this Module, the learners are expected to:
¥ Define the meaning of learning
¥ Identify the different types of learning
¥ Describe the learner-centered perspective
CCONTENT
A. PREPARATORY ACTIVITY
I. Direction: Write TRUE if you agree with the statement and FALSE if not.
_______________1. Learning is a long-term change.

_______________2. Learning does not include changes that are physiological like
maturation, mental illness, fatigue, hunger or the like.
_______________3. Learning results from previous experience
_______________4. The cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the
environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic
intervention.”
_______________5. Learning is not an automatic process
CHAPTER 1 _______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 2

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CONTENT
CONTENT
II. Direction : Explain the following writing prompts. Limit your sentences into 10.
1. Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior

due to experience.”
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
2.Learning helps to solve any problems in one’s life.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 3

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 1: REVIEW OF THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
The ideas of the theories, Freud, Erickson, Piaget, Vygotsky and

Bronfenbrenner remain to be foundational in the teacher’s understanding of the
learners’ development. Let us recall the highlights of their theories. Freud said “ The
mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk of water.” This is of
course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to when he experience the
subconscious mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about is not
what we see in the outside and what is conscious, but what is there hidden in the
subconscious mind . As teachers, it is important that we remember not be too quick
in making conclusions about our students’ intentions for their actions. Always consider
that there are many factors that may influence one's behavior.
Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s
personality, the id, ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego,
reality-centered and the superego, Which is related to the ego ideal or conscience.
Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual
stages of development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs ,and failure to do so results in
fixations .
Erickson said, “ Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have
integrity enough not to fear death.”He believed the impact of the significant others in
the development of one’s
view of himself, life and of the world. He presented a very comprehensive framework
of eight psycho-social stages of development. It is Erickson who described the crisis (
expressed in opposite polarities)that a person goes through; the maladaptation and
malignancies that result from failure to effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue
that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis is attained.
Piaget said,” The principal goal of education in the schools should be
creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating
what other generation have done. “
Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He
described four stages of cognitive development, namely the sensory-motor, pre-
operational, concrete-operational and formal-operational stages. Each has
characteristics ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive
abilities develop.

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 1: REVIEW OF THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Kolhberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights
and
standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”
Kolhberg proposed three levels of moral development namely pre-
conventional, conventional and post post-conventional and these are further
subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kolhberg believed that one’s
cognitive development influenced the development of one’s moral reasoning.
Vygotsky said, “ The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s
development in the child but on tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of social
interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding is the systematic manner of
providing assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill.
He believed that guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a
learner to a higher level of performance than if he were alone. This higher level of
performance then eventually becomes the learner’s actual performance when he
works independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal development.
(ZPD) illustrates this.
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems
Theory presents child development within the context of relationship systems that
comprise the child’s environment. The model is composed of microsystem,
mesosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. . Each layer is further
made up of different structures. The term “biological” points out that a child’s own
biological make-up impacts on his/her development. The child’s growing and
developing body and the interplay between his/her immediate family/community
environment and the social landscape fuel and steer his/her development. Changes or
conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers . To study a child’s
development then, we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate
environment, but also at the larger environment with which the child interacts.

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 2: NATURE OF LEARNING
Many educators have attempted to define learning. Some of these definitions are too
complicated to have meaning. Others are not broad enough in their scope. One writer
defines learning as an intelligent adaptation to changing conditions. Another authority
defines learning as the process of acquiring knowledge. Perhaps the best definition,
especially where educators are concerned, is the definition which puts emphasis on
the student’s ability to perform as the result of learning.
Definitions of Learning:
1. Gardener Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to

meet environmental requirements.”
2. Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the

strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.”
3. Crow & crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge & attitudes. It
involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals attempts to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in
behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain goals.
NATURE OF LEARNING
1. Learning is Universal. Every creature that lives learns. Man learns most. The
human nervous system is very complex, so are human reactions and so are human
acquisition. Positive learning vital for children’s growth and development.
2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind of

experience, direct or indirect (vicarious).
3. Learning is from all Sides: Today learning is from all sides. Children learn from
parents, teachers, environment, nature, media etc.
4. Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning. Every day

new situations are faced and the individual has to bring essential changes in his style
of behaviour adopted to tackle them. Learning is birth to death.
5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour influenced by

previous behaviour. It is any activity that leaves a more or less permanent effect on
later activity.

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CONTENT
CONTENT

6. Learning is an Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust himself
adequately to the new situations. Most learning in children consists in modifying,
adapting, and developing their original nature. In later life the individuals acquire new
forms of behaviour.
7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and practice. It

has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they
have meaningful practice and repetition. Every time practice occurs, learning
continues.
8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change. After a rat wake up from his nap
he still remembers the path to the food. Even if you have been on a bicycle for years,
in just a few minutes practice you can be quite proficient again.
9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth and

development. At reach stage the learner acquires new visions of his future growth
and news ideals of achievement in the direction of his effort. According to
Woodworth, “All activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual.”
10. Learning is not directly observable. The only way to study learning is
through some observable behaviour. Actually, we cannot observe learning; we see
only
Moreover, learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change

in one’s behavior as a result of his interaction in the environment. Omrod (2004)
has defined learning as something that happens as a result of one’s experience.
Changes in behavior are pieces of evidence showing that learning has taken in place.
However, most theorist agree to the following definition of learning because it is
useful for identifying the kinds of events that learning theorist should explain.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in one’s behavior as result of

interaction in the environment
Nearly, all definitions of learning point to three equally important concepts: change,
behavior and experience.

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CONTENT
CONTENT
1. Change. Learning involves change in knowledge and behavior. Psychologists

agree that learning involves change within the individual organism.
For example, if a rat is a lost in a maze, it produces an array of attempts to look for
its way out. For several times, it does the same thing until it finally gets its way out.
Here, we see that nothing about maze. Everything else in the rat’s situation has
remained unchanged except the rat
Behavioral theorist maintain that learning consists of changes in behavior,

while cognitive theorists claim that learning involves changes in knowledge. It is
therefore clear that performance of some observable behavior is necessary indication
of learning, but it is not necessary identical to learning. A change that disappears
after a few hours does not reflect learning ( Mayer, 2002)
2. Behavior. In the previous example about the rat in a maze, we can say that
learning is acquisition of knowledge. But to some extent, do we know that knowledge
Has been acquired?The mere fact that the rats makes an array of attempts to gets its
way out demonstrates that it has learned.
The changes brought about by learning are relatively permanent. Changes are
making responses can be produced by other factors aside from learning. The nature
of relative permanence helps us to rule out changes that are brought by such things
as drives, fatigue, disease, and injury that dissipate rapidly. Drugs can also produce
Changes in responding but will also dissipate when the drugs wear-off.
3. Previous experience. Learning results from previous experience. Therefore,

learning Involves experience. Many changes that we observe specially among children
are the results of growth or maturation of the skeletal, muscle and nervous systems.
LESSON 3: TYPES OF LEARNING

TYPES OF LEARNING
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or participation in
classroom activities. These types of learning are basic ingredients to success in
school.
These are what schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form learning for one to maintain and go through

daily life activities as for example, walking, running, driving, climbing and the like.
This activities involve motor coordination.

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 3: TYPES OF LEARNING
b. Verbal learning it involves the use of spoken language as well as the

communication devices used. Signs pictures symbols words figures sounds used in
such. activities .
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order
mental processes like thinking, reasoning and analyzing. It involves two processes:
abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is a learning to differentiate between stimuli

and responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is being able to distinguish
the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus,car and ambulance.
e. Learning Principles. It is learning principles related to science, mathematics

Grammar and the like. Principles show the relationship between two or more
concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws, associations, correlations and
the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning requires

the use of cognitive abilities- such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination
and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts

behavior. Learned attitudes influence one”s behavior toward people, objects, things,
or ideas.

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 4: LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING
Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers a

wide range of activities which cannot be explained with a limited framework. This
may be reason why there is available wide range of theories of learning, each
propounding and focusing on a particular perspective or view to explain what learning
is.
A learning theory is an organize set of principles explaining
individuals how to acquire, retain, and to recall knowledge. Learning theories try to
explain how people learn and why they learn. They also try to explain the
phenomenon of learning – its nature, and the conditions under which learning best
occur. The explanations are, however, considered as tentative. Be as it may, these
statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead, they are well studied or
seriously thought out, and in many cases, the result of scientific study. Theses
theories especially guide teachers to have a better understanding of how learning
occurs and how learners learn (“Educational Learning and Learning Theories,” n.d.).
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used
differently by different theories. As theories of learning evolved over time, definitions
of learning shifted from changes that occur in the mind or behavior of an individual,
to changes in participation in on going activities with other individuals, to change in a
person’s identity within group. (“Theories of Learning” n. d.)
Learning Point: Defining “Learner-Centered”
Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-
centeredness in educational practice, especially in curriculum development and
teaching methodology. This means that policy, planning, and implementation of
educational practice should have the learners as its focus. It is therefore expected
that theories of learning and their application should be learner-centered.
Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual
learners- their heredity, experiences, perspective, background, talent, interests,
capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning- the best available knowledge about
learning and how it occurs, and about teaching practices that are most effective in
promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning, and achievement for all learners.
For a better understanding of the term learner-centered, following are
learner-centered principles, meant to provide a framework for developing and
incorporating new strategies and designs of teaching,
These are the main ideas of these principles:
ü They pertain to the learner and the learning process.

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 4: LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING
ü They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the
learner.
ü They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
ü They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in
isolation.
ü The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning.
ü These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators, parent staff, and
guidance counselors.
Who are the Learners?

All human beings regardless of age, race, or space, need certain
conditions to thrive. They must feel that they:
ü Belong and are included
ü Have some worth and value
ü Are safe in all aspects: physically, emotionally, and cognitively.
ü Have some choice and freedom related to their environment and activities.
ü Can be successful.
ü Are appreciated for who they are.
Cognitive research tells us that every brain is unique. Even children
born into same family with the same nature (genes) and nurture ( environment)
do not look or act alike. Each has a preferred learning style and will thrive better in a
visual, auditory, tactile, or kinesthetic environment. Some like natural light, some a
musical background, some a quiet space. Some students need hands-on or “being-
there” experience, while others appreciate analogy. Some need movement and
activity and collaboration, while some need quiet time for contemplation and
reflection. Most brains are naturally curious and seek understanding and meaning.

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EVALUATION
EVALUATION
GENEREAL DIRECTION:
Write what you remember most about the ideas of the following theories. Focus on what you
think are their most important ideas about the development of learners.
Sigmund Freud
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Eric Erickson
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Jean Piaget
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Lawrence Kohlberg
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Urie Bronfenbrenner
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Direction:
Gather resources about the next
chapter DIMENSIONS OF LEARNER-
CENTERED LEARNING and read it.
CHAPTER 1 _______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 12

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REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Brawner, Dalisay G., Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: Manila: Adriana

Publishing Co., Inc. 2018
Lucas, MR.D & Corpuz B.B Facilitating Learning: A Metacocnitive Process .
(Revised Edition). Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc. 2018

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PRE-TEST
PRE-TEST
Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. In order that individual development could understood, one has to look

into the social and cultural context within which development occurs.
Whose view is this?
A. Piaget
B. Bruner
C. Vygotski
D. Erickson
2. These learners learn best from a hands-on approach, actively exploring
the physical world around them.
A. Visual learners
B. Kinesthetic learner
C. Global learners
D. Auditory learners
3. Which of the following practice demonstrate scaffolding?
A. Making the child tie his shoes
B. Start coloring the picture and the child continuous and finishes it
C. Answering a difficult question
D. Helping the child finish his project
4. The assistance given to children by adults to reach higher development
A. Intrinsic
B. Extrinsic
C. Reinforces
D. Scaffolding
5. The differences between what a learner can do without help and what
he/she can do with help is called the?
A. Scaffolding
B. Actual Deveopment
C. Zone Of Proximal Development
D. Potential Development
CHAPTER 2 _______DIMENSIONS OF LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING 14

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CHAPTER 2
Dimension of Learner-Centered
Learning
“You’re off to great places. Today is your day.” – Dr. Seuss
LESSON OUTCOMES
• Tackle the Different Dimensions of Learner-Centered Learning
• Identify the Key terms in Social Constructivism
• Discuss the Situated Learning
• Differentiate Children, Adolescent and Adult Learning
CCONTENT
I. Direction: Identify what is being asks by the statements below. Write
your answer on the blank provided before each number.
__________1. It refers to the people(Parents,teachers, advance peers) who provides

scaffolding or assistance.
__________2. It means providing a chance for the child to accomplish something or
attain his potential by means of giving guidance during the learning opportunity.
__________3. He is the proponent of Situated Learning.
__________4. These type of learners rely on pictures in learning . They benefit from
the use of graphs, diagrams, and illustrations. They learn best when they are shown
what to do or what something looks like.
__________5. These type of learners need to physically do something to understand
it. By performing something for themselves through a degree of trial and error, these
learners will experience the most success.
__________6. Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e., settings
and applications that would normally involve that knowledge.This principle is under
what theory?
__________7. The process by which guidance is withdrawn is known as _____.
__________8. Learners listen carefully when they are learning and draw the majority
of new knowledge through their ears. Things make the most sense to them when they
are told how something should be. These type of learners are known as______.
CHAPTER 2 _________DIMENSIONS OF LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING 15

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 1 : CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING by
Drew Polly et.al, lifted from
https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/sociocultural-learning/
Modern social learning theories stem from the work of Russian

psychologist Vygotsky, who produced his ideas between 1924 and 1934 as a reaction
to existing conflicting approaches in psychology (Kozulin, 1990). Vygotsky’s ideas are
most recognized for identifying the role social interactions and culture play in the
development of higher-order thinking skills, and it is especially valuable for the
insights it provides about the dynamic “interdependence between individual and social
processes in the construction of knowledge” (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192).
Vygotsky’s views are often considered primarily as developmental theories, focusing
on qualitative changes in behavior over time as attempts to explain unseen processes
of development of thought, language, and higher-order thinking skills. Although
Vygotsky’s intent was mainly to understand higher psychological processes in
children, his ideas have many implications and practical applications for learners of all
ages.
Interpretations of
Vygotsky’s and other sociocultural
scholars’ work have led to diverse
perspectives and a variety of new
approaches to education. Today,
sociocultural theory and related
approaches are widely recognized and
accepted in psychology and education
and are especially valued in the field of
applied linguistics because of its
underlying notion that language and
thought are connected. Sociocultural
theory is also becoming increasingly
influential in the field of instructional
design. In this chapter, we first review
some of the fundamental principles of
sociocultural theory of learning. We then
suggest design implications for learning,
teaching, and education in general.
Following, we consider how sociocultural
theories of learning should influence
Figure 1.0 Lev Vygotsky instructional design.
Source: www.timetoast.com

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CONTENT
CONTENT
LESSON 2 :KEY TERMS IN SOCIO-CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Socio-Cultural Development Theory claims that learning is highly

influence by the society surrounding a child. Immediate family
members,friends,classmates together with what’s in the context of culture such as
beliefs and attitudes influence Education.
He also introduced the Zone of Proximal Development which refers
to the gap or the difference between what a learner can do alone (actual
development) and what he can do with the help of MKO or More knowledgeable
Others. ZPD is a zone representing learning opportunites that is possible with the aid
of MKO.More knowledgeable others refers to the people(Parents,teachers,
advance peers) who provides scaffolding or assistance.
Scaffolding means providing a chance for the child to accomplish
something or attain his potential by means of giving guidance during the learning
opportunity. It could also be referred as bridging the gap between the actual
development and the potential development. Given the fact that providing necessary
assistance is beneficial to learners,let us also put in our minds that when the learners
already reached a certain level of proficiency, the guidance is withdrawn. This process
is called the scaffold and fade-away technique.
Figure 2.0 The Zone of Proximal Development

Source: www.flickr.com
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LESSON 3: SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVISM VIEW OF LEARNING by Drew Polly et.al,

lifted from https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/sociocultural-learning/
Three themes are often identified with Vygotsky’s ideas of sociocultural

learning:
(1) human development and learning originate in social, historical, and
cultural interactions,
(2) use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediate
development of higher mental functions, and
(3) learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development. While we
discuss these ideas separately, they are closely interrelated, non-hierarchical, and
connected.
Human development and learning originate in social, historical, and

cultural interactions. Vygotsky contended that thinking has social origins, social
interactions play a critical role especially in the development of higher order thinking
skills, and cognitive development cannot be fully understood without considering the
social and historical context within which it is embedded. He explained, “Every
function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level,
and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). It is through working
with others on a variety of tasks that a learner adopts socially shared experiences and
associated effects and acquires useful strategies and knowledge (Scott & Palincsar,
2013).
Rogoff (1990) refers to this process as guided participation, where a

learner actively acquires new culturally valuable skills and capabilities through a
meaningful, collaborative activity with an assisting, more experienced other. It is
critical to notice that these culturally mediated functions are viewed as being
embedded in sociocultural activities rather than being self-contained. Development is a
“transformation of participation in a sociocultural activity” not a transmission of
discrete cultural knowledge or skills (Matusov, 2015, p. 315). The processes of guided
participation reveal the Vygotskian view of cognitive development “as the
transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes,” or an act of
enculturation, thus rejecting the Cartesian dichotomy between the internal and the
external (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192).
This Vygotskian notion of social learning stands in contrast to more
popular Piaget’s ideas of cognitive development, which assume that development
through certain stages is biologically determined, originates in the individual, and
precedes cognitive complexity. This difference in assumptions has significant
implications to the design and development of learning experiences.

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If we believe as Piaget did that development precedes learning, then we

will make sure that new concepts and problems are not introduced until learners have
developed innate capabilities to understand them. On the other hand, if we believe as
Vygotsky did that learning drives development and that development occurs as we
learn a variety of concepts and principles, recognizing their applicability to new tasks
and new situations, then our instructional design will look very different. We will
ensure that instructional activities are structured in ways that promote individual
student learning and development. We will know that it is the process of learning that
enables achievement of higher levels of development, which in turn affects “readiness
to learn a new concept” (Miller, 2011, p. 197). In essence:
Learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are
able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and
with his peers . . . learning is not development; however, properly organized learning
results in mental development and sets in motion a variety of developmental
processes that would be impossible apart from learning. Thus learning is a necessary
and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically
human, psychological functions (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 90).
Another implication based on Vygotskian views of learning is recognizing
that there are individual differences as well as cross-cultural differences in learning
and development. As instructional designers, we should be more sensitive to diversity
in learners and recognize that a large amount of research has been done on white,
middle-class individuals associated with Western tradition, and the resulting
understanding of development and learning often incorrectly assumes universality.
Recognizing that “ideal thinking and behavior may differ for different cultures” and
that “different historical and cultural circumstances may encourage different
developmental routes to any given developmental endpoint” may prevent incorrect
universalist views of all individuals and allow for environments that value diversity as a
resource (Miller, 2011, p. 198).
Use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediate development
of higher mental functions. Another important aspect of Vygotsky’s views on learning
is the significance of language in the learning process. Vygotsky reasoned that social
structures determine people’s working conditions and interactions with others, which
in turn shape their cognition, beliefs, attitudes, and perception of reality and that
social and individual work is mediated by tools and signs, or semiotics, such as
language, systems of counting, conventional signs, and works of art.

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He suggested that the use of tools, or semiotic mediation, facilitates co-

construction of knowledge and mediates both social and individual functioning. These
semiotic means play an important role in development and learning through
appropriation, a process of an individual’s adopting these socially available
psychological tools to assist future independent problem solving (John-Steiner &
Mahn, 1996). This means that children and learners do not need to reinvent already
existing tools in order to be able to use them. They only need to be introduced to
how a particular tool is used, then they can use it across a variety of situations
solving new problems (Scott & Palincsar, 2013).
Vygotsky viewed language as the ultimate collection of symbols and

tools that emerge within a culture. It is potentially the greatest tool at our disposal, a
form of a symbolic mediation that plays two critical roles in development: to
communicate with others and to construct meaning.
Learning occurs within the zone of proximal development. Probably the

most widely applied sociocultural concept in the design of learning experiences is the
concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky (1978) defined ZPD as
“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p.
86). He believed that learning should be matched with an individual’s developmental
level and that in order to understand the connection between development and
learning, it is necessary to distinguish the actual and the potential levels of
development. Learning and development are best understood when the focus is on
processes rather than their products. He considered the ZPD to be a better and more
dynamic indicator of cognitive development since it reflects what the learner is in the
process of learning as compared to merely measuring what the learner can
accomplish independently, reflecting what has been already learned (Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky argued that productive interactions align instruction toward

the ZPD, and providing instruction and guidance within the ZPD allows a learner to
develop skills and strategies they will eventually apply on their own in other situations
(1978). This highlights the importance of instructional decisions related to types and
quality of interactions in designing effective learning experiences.

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Whether these interactions occur with a more experienced other or

another learner with similar skills, there should always be a degree of common
understanding about the task, described as intersubjectivity., The partners should
have a sense of shared authority over the process, and they should actively
collaborate to co-construct understanding. It is important to notice that ZPD should
be viewed broadly as “any situation in which some activity is leading individuals
beyond their current level of functioning,” applicable not only to instructional activities
but to play, work, and many other activities (Miller, 2011, p. 178).
The notion of instructional scaffolding is closely related to the idea of
ZPD. Scaffolding is the set of tools or actions that help a learner successfully
complete a task within ZPD. Scaffoldings typically include a mutual and dynamic
nature of interaction where both the learner and the one providing the scaffold
influence each other and adjust their behavior as they collaborate. The types and the
extent of supports provided in a learning experience are based on performance, and
the scaffold is gradually phased out (Miller, 2011). The expert motivates and guides
the learner by providing just enough assistance, modeling, and highlighting critical
features of the task as well as continually evaluating and adjusting supports as
needed. Additionally, providing opportunities for reflection as part of the learning
experience further promotes more complex, meaningful, and lasting learning
experiences. In the case of digital learning experiences, scaffolds are not necessarily
provided by individuals, but may be embedded into the experience.
Ideas such as ZPD and scaffolding bring to light a fundamentally

different view of an instructor who serves more as a facilitator of learning rather than
a fount of knowledge. Likewise, the learner takes on more responsibilities such as
determining their learning goals, becoming a resource of knowledge for peers, and
actively collaborating in the learning process (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner,
2007). This shift in roles promotes individualized, differentiated, and learner-centered
types of instruction, and when accompanied with effective pedagogical practices, it
has a potential to become a powerful alternative for reforming current educational
systems and creating environments where many different individuals develop deep
understanding of important subjects (Watson & Reigeluth, 2016).

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LESSON 4:Situated Learning (J. Lave) by Richard Culatta(2020) lifted from

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/situated-learning/
Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the

activity, context and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with
most classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out
of context. Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning — learners
become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and
behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or newcomer moves from the periphery of
this community to its center, they become more active and engaged within the
culture and hence assume the role of expert or old-timer. Furthermore, situated
learning is usually unintentional rather than deliberate. These ideas are what Lave &
Wenger (1991) call the process of “legitimate peripheral participation.”
Other researchers have further developed the theory of situated
learning. Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive
apprenticeship: “Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling
students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity.
Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social
interaction and the social construction of knowledge.” Brown et al. also emphasize the
need for a new epistemology for learning — one that emphasizes active perception
over concepts and representation. Suchman (1988) explores the situated learning
framework in the context of artificial intelligence.
Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of
affordances) and Vygotsky (social learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfeld on
mathematical problem solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated
learning framework.
Application
Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition . It has been applied in

the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that focus on problem-
solving skills (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1993). McLellan (1995)
provides a collection of articles that describe various perspectives on the theory.
Example
Lave & Wenger (1991) provide an analysis of situated learning in five
different settings: Yucatec midwives, native tailors, navy quartermasters, meat cutters
and alcoholics. In all cases, there was a gradual acquisition of knowledge and skills as
novices learned from experts in the context of everyday activities.

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LESSON 4:Situated Learning (J. Lave) by Richard Culatta(2020) lifted from

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/situated-learning/
Principles
Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e., settings

and applications that would normally involve that knowledge.
Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.
LESSON 5: HOW CHILDREN THINK AND LEARN lifted from

https://www.nap.edu/read/9853/chapter/7#80
Children differ from adult learners in many ways, but there are also
surprising commonalities across learners of all ages. In this module, we will provide
some insights into children as learners. A study of young fulfils two purposes: it
illustrates the strengths and weaknesses of the learners who populate the nation’s
schools, and it offers a window into the development of learning that cannot be seen
if one considers only well-established learning patterns and expertise. In studying the
development of children, an observer gets a dynamic picture of learning unfolding
over time. A fresh understanding of infant cognition and how young children from 2
to 5 years old build on that early start also sheds new light on how to ease their
transition into formal school settings.
INFANTS’ CAPABILITIES
It was once commonly thought that infants lack ability to form complex
ideas. For much of this century, most psychologists accepted the traditional thesis
that a newborn’s mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) on which the record of
experience is gradually impressed. It was further thought that language is an obvious
prerequisite for abstract thought and that, in its absence, a baby could not have
knowledge. Since babies are born with a limited repertoire of behaviors and spend
most of their early months asleep, they certainly appear passive and unknowing. Until
recently, there was no obvious way for them to demonstrate otherwise.
But challenges to this arose. It became clear that with carefully
designed methods, one could find ways to pose rather complex questions about what
infants and young children know and can don. Armed with new methodologies,
psychologists began to accumulate a substantial body of data about the remarkable
abilities that young children possess that stands in stark contrast to the older
emphases on what they

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LESSON 5: HOW CHILDREN THINK AND LEARN lifted from

lacked. It is now known that very young children are competent, active agents of
their own.
A major move away from tabula rasa view of infant mind was taken by
the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Beginning in the 1920s, Piaget argued that the
young human mind can best be described in terms of complex cognitive structures.
From close observations of infants and careful questioning of children, he concluded
that cognitive development proceeds through certain stages, each involving radically
different cognitive schemes.
While Piaget observed that infants actually seek environmental
stimulation that promotes their intellectual development, he thought that their initial
representations of objects, space, time, casuality , and self are constructed only
gradually during the first 2 years. He concluded that the world of young infants is an
egocentric fusion of the internal and external worlds and that the development of an
accurate representation of physical reality depends on the gradual coordination of
schemes of looking, listening, and touching.
After Piaget, others studied how new borns begin to integrate sight and
sound and explore their perceptual worlds. For perceptual learning theorists, learning
was considered to proceed rapidly due to the initial availability of exploration patterns
that infants use to obtain information about the objects and events of their
perceptual worlds (Gibson, 1969). As information processing theories began to
emerge, the metaphor of mind as computer, information processor, and problem
solver came into wide usage (Newell et al., 1958) and was quickly applied to the
study of cognitive development.
Although these theories differed in important ways, they shared an
emphasis on considering children as active learners who are able to set goals, plan,
and revise. Children are seen as learners who assemble and organize material. As
such, cognitive development involves the acquisition of organized knowledge
structure including, for example, biological concepts, early number sense, and early
understanding of basic physics. In addition, cognitive development involves the
gradual acquisition of strategies for remembering, understanding, and solving
problems.
The active role of learners was also emphasized by Vygotsky (1987),
who pointed to other supports for learning. Vygotsky was deeply interested in the role
of the social environment, included tools and cultural objects, as well as people, as
agents in developing thinking. Perhaps the most powerful idea from Vygotsky to
influence developmental psychology was that of a zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky, 1978).

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LESSON 6: Understanding How Adolescence Think

Amy Standen(2007) lifted from https://www.edutopia.org/inside-teenage-brain
Teenagers also aren't very good at reading emotion on others' faces. In

addition to the obvious physical signs of adolescence, teens and 'tweens are
undergoing a major neurological overhaul, which is why that perennial teen mumble
"I don't know" may be closer to the truth than we'd realized.
What this means for teachers, says Philp, is that they must be both
patient and persistent. The point at which teenagers tend to withdraw and ask to be
left alone is exactly when it's most important to engage them.
What is the first thing teachers need to know about the brains of their teenage
students?
I think one of the things middle school teachers need to recognize is
the incapability of consistency from most kids. The kids will come in one day loving
you, and then the next day, with no warning, you are the total enemy.
For young teachers, this is really hard on their developing confidence. You're
searching for assurance that you're doing OK, but the inconsistency with which kids
treat you is really disarming. So, middle school teachers need to recognize that this is
the outward manifestation of a brain that is undergoing profound changes.
Teachers often make assumptions that their directions have gotten
through. But the disconnect is that the student often doesn't get it. His or her
interpretation is really different.
One of the standard things I talk to teachers about in my work is that
when a kid gets in trouble, the teacher will ask, "Why did you do that?" Kids will
almost always say, "I don't know," and maybe that's more accurate than we thought.
When teachers understand some of the rudiments of how the brain is changing, they
have a lot more patience with kids.
There are so many things going on with kids -- the physical and
emotional changes, sexual development, all of those things are being undertaken by
a brain that isn't capable of functioning like an adult brain. A lot of kids will look at
any time they have to be quizzed about how they feel, or their reasons for doing
something, as a demand for introspection. That's what teachers are asking for, and
parents, too. So the teenager's response is, "Leave me alone. I don't feel like thinking
about this."That sounds discouraging, as if there's nothing to do with teenagers but
sit back and wait until their brains are developed enough that they can act like
human beings.
We've made some assumptions about the teenage brain, but we're
looking at a tremendous curve here; I'm amazed at how many kids function awfully
well and do use pretty good judgment.

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And one has to look at it and ask, "OK, is that environmentally

controlled? Is it something we can instill in others?" That's the encouraging part of
this research. We're beginning to realize that, experientially, the brain is really
influenced by its environment.
At about age 12, 13, 14, the brain goes through a major pruning, much
as it did around age two or three. Many of the neurons have two choices, if you will:
They can develop into a neural network threaded together as a result of experience,
or they're pruned away.
So, in other words, if you develop a skill at a young age, you're likely to
retain that ability, whereas if you don't, that skill may be much harder to develop.Yes.
Unless teenagers put together those neural networks, they may never develop
successful relationships with academics, with skills of all sorts. So, if the kid is sitting
in front of a TV all day and not getting experiences, acquiring skills, we have a more
serious problem than anyone had realized. Probably, we've only started to realize this
in the last seven or eight years.
That suggests that we need to engage teenagers, not just let them
grow up on their own.
Often, we let them go and we don't want anything to do with them. But
what we've known for a long time is that if we let kids do their own things, they'll
first seek out adult role models, but if those are not available for them, they'll seek
out teen role models.
And this is the time when, characteristically, we've given up. Parents
don't attend middle school and high school events like they did in elementary school.
Kids want their privacy, and a lot of parents capitulate to that. And we're looking at
probably the most important developmental time for the brain.
Recently, we've seen some wonderful character-development programs,
like Developmental Assets. Those programs tend to be based on behavioral studies,
but I see, over the next few years, that those behaviorally based programs will be
fortified by research on the adolescent brain.
What does a teenage brain need in order to learn?
In order to make any progress, a child's brain has a list of priorities. At

the survival rate, kids are not learning anything. For a kid walking through South
Central Los Angeles to get to Locke High School, for instance, just getting there is a
real concern. In the big herding high schools where they have 2,500 or 3,000
students, many of their emotional needs are not being met.

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And good teachers have always known this. When you walk into a good
classroom, you see a comfortable, pleasant place, a place where people are welcome.
Once a classroom is safe and comfortable, what can teachers do to
engage their students?
When I do my workshops, one thing I try to get across is that kids can
listen only for a short time -- probably 15 minutes max, maybe 20. And you've got to
find innovative ways to change the psychological state of your learners about every
20 minutes: Get them up on their feet, change the environment using music, have
them interact with each other.
I encourage teachers with a variety of strategies. For instance, how can
you use music effectively in the class in order to make it an emotionally welcome
place? A lot of teachers use music, but the nuances of how to use it are really
important. I see more teachers saying, "I can learn to control the physiological state
of my learners much more by using music at the right time."
So, for instance, maybe you should play something calming when they come into the
classroom, like maybe classical music?
That's the perception most people have, that you should have music
playing when kids come in. But you would also want to have playlists for other kinds
of music, too. When kids come in to the class, you probably want to use music with
an upbeat to it, 80 beats per minute or something. Other times, you'd want to use
music in transition, between activities, or when you're writing in journals, maybe 50-
60 BPM.
I'm a fan of public radio, and I'm amazed at how well they can
integrate little pieces of music. So I try to encourage teachers to use emotional songs
when they're doing readings. You remember the Ken Burns documentary The Civil
War? There's a musical theme running through it, a resounding, beautiful melodic
piece. It would be a great piece of music to play in the background along with a
reading of Civil War letters.
And a lot of teachers don't realize how easy this is today. With laptops,
iTunes, and inexpensive speakers, it's easier than ever to use music in the classroom.

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LESSON 7HOW ADULT LEARNS.Deb Peterson(2019) lifted from

https://www.thoughtco.com/principles-for-the-teacher-of-adults-31638
Teaching adults often looks very different from teaching children. Adult
educators can make assumptions of their adult students that they would not make of
children because adults have had vastly different life experiences and come with their
own unique sets of background knowledge. Andragogy, or the practice of teaching
adults, studies the best methods and approaches for effective adult education.
Malcolm Knowles' Five Principles of Andragogy

Those teaching adults should understand and practice the five
principles of andragogy espoused by Malcolm Knowles, a pioneer in the study of adult
learning.
Knowles posited that adults learn best under the following circumstances:
ü Thelearning is self-directed.
ü Thelearning is experiential and utilizes background knowledge.
ü Thelearning is relevant to current roles.
ü Theinstruction is problem-centered.
ü Thestudents are motivated to learn.
By incorporating these five principles of andragogy into instruction,
adult educators and learners alike will experience greater success in the classroom.
Self-Directed Learning
One of the most important differences between teaching children and
teaching adults is the self-concept of adult learners. While young students tend to be
dependent on their teachers to guide their learning and provide opportunities for
application, adult learners are the opposite.
Adult learners are usually mature and self-confident enough to know
how they learn best, what their areas of strength and weakness are, and how to go
about learning. They don't require much help acquiring resources or developing goals
for learning because, in most cases, they have done this before and already have
reasons for being in school again. Adult educators need to grant their students plenty
of space and be there to support rather than guide.
Another benefit of self-directed learning is that students can design their studies
around their preferred learning style—visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. Visual
learners rely on pictures. They benefit from the use of graphs, diagrams, and
illustrations. They learn best when they are shown what to do or what something
looks like. Auditory learners listen carefully when they are learning and draw the
majority of new

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knowledge through their ears. Things make the most sense to them when they are
told how something should be. Tactile or kinesthetic learners need to physically
do something to understand it. By performing something for themselves through a
degree of trial and error, these learners will experience the most success.
Using Experiences as a Resource

Adult educators need to utilize each set of background knowledge in
their classroom as a resource. No matter how old your adult learners are or what type
of life they have led thus far, every one of your students will have acquired an
extensive cache of experiences that you can draw on to make the most of what
everyone brings to the table.
Rather than behaving as if the classroom should be a level playing field
and ignoring irregular stores of background knowledge, use them to enrich
instruction. Your students could be coming from vastly different walks of life. Some
will be experts in an area that your whole class could benefit from learning about or
will have experienced something very unfamiliar to the rest of your students.
The moments of authenticity and spontaneity that come from sharing
with each other will prove to be some of the most powerful. Tap into the wealth of
wisdom of your class as much as possible.
Relevance of Material
Adult students are most likely to want to learn about subjects that will
have immediate pay-offs in their life, especially as it pertains to their social roles. As
adults start to navigate marriage, parenthood, career positions, and other complex
roles, they begin to orient themselves exclusively to them.
Adults have little use for material that is not relevant to the roles they already occupy
and this is another reason for allowing students to play a part in designing their own
curriculum. For example, some of your learners will want to learn about career
advancement, but some, perhaps retirees or stay-at-home parents, will not need this
information.
The job of adult educators is to get to know students well enough to be
able to teach to their roles. Always keep in mind that your older students are there to
accomplish something and probably have busy lives. The goal of adult education is to
fit the needs of your students, who are more often than not opting to be there
because they identified an area of need for themselves—ask and listen to them about
what they want from this experience.

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Problem-Centered Instruction
Adult learners do not desire to learn about material that doesn't fit into
their lives and they do not usually want their learning to be abstract either. Adults are
practiced, knowledgeable, and flexible learners that have a lot of problems to solve.
Unlike young students, they do not usually need long to think about unfamiliar
subjects before trying a skill out for themselves because they exercise their problem-
solving skills every day and learn more each time.
Adult educators need to tailor their instruction to specific problems that their students
face rather than approaching their teaching one subject at a time. Andragogy is about
spending more time doing than learning and the quality of instruction is much more
important than topic coverage.
Motivation to Learn
“When the student is ready, the teacher appears” is a Buddhist proverb

that applies well to all areas of education. No matter how hard a teacher tries,
learning only begins once a student is ready. For most adults, returning to school
after several years can be intimidating and a certain degree of apprehension should
be expected in adult learners. Getting past the initial uneasiness of adult learners can
be a challenge.
However, many adult educators find that their students are eager to
grow their knowledge. Adults that have chosen to go back to school are probably
already motivated to learn or would not have made the choice to continue their
education. The teacher's role in these cases is simply to encourage this motivation
and help your students maintain positivity toward learning so they can move past any
discomfort they may feel about their situation.
Listen carefully for teaching moments and take advantage of them.

When a student says or does something that cues a new topic, be flexible and discuss
it, even briefly, to show your students that their interests are important.

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EVALUATION
EVALUATION
GENEREAL DIRECTION: Provide a five-sentence essay for each writing

prompts. Write your answers on the space provided.
1. How Children and Adult differ in terms of thinking and learning?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What is situated learning all about?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. How does Society and Culture affects children in the context of Language
Learning?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Why is it necessary to give assistance to learners according to Lev Vygotsky?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Direction: Read about Howard Gardner’s Multiple

Intelligences. List 10 names in a sheet of paper which are
closely related to you then identify what type of
Intelligence do each of them belong. Cite reasons for your
answer.
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REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Deb Peterson(2019). HOW ADULT LEARNS.Available:

Amy Standen(2007) Understanding How Adolescence Think.Available:

https://www.edutopia.org/inside-teenage-brain
HOW CHILDREN THINK AND LEARN.Available:

INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING by Drew Polly et.al, lifted from

Lev Vygotsky. Available:

www.timetoast.com
The Zone of Proximal Development.Available:

www.flickr.com
SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVISM VIEW OF LEARNING by Drew Polly et.al, lifted from

Richard Culatta(2020).Situated Learning (J. Lave).Available:

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/situated-learning
HOW CHILDREN THINK AND LEARN lifted from https://www.nap.edu/read/9853/chapter/7#80

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PRE-TEST
PRE-TEST
1. Which of the following best describe the factor of individual differences
in learning ?
A. Learning is influenced by interpersonal relations and communication with others
B. Learners’ creativity, higher order thinking and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn
C. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ social backgrounds are
taken into account
D. Learners’ have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning which
are the result of prior experience and heredity
2. Bernabe has the ability to work with people and help people identify and
overcome problems. He possesses_______.
A. An interpersonal intelligence
B. Musical intelligences
C. An existential intelligence
D. A naturalist intelligence
3. When a students is inclined to setting goals, assessing personal abilities
and liabilities, and monitoring one’s own thinking s/he applies_________.
A. Spatial intelligence
B. Musical intelligence
C. Intrapersonal intelligence
D. Verbal-linguistic intelligence
4. With the hands to fix or create and use the body expressively a student
is inclined to have_____.
A. Musical intelligence
B. Bodily-Kineasthetic intelligence
C. Existential intelligence
D. Naturalist intelligence
5. If a learner is good in presenting his ideas visually, in creating mental
images, in drawing and sketching, what type of intelligence does he
possess?
A. Logical-mathematical intelligence B. Interpersonal intelligence
C. Spatial intelligence D. Spatial intelligence
6. Albert is observed sensitive to sounds, can manage structures and styles
of language and has the ability to speak and write effectively. What type of
intelligence is manifested?
A. Intrapersonal intelligence C. Naturalist intelligence
B. Verbal-linguistic intelligence D. Bodily-Kineasthetic intelligence
D. Naturalist intelligence
CHAPTER 3 _______________________________STUDENT DIVERSITY 33

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MODULE 3
Student Diversity
“Every student can learn, just not on the same day, or not on the same way.”
- George Evans
LESSON OUTCOMES

• Show understanding about Individual Differences and the concepts behind it
• Discuss the three domains of individual differences
• List the factors affecting individual differences
• Formulate your own pedagogy in managing learners coming from diverse
background
• Tackle the different aspects of Student Diversity
CCONTENT
I. Direction: Use the Venn Diagram below to tackle individual differences between you and
your Best Friend. Indicate names at the top of each circle

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LESSON 1 : INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
Age,race, ethno-linguistic background, socio-economic status, religion,
sexual orientation and even Intellectual Quotient can be diverse to every student.
Student diversity refers to the differences that every learners possesses in every life’s
facet . Diversity in classroom poses challenge in teacher’s skill in classroom
management. As student diversity becomes prominent, a demand for a curriculum
which promotes sensitivity and embraces individual differences also escalates. This
Chapter helps every educator to maximize their potentials in handling learners with
differentiated background and abilities. Understanding the why’s and how’s of
students’ diversity creates a welcoming and positive environment which helps reaching
Educational Success.
THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Drever James defined Individual Differences as
“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or
physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual
differences.” While Good, C.V. “The variation or deviations among individual is regard
to a single characteristics or a number of characteristics, those differences which in
their totality distinguish one individual from another.”On the other hand,Skinner, C.E.
sees individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.
HOW DIVERSITY AFFECTS THE CLASSROOM
lifted from https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/graduate-students/resources-graduate-
student-teachers/diversity-classroom
Much discussion about diversity focuses on the following forms of
marginalization: race, class, gender, and sexual orientation — and rightfully so, given
the importance of these forms of difference. In fact, students come to the university
classroom with different backgrounds, sets of experiences, cultural contexts, and
world views.
Additionally, issues of diversity play a role in how students and teachers
view the importance of the classroom and what should happen there. For example,
assumptions about what a typical student should know, the resources they have and
their prior knowledge are extremely important.
Students may perceive that they do not “belong” in the classroom setting — a feeling
that can lead to decreased participation, feelings of inadequacy, and other
distractions. Teachers may make flawed assumptions of students’ capabilities or
assume a uniform standard of student performance. Teachers may themselves feel out
of place based on their own ascriptive traits (i.e. differences based on class, privilege,
etc.).
Identifying and thinking through notions of difference and how they affect the
classroom allow both students and teachers to see the classroom as an inclusive
place.

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ImageCourtesy:https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/styles/page_header_media_large/public/1
02017/iStock_000024577847_Double.jpg?itok=8KR5kMBN&timestamp=1508250294
THREE DOMAINS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

lifted from https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/difference/5-main-causes-of-
individual-differences/6027
Intellectual Differences
Arguably, no area of psychological study has been more closely
scrutinized than the science of mental abilities. Since its beginnings in the late 19th
century, the scientific study of intellectual differences has amassed a wealth of
empirical data that unarguably supports two conclusions. First, what people typically
think of as “intelligence” is best described by a hierarchal model with numerous
specific abilities occupying the lower levels, a small number of group factors at an
intermediate level, and a single general cognitive ability factor, referred to as “g,” at
the top. That is, although specific mental abilities (e.g., verbal ability, quantitative
ability, visual-spatial ability, short-term
memory) can be identified, people who are high (or low) on any individual
specific ability tend to be relatively high (or low) on the others. Second, although the
assessment of intra-individual differences in specific abilities may be especially useful
in personnel classification, and academic and career counseling, it is the g factor
that accounts for most of the variance in important academic, occupational, and
social outcomes attributable to mental abilities. The g factor is formally defined as
the “eduction of relations and correlations,” that is, the ability to infer or deduce
meaningful principles and concepts from abstractness and novel situations.
Unfortunately, a number of misconceptions continue to plague the

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interpretation of this research. For example, although the popular media (and an
occasional scientist) use the term “IQ” as a synonym for intelligence or cognitive
ability, it is important to recognize that IQ is a score from a specific test, not a
characteristic of a person. Just as the number associated with a given temperature
will change if one switches from a Celsius thermometer to a Fahrenheit
thermometer, a person’s IQ score may change if assessed with two different IQ
tests. Nothing has changed about the person, but rather the scale used to generate
the number has changed. IQ scores do tend be very useful, though, because they
tend to reflect g to a large extent, as well as other factors. A similar
misunderstanding arises from how IQ tests are scored. Individual differences in IQ
tend to be stable across a person’s development because IQ tests are age-normed
(i.e., scored relative to the typical level of development for that age group).
Obviously, a person’s actual intellectual capabilities change over time; however, IQ
tests are usually not designed to show this within-person development, but rather to
assess the relative level of developed cognitive characteristics for a given stage of
development. This is why IQ scores tend to appear stable despite notable changes in
the population mean level of actual capacities across time. Another misconception is
that, because the nature of human mental abilities is known and can be reliably
measured, the source of individual differences in them is well-understood. This is not
the case. Rather, an enormous amount remains to be understood about the nature
of mental abilities, their development across the life span, and the specific genetic,
biological, and environmental factors that either hinder or spur their development.
Personality Differences
Personality is of interest to numerous disciplines, including the science
of individual differences, which has given rise to a variety of theories. Despite their
dissimilarities, most theories typically view personality as dispositional tendencies, or
“a prepardedness,” to exhibit certain behavioral reactions to certain environmental
affordances and demands. Within the individual difference tradition, most research
has followed the “lexical approach” suggested by Galton. This approach assumes
that important dimensions of human behavioral tendencies will be encoded in
natural language. Using this approach to identify personality characteristics has led
to a model of personality commonly referred to as the Big Five. The exact labels
used to describe the dimensions have varied, but generally include (1) extraversion
(includes surgency and positive emotionality factors), (2) neuroticism (includes
anxiety and negative emotionality factors); (3) agreeableness, (4) conscientiousness,
and (5) openness to experience. Though there is not a consensus regarding the
appropriateness of this model, it is arguably the dominant model in individual

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difference research, and alternative models tend to be variations with two or more of
the factors combined into broader factors or, alternatively, split into more narrow
factors.
The use of personality tests for applied practices such as employee
selection has had a long and rather tumultuous history. After a period of widespread
use beginning in the early1900s,industrial psychology
placed a virtual moratorium on personality testing in the mid-1960s, primarily as
a result of a failure to identify a clear pattern of criterion-related validity evidence.
Applied personality testing was given new life in the mid-1980s, fueled by the
emergence of the Big Five model and subsequent meta-analytic findings of
meaningful, though moderate, criterion-related validities for some of these
personality dimensions.
Conative Differences
The importance of conative factors (or volition; e.g., interests and
motives) is found in virtually all theories of the determinants of purposeful behavior.
For example, John Campbell noted that one of the three major determinants of work
performance, in addition to declarative knowledge and procedural skills, was
motivation. Similarly, Richard Snow has long held that conative (as well as affective)
factors are a critical component in the development of aptitudes, a contention
supported by substantial research showing that interests, for example, are related to
the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge and academic achievement. Likewise,
vocational psychologists have long studied differences in interests to forecast
vocational adjustment. For example, a widely used model of interest types
developed by John Holland, known as the RIASEC model (which is an acronym
based on names of the six interest types), has proven an effective framework for
studying the impact of person environment fit on developmental, educational, and
occupational outcomes.
Some individual difference scholars have begun using the term
“affcon” to refer to this third domain,
making salient the potential importance of affect (e.g., emotion, mood, and
temperament) in conation. However, some researchers argue that so-called “affcon”
factors, or at least the affective component, are actually part of personality. For
example, some temperament theorists are emphasizing the role of early appearing
differences in temperament as the basis for the development of the Big Five traits.
Likewise, some personality researchers have shown evidence for trait-based
motivational differences. Although such debate may initially seem to reflect
confusion, it also appears to demonstrate the increasing effort to study the
development of individual differences as constellations, rather than independent
domains.

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LESSON 2 : FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Source :https://hisdearlychildhood.wordpress.com/snapshot-of-a-kindergarten-student/
Some factors which are identified as Spring Of Individual Differences are as

follows:
1. Race
Puja Mondal claimed in his article “Five Main Cause of Individual
Differences” that although there may be some difference in behaviour among
different races, there is little scientific evidence that favours the theory of native
differences in mental traits. Therefore, it is only just to see a race of equal footing
with the others. Teachers must ensure that innate capabilities will not define learners’
worth inside the classroom. Also, making sure that racial stigma and stereotypes will
not degrade an individual while learning opportunities must be made accessible
irrespective of racial differences.
2.Sexual Orientation lifted from https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/difference/5-
main-causes-of-individual-differences/6027
The general results of all studies made point to the fact that the
differences between sexes are quite insignificant. In detail, the exact measurements
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intellectual abilities show a relatively slight superiority of the women in receptivity of

memory, and relatively slight superiority of men in control of movement and in grasp
of concrete mechanical situation.
Investigations also show an apparent superiority of girls in language
and a somewhat better showing of boys in logical processes. In interests, which
cannot be definitely measured, the difference would seem to be that women are
more interested in people while men are more interested in things.
Difference in instinctive equipment is shown by the fact that women
excel in the nursing impulses and men in the fighting impulses. As to physical
equipment, men are much taller, stronger, and bigger than women. However, girls
grow more rapidly than boys, especially before adolescence. The girls reach
physiological maturity earlier.
McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between
men and women, on the basis of some studies:
Courtesy of : https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/psychology/individual-
differences-psychology/individual-differences-types-causes-and-role-psychology/2557
• Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
• Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and
logic.
• Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and
smell etc., while men show greater reaction and conscious of size- weight
illusion.
• Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics
and chemistry.
• Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men
were found to be three times of such faults in women.
• Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as
many colour blind men as there are women.
• Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school
and home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the
other hand boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting,
stories of games and sports, stories and games of occupation and skill.
3.Socio-Economic Status
People who are into child development have always been interested in
socio-economic status as one of the known causative of Individual differences.

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According to Brooks-Gun & Duncan(1997) as cited by Bradley and
Corwyn(2002) this interest derives from a belief that high SES (Socio-Economic
Status) families afford their children an array of services, goods, parental actions and
social connections that potentially redound to the benefit of children and a concern
that many SES family lack access to those same resources and experiences, thus
putting them at risk for developmental
problems. The interest in SES as a global construct persists despite evidence that
there is a wide variability of what children experience of every SES level, despite
evidence that there is a link between SES and child well-being varies as a function of
geography, culture, and recency of immigration and despite evidence that the relation
between SES and child well-being can be disrupted by catastrophes and internal
strife(Bradly and Corwyn 1999, Wachs 2000).
Considerable amount of evidences made us arrive at a conclusion that
SES affects individual’s cognitive ability. Bradly and Corwyn(2002) claimed that
numerous studies have documented that poverty and low parental education are
associated with lower levels of school achievement and IQ later in childhood.
Research reveals that children belonging to the so-called higher social classes tend to
have higher intelligence than those of the lower classes.
LESSON 3 : BENEFITS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
We are in a society which has diversity has played a pivotal role in

every institution’s success. Segregated public schools have been ruled
unconstitutional, and now, we live in a world where integration and diversity should
be a hallmark of the school system (Lee,2018). She added that as borders come
crashing down, societies and the global economy are becoming characterized by
differences. This pushed various units(family, school and even our government) in our
society to increase awareness about diversity and perhaps make diffrences of every
individual as a building foundation of a better society. Geraldine Lee(2018) cited some
of the benefits of Individual Differences and these are as follows:
1. It fosters better collaboration. Lee(2018) stated that diverse classrooms

prepare students for careers in job markets with less and less concern for national or
community boundaries. Learners were able to socialize to other students bearing
different culture and background which makes classroom as a practice ground in
dealing with other people later in life. Furthermore, Lee(2018) claimed that
Creativity, critical thinking and problem-solving are all fostered in integrated
classroom settings. Being among people who are different also helps students
confront and combat stereotypes, understanding the complexities that are found in
the human race. She added that putting children in isolation leaves

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LESSON 3 : BENEFITS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
them no choice but to develop prejudices and and discrimination.

2. Academic Achievement. As Brown v. Board of Education held cited by
Lee(2018), separate schools for black and white students are inherently unequal, the
Coleman Report suggests that socioeconomic school integration could increase
academic achievement even more. Numerous study shows that diversity inside the
classroom is indeed beneficial to every learners. Patrick Kelly, a teacher at
Blythewood High School in South Carolina, has said that “both research and my
experience show the link between quality and diversity in schools”.Geraldine
Lee(2018)
3. Creativity and Confidence. According to Lee(2018)Contrary to feelings of
danger or discomfort, a study in the journal “Child Development” has illustrated that
students feel safer in life and school when they are educated in a diverse
environment. These positive feeling developed in diverse environment results to
children developing confidence and helps them to generate ideas easily.
LESSON 4 : TEACHER’S STRATEGIES IN HANDLING INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES
Below are Some Tips In Promoting Individual Differences

lifted from https://www.nde-ed.org/TeachingResources/ClassroomTips/Diversity.htm
1. Take the time to learn about your students' background, interests, and learning
style.
This will allow you to create an environment that is conducive to each
individual student.
2. Allow time for the students to learn about each other and gain an appreciation for
the diversity they bring to the classroom.
Remind them how boring it would be if we were all alike and there were no
differences among us to make each person unique.
Teach students that everyone has strengths and weaknesses. When working in
teams encourage students to take advantage of the strengths of the team
members in order to produce the best possible results.
3. Bring in different people to the class as resources that students might be able to
connect with.
Search out people that are different from yourself and that might share certain
qualities with your students.
Students need role models. Many times when they see they are connected in
some way to a person they will be more apt to listen and learn from them.

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LESSON 4 : TEACHER’S STRATEGIES IN HANDLING INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES
4. Never tolerate bullying, teasing, and other put-down behavior at any time in the
classroom.
Implement a "zero tolerance" for anything that is disrespectful, hurtful, or
intolerant of diversity.
LESSON 5: LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES

liftedfrom:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationalpsychology/chapter/individu
al-styles-of-learning-and-thinking/
INDIVIDUAL LEARNING
All of us, including our students, have preferred ways of learning.

Teachers often refer to these differences as learning styles, though this term may
imply that students are more consistent across situations than is really the case. One
student may like to make diagrams to help remember a reading assignment, whereas
another student may prefer to write a sketchy outline instead. Yet in many cases, the
students could in principle reverse the strategies and still learn the material: if coaxed
(or perhaps required), the diagram-maker could take notes for a change and the
note-taker could draw diagrams. Both would still learn, though neither might feel as
comfortable as when using the strategies that they prefer. This reality suggests that a
balanced, middle-of-the-road approach may be a teacher’s best response to students’
learning styles. Or put another way, it is good to support students’ preferred learning
strategies where possible and appropriate, but neither necessary nor desirable to do
so all of the time (Loo, 2004; Stahl, 2002). Most of all, it is neither necessary nor
possible to classify or label students according to seemingly fixed learning styles and
then allow them to learn only according to those styles. A student may prefer to hear
new material rather than see it; he may prefer for you to explain something orally, for
example, rather than to see it demonstrated in a video. But he may nonetheless
tolerate or sometimes even prefer to see it demonstrated. In the long run, in fact, he
may learn it best by encountering the material in both ways, regardless of his
habitual preferences.
UNDERSTANDING VARK
lifted from https://teach.com/what/teachers-know/learning-styles/
One of the most accepted understandings of learning styles is that

student learning styles fall into three categories: Visual Learners, Auditory Learners
and Kinesthetic Learners. These learning styles are found within educational theorist
Neil Fleming’s VARK model of Student Learning.

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VARK is an acronym that refers to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory,
Reading/Writing Preference, and Kinesthetic. (The VARK model is also referred to as
the VAK model, eliminating Reading/Writing as a category of preferential learning).
The VARK model acknowledges that students have different approaches to how they
process information, referred to as “preferred learning modes”. The main ideas of
VARK are outlined in Learning Styles Again: VARKing up the right tree!( Fleming &
Baume,2006).
¥ Students’ preferred learning modes have significant influence on their behaviour

and learning.
¥ Students’ preferred learning modes should matched with appropriate learning
strategies.
¥ Information that is accesses through students’ use of their modality preferences
shows an increase in their levels of comprehension, motivation, and
metacognition.
Identifying your students as visual, auditory, reading/ writing or

kinesthetic learners, and aligning your overall curriculum with these learning styles,
will prove to be beneficial for your entire classroom. Allowing students to access
information in terms they are comfortable with will increase their academic
confidence.
Source: https://teach.com/what/teachers-know/learning-styles/

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By understanding what kind of learner you and/or your students are,

you can now gain a better perspective on how to implement these learning styles into
your lesson plans and study techniques.
THINKING STYLES
According to Taylor Bennett(2019),here are the five(5) recognized thinking styles:
Source: https://thriveworks.com/blog/what-are-the-five-thinking-styles/
There are five recognized thinking styles: those who employ them are
called synthesists, idealists, pragmatists, analysts, and realists.
Synthesists stand out with their creativity and curiosity; they like to consider different
ideas, views, and possibilities.
Idealists are always setting and working toward big goals—they set the bar high and
expect others to do the same.
Pragmatists take a logical approach to problem-solving; they focus on
immediate results, as opposed the long-term effects.
Analysts are interested in the facts and data points—they have a clear procedure for
doing all things.
Realists are the perfect problem-solvers; tackle problems head-on and don’t feel
challenged by your everyday conundrum.
We employ different ways of thinking—some of us take a creative

approach, while others are more analytic; some are focused on the short-term, while
others think about the long-term. While we all have unique minds, our tendencies
have been summed up
into five recognized thinking styles: synthesists, or the creative thinkers; idealists, or
the goal-setters; pragmatists, or the logical thinkers; analysts, or the rational
intellectuals; and finally, realists, or the perfect problem-solvers. Which group of
thinkers do you belong to?
Synthesists: The creative thinkers

Synthesists are largely defined by their creative and curious nature.
Instead of leading with logic, they love to explore more abstract ideas. They ask,
“what if?” and consider a range of views and possibilities. Some perceive synthesists
as being argumentative, as they’re quick to bring attention to opposing views—but
these creative thinkers can prevent this perception by first acknowledging others’
ideas before presenting alternatives.

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Idealists: The goal-setters

Idealists set high standards and are always working toward larger-than-life goals.
While others might perceive them as perfectionists, in their minds, they’re simply
putting their best foot forward. These individuals are future-oriented, they value
teamwork, and they expect everyone to work hard. However, it’s important for
idealists to realize that others have their own standards and expectations—of which
might not match up with the idealist’s standards and expectations.
Pragmatists: The logical thinkers
Pragmatists don’t waste any time—they take action. They tackle problems logically,
step-by step. They’re focused on getting things done, but they aren’t interested in
understanding the big picture like idealists are. Rather than considering what’s best in
the long-term, they think short-term. While pragmatists get things done, they can
benefit from taking a step back and reflecting on big ideas.
Analysts: The rational intellectuals
Analysts work methodically. They gather all of the facts and data, measuring and
categorizing along the way. Their personality is rooted in being thorough, accurate,
and rational; analysts are always looking for a formula or outlined procedure for
solving problems. These individuals tend to discount other ideas, but should open
their minds, as other ideas offer unique value.
Realists: The perfect problem-solvers
Realists are quick on their feet, and they do whatever it takes to solve the problem at
hand. That said, realists bore easily—they don’t feel challenged by everyday problems
or stressors as most do. Yet, they want to be challenged. Realists can benefit, like
pragmatists, from taking a step back and looking at a problem from different angles.
They should take a little more time to gather all of the information that is available to
them and find the best solution (which isn’t always the first solution) before acting.
LESSON 6 : MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences as cited by Vital(2014):
lifted from https://blog.adioma.com/9-types-of-intelligence-infographic/
That is what school beat into us by putting certain types of intelligence

on a pedestal and ignoring other types. If you are not good at math or language, you
might still be gifted at other things but it was not called “intelligence”. Why?
In 1983 an American developmental psychologist Howard Gardener described 9 types
of intelligence:
1. Naturalist (nature smart)

2. Musical (sound smart)

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3. Logical-mathematical (number/reasoning smart)

4. Existential (life smart)
5. Interpersonal (people smart)
6. Bodily-kinesthetic (body smart)
7. Linguistic (word smart)
8. Intra-personal (self-smart)
9. Spatial (picture smart)
What other scientists thought were just soft-skills, such as interpersonal
skills, Gardener realized were types of intelligence. It makes sense. Just as being a
math whiz gives you the ability to understand the world, so does being “people
smart” give you the same ability, just from a different perspective. Not knowing math
you may not calculate the rate at which the universe is expanding, but you are likely
to have the skills to find the right person who will.
Source: https://blog.adioma.com/9-types-of-intelligence-infographic/

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The 9 Types of Intelligence by Howard Gardner lifted from

https://blog.adioma.com/9-types-of-intelligence-infographic/
Here is an overview of the multiple intelligences theory, summarized by ASCD:
Naturalist IntelligenceNaturalist intelligence designates the human

ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to
other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was
clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it
continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that
much of our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be
mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like.
MusicalIntelligenceMusical intelligence is the capacity to discern
pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone. This intelligence enables us to recognize, create,
reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers, conductors,
musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there is often an affective
connection between music and the emotions; and mathematical and musical
intelligences may share common thinking processes. Young adults with this kind of
intelligence are usually singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite
aware of sounds others may miss.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Logical-mathematical
intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses,
and carry out complete mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive
relationships and connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential
reasoning skills; and inductive and deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is
usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives. Young adults
with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories, and
relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and
experiments.
ExistentialIntelligenceSensitivity and capacity to tackle deep
questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die, and how
did we get here.
InterpersonalIntelligence Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to
understand and interact effectively with others. It involves effective verbal and
nonverbal communication, the ability to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to
the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple
perspectives. Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians all exhibit interpersonal

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intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers,
are good at communicating, and seem to understand others’ feelings and motives.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence.Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the
capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical skills. This intelligence
also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through mind–body union.
Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and crafts people exhibit well-developed bodily
kinesthetic intelligence.
Linguistic Intelligence.Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in
words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic
intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to apply
meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic intelligence is the
most widely shared human competence and is evident in poets, novelists, journalists,
and effective public speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence enjoy
writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
Intra-personal Intelligence.Intra-personal intelligence is the
capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts and feelings, and to use such
knowledge in planning and directioning one’s life. Intra-personal intelligence involves
not only an appreciation of the self, but also of the human condition. It is evident in
psychologist, spiritual leaders, and philosophers. These young adults may be shy.
They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated.
Spatial IntelligenceSpatial intelligence is the ability to think in three
dimensions. Core capacities include mental imagery, spatial reasoning, image
manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots,
sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young adults with
this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend
free time drawing or daydreaming.
Even 20 years after Gardner’s book came out, there is still a debate
whether talents other than math and language are indeed types of intelligence or just
skills. What do you think?
Challenging a millenia-old notion that intelligence is a single kind of

human capacity does not necessarily win one friends among the intelligent. Gardner’s
book is still controversial. If you find it describes exactly what you have suspected to
be true since you first went to school, it still isn’t an easy pill to

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to swallow. This book questions what we consider a good education, what we
consider talent, and how much control one has to acquire them. The insights are
there as long as you are willing to follow Gardner’s scholarly style – he admits he
writes for fellow psychologists.
If you prefer a more entertaining but no less profound style, read Ken Robinson’s The
Element. Just as upbeat as his famously animated talk at Ted, the book starts with
exploring what went wrong or rather what was so right about your childhood self,
what school did to it and why, and how now it’s not too late to rediscover your talents
and intelligences.
LESSON 7 : LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES lifted from

https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/exceptional-children
About 6.5 million children are identified as exceptional in our
educational system. Learning disabilities are the most prevalent exceptional condition,
and affect up to 10 per cent of the population.This was not always the case, and
through most of history those with learning disability were either not specifically
identified or wrongly considered to be lazy or of low intelligence. German internist
Adolph Kussmaul is memorialized in 6 medical eponyms and introduced endoscopy,
gastric lavage and thoracentesis; his contribution to neuropsychiatry came in 1877
with the recognition of “word blindness”, an inability to learn to read despite intact
vision and speech and normal intellect.Ten years later, Rudolf Berlin observed
individuals unable to read because they could not decipher written or printed
symbols, and termed this “dyslexia”. Hinshelwood and Morgan in Britain and W.E.
Bruner in the United States studied children with apparent congenital inability to learn
to read between 1895 and 1905. Samuel Orton began the systematic study of
learning disability at the University of Iowa in 1919, and first postulated that reading
disability arose because the appropriate cerebral organization to connect the spoken
and visual forms of words had not been established. The term “learning disability”
was introduced by Samuel Kirk in 1963. Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Functional
MRI studies after 1996 have established that learning disabilities are associated with
thalamocortical and arcuate fasciculus volume loss (Anand, 2006), and at least 9
candidate genes on the X chromosome and one specific mutation on chromosome 6
have been associated with learning disability (Kovas & Plomin, 2007).
Children with learning disabilities represent 46 per cent of students

receiving special educational assistance. Learning disability is characterized by
difficulty learning despite intelligence at or above normal levels, and is manifested in
the classroom by a discrepancy between measured intelligence and documented
achievement. Language, reading and writing, mathematical learning or information
processing may be individually affected or involved in

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LESSON 7 : LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

intelligence at or above normal levels, and is manifested in the classroom by a
discrepancy between measured intelligence and documented achievement. Language,
reading and writing, mathematical learning or information processing may be
individually affected or involved in combinations, and the causes are multiple and
both familial and environmental; inherited learning deficiency, prematurity and birth
injury and toxic exposure are the chief causes (Sonoma State University, 2014).
Communication Disorders
The diagnosis and treatment of disorders of communication grew from

the discipline of speech and language pathology, which in turn arose from elocution
and “speech correction” in the 19th century. Alexander Melville Bell and his son, the
better-known Alexander Graham Bell, were practitioners of speech correction and
teachers of elocution who developed in the 1870s a symbolic code that indicated the
position of the tongue, throat and lips in the production of speech sounds. This
“visible speech” became the basis for a technique of teaching speech to those who
had difficulty forming the proper sound . The younger Bell’s interest in a means of
transmitting speech for diagnostic and teaching purposes led him to invent the
telephone. Two organizations developed to study and treat speech disorders: one
consisted of speech correctionists who were or had been schoolteachers, and became
the National Society for the Study and Correction of Speech Disorders in 1918, while
another group more closely affiliated with the medical profession started in 1925 and
became the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Samuel Orton was
active in this field as well, and suggested in the 1920s, along with Lee Edward Travis,
that speech disorders generally and stuttering in particular were analogous to
dyslexia, and resulted from failure to establish cerebral hemispheric dominance. This
theory was extended but never conclusively proven by Wendell Johnson and Charles
van Riper in the 1930s, and the latter suggested in 1939 that the social implications
of communication were as important as the linguistic ones, which led in turn to the
development of psycholinguistics by George Miller and others, which was one of the
foundations of cognitive psychology (Prutting, 1982).
Communication disorders account for about 18 per cent of the

educational services received by children. These can involve expressive language,
language comprehension, the physical production of speech or social communication,
the interpretation of and appropriate response to verbal and nonverbal language in
social contexts.

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Mental Retardation
Intellectual disability or mental retardation is one of the most common

disabilities, and has been recognized for longer than the other forms of modern
exceptionality. Intellectual subnormality was discussed in an Egyptian papyrus from
about 1552 BCE. The Greeks generally regarded mental retardation as a sign of the
gods’ displeasure and advocated infanticide: exposure was mandatory in Sparta,
where children belonged to the state and not the parents, but Plato and Aristotle
urged that the practice be adopted in Athens as well, in the interest of what would
later be called eugenics. Hippocrates felt around 370 BCE that the behavioral
abnormalities and seizures that often attended retardation were due to brain disease
rather than supernatural causes, but it was not until the 1st century BCE that Soranus
of Ephesus founded a hospital for mental disorders where the retarded were also
housed. The Romans often allowed brain-injured children to die of exposure, but the
retarded children of the wealthy had property rights and were generally entrusted to
guardians (Harris, 2006). In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, church and public
institutions cared for the developmentally handicapped, and they were often allowed
to speak more freely than others and sometimes felt capable of divine inspiration
(Beirne-Smith, Patton & Kim, 2006).
The first special education for intellectual disability was attempted in

1799 by Jean-Marc Itard, who undertook the training of Victor the Wild Boy, a
probably retarded feral child; an earlier Wild Boy named Peter had been found in
Germany and brought to the court of George I in London, but he was a source of
amusement and was not trained. Victor acquired only a few words of language but
learned social rudiments and lived equably with a family until his death in 1828.
Inspired by this case, Edouard Seguin established an educational program at the
Hôpital Salpetrière, where developmentally handicapped women were housed along
with the insane, and there introduced concepts such as individualized instruction
plans and behavior modification that are in use today. Seguin continued these efforts
in America and in 1856 published an influential book, Idiocy and its Treatments by
Physiological Methods. A similar institution, Abendberg, was established in
Switzerland by Johann Guggenbühl, but this ended badly because the institution was
not sufficiently staffed or supervised.

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Dorothea Dix, Hervey Wilbur and Samuel Gridley Howe established

institutions for rehabilitation and training of the retarded, first in Massachusetts and
then in other states, but disillusionment set in when retarded residents could be
taught simple skills but could not achieve normality.As it became clear that “idiocy”
could not be “treated” in the medical sense, many institutions became custodial and
conditions deteriorated because of insufficient staffing or funding. In addition, the
increasing and often inappropriate use of IQ testing led to the identification of large
numbers of people, particularly immigrants, as mentally deficient. The growing
concern that “feeblemindedness” was inherited and associated with crime, violence
and other social pathologies, and widespread interest in eugenic limitation of
breeding by the unfit, led to an increasing focus on institutionalization and
sterilization of the mentally subnormal in the United States and even more markedly
in Europe (Bachrach, 2004).
Multiple etiologies for mental retardation rather than a unitary

hereditary disorder were established by studies in the 1920s and 1930s, and Abraham
Myerson established through extensive family studies at the Boston and Taunton
State Hospitals that “feeblemindedness” was not more common among the lower
classes and the hereditary component to intellectual disability was minor. Special
educational arrangements for children with intellectual disability was introduced in
Rhode Island in 1896 and New Jersey in 1911, and were available in 46 of 48 states
by mid-century, when the National Association of Parents and Friends of Mentally
Retarded Children, now known as the Arc, was founded. The subsequent half-century
has brought a focus on deinstitutionalization, habilitation in society, elucidation of
prenatal and perinatal causes for developmental disability and better medical and
psychological management of associated symptoms (Beadle-Brown, Mansell & Kozma,
2007).
Children with intellectual disability currently make up about 10 per cent

of service recipients, equally divided between genetic, environmental and obscure
causes. The pejorative classifications such as idiot, imbecile and moron have been
replaced by mild (85 per cent of the identified population, IQ 50-70), moderate (10
per cent, IQ 35-55), severe (3-4 per cent, IQ 20-40) and profound (1-2 per cent, IQ
below 20) mental retardation. An etiology, usually acquired, can be established in 60
to 75 per cent of severe MR cases but in only 40 to 50 per cent of mild retardation; a
genetic basis is evident in 25 to 50 per cent, mainly hereditary syndromes of which
mental retardation

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is but one feature. Inherited nonspecific or monosyndromal mental retardation has

been linked to several mutations, mostly on the X chromosome (Inlow & Restifo,
2004).
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) was recognized in

ancient times, and may first have been described not by a neurologist or psychiatrist,
but by a playwright – Molière depicted a disorganized and inattentive “scatterbrain”
(ètourdi) on the stage in 1653. Melchior Adam Weikart in 1775 and Sir Alexander
Crichton in 1798 provided the first clinical observations of attention deficit , and
Heinrich Hoffmann associated this with motor restlessness in the 1840s. Sir Charles
Still in 1902 added the concepts of impulsivity and low frustration tolerance, and
noted the marked male predominance that is still seen, although many of his patients
had other behavior and neurological problems and may have been examples of the
minimal brain damage or dysfunction that has often been conflated with ADHD. One
of the first institutions for exceptional children, Bradley Hospital in Rhode Island, was
the site of trials of stimulants for ADHD, which has led both to improvement of the
educational and social situations of those with ADHD and concern about the
escalating rate of diagnosis and drug treatment (Lange, Reichl, Lange, Tucha, Lara &
Tucha, 2010).
ADHD currently affects about 3.5 per cent of the population, with a
male preponderance of 6:1. Contributing factors include genetics, prenatal toxic
exposure, single-parent upbringing, a chaotic home environment and insufficient
social support. The diagnosis in children is based on at least 6 months of inattentive,
hyperactive or impulsive behavior in several different settings. The childhood
syndrome is generally responsive to medical and psychoeducational treatment, but it
is now clear that the disorder does not remit but continues into adulthood with often
different manifestations.
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
The study and treatment of emotional and behavioral disorders in

children is a relatively new discipline. The psychiatric nosologies and taxonomies of
the 19th century were focused on adults, and the disorders of children were generally
the purview of pediatricians. The first school for children with psychiatric problems
was founded near Jena in 1892, and the first text on child psychiatry was published in
France in 1899. The first child psychiatry journal

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(Zeitschrift für Kinderpsychiatrie) was established in 1934. The first child guidance
clinic, the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute, was founded in Chicago by Jane Addams in
1909, and Leo Kanner, later of autism fame, established the first academic Child
Psychiatry department at Johns Hopkins in 1930. The separate treatment of
childhood mental disorders in Britain began at the Maudsley Hospital in 1923. A
specialty organization, the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, now Adolescent
also, was founded in 1953 and board certification was started in 1959 (Kanner, 1960).
Children with these psychiatric conditions are only 1 or 2 per cent of

the special education population. They manifest external (misconduct and defiance)
or internal (anxiety and depression) symptoms, and may have both. Temperament,
family history of psychiatric disorder and neurologic disorders or deficits are biological
contributing factors. Adaptive or maladaptive parenting strategies, school situations
and peer group influences are predominant environmental factors.
Autistic Spectrum
Autism was first described in 1908, but has been alleged in many
historical figures. Michelangelo, Sir Isaac Newton, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Charles
Darwin, Nikola Tesla and a host of famous and near-famous moderns have been
thought to be autistic. Martin Luther told of a parishioner with behavioral
abnormalities consistent with autism, whom Luther felt to be possessed and should
be put to death. A 1747 court case in Scotland involved autistic behaviors, with the
marriage of Hugh Blair of Borgue being annulled and his inheritance redistributed to
his brothers. Some commentators have suggested that Peter and Victor, the wild boys
discussed earlier, may have been autistic rather than retarded.
Bleuler first used the term “autistic psychopaths” in 1908 for the self-absorbed
aloofness characteristic of many schizophrenic patients. Leo Kanner applied the name
“infantile autism” in 1943 to children with “a powerful desire for aloneness and
sameness”. In the following year, Hans Asperger described as “autistic” children with
odd use of language, physical clumsiness, limited empathy with peers and poor
nonverbal language skills, a syndrome which was named for him after his death in
1980. A third “autistic” disorder, with severe regression of language skills and
interaction, had been described by Theodor Heller in 1908, and Andreas Rett reported
in 1966 on a predominantly female disorder with autistic-like behavior, seizures,
dysmorphism and developmental regression that was for a time placed in the autistic
spectrum.

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Kanner observed that the parents of his patients were often reserved
and the children’s upbringing cold, although he considered the disorder to be innate.
The refrigeration analogy was continued by Bruno Bettelheim, who in the 1950s
ascribed the disorder to the harmful parenting of “refrigerator mothers”. This theory
was strongly attacked by Bernard Rimlin, himself the parent of an autistic child, in
1964, and was largely discredited after Bettelheim’s death. A proposed relationship
between autism and vaccination has also been shown to be unsubstantiated and in
fact fabricated. The current consensus is that autism and related disorders are
organic in origin and involve several co-occurring abnormalities of neuronal migration,
synapse formation and brain growth, that are probably under the control of several
different genes and may be influenced by a number of external factors. Controlled
trials have shown that atypical antipsychotics are helpful for the behavioral
aberrations of autism, and the internet has permitted many autistic individuals to
work, study and interact with greater ease (Volkmar, 2007). Rett syndrome has been
found to have a specific causative gene mutation and is not related to autism. The 3
autistic disorders (infantile, Asperger’s and disintegrative) and pervasive
developmental disorder (not otherwise specified), which has in fact been the most
common diagnosis, have been combined into a single autistic spectrum disorder in
the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
About 1 in 110 children are currently diagnosed with an autistic

spectrum disorder. The chief symptoms involve behavior (repetitive movements and
obsessive adherence to routines), social interaction (poor eye contact and lack of
interactive behavior) and communication (delayed language, lack of symbolism and
impaired conversation).
Gifted and Talented
Special education defines this group as those with an IQ in the top 2

percentiles of the population, usually 130 or more. Such students have one or more
intellectual strengths and are generally capable of divergent as well as convergent
thinking, sometimes more so. The federal government does not mandate special
education programs for gifted and talented students, but most states fund them.
Although an excess of talent or intellect is not considered pathological, this group
may overlap with other exceptional children in the form of savantism or twice-
exceptional students.

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The term “savant” was introduced in 1978 to describe individuals with

exceptional skill in a single field of learning, such as music or mathematics, in
association with other features of mental disability, particularly autism spectrum
disorder (Treffert, 2009). “Twice-exceptional” students have intellectual gifts and
learning strengths, usually less prodigious but more broadly distributed, as well as
learning disabilities or behavior problems, such that they need both remediation and
enhancement (Kronchak & Ryan, 2007). These individuals are often characterized by
extensive vocabulary but difficulty with written expression, the ability to understand
complex ideas and wide-ranging interests, sensitivity and easy frustration, creativity,
humor and curiosity but stubbornness and fixed opinions. These conditions are not
recognized in psychiatric diagnosis, but may benefit from counseling and therapy as
well as educational intervention.
LESSON 8: DIVERSITY IN DESIGNING AND ASSESSING LEARNING
ACTIVITIES lifted from
https://www.brighthubeducation.com/teaching-methods-tips/74906-strategies-for-
teaching-to-diverse-learning-styles/
When looking at a class’ diverse learning styles, a teacher may start

with Howard Gardner’s eight intelligences: verbal, mathematical/logical,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, spatial, musical and naturalistic. This
is an excellent summary and starting point, as other learning styles can branch from
these eight.
Students may tell their teachers how they learn best. For instance, in a
literature course, some students may like to hear the teacher read (verbal), others
may read alone (intrapersonal) and some may want to read aloud to themselves
(musical). Take their explanations seriously and work to incorporate them into
activities.
Some students, perhaps younger ones, may not verbalize their

preferences. Look at other ways to gauge their learning styles. If students have a
summary to write, allow students to choose how to communicate. Some may make a
time-line (mathematical/logical), others may want to act out the story
(bodily/kinesthetic) and others want to draw (spatial).
Provide students with possibilities and see what they enjoy creating. This will provide
an inkling into their learning styles. The goal with learning styles and students and
strategies is to have students learn the same material, just in different ways.

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Setting Classroom Expectations
The students that comprise a class will influence the teacher’s ability to
teach learning styles and students and strategies. In order to have students work
with the teacher and not against him, set classroom expectations early, remind
students of them frequently and enforce them.
At the start of the year, give students clear guidelines concerning their
communication. Demonstrate a proper attitude and understanding toward peers who
are different. Some activities, such as peer interviews, may help with this goal.
Later, have students present assignments to demonstrate that the same
material is covered, just in different ways. A cohesive working atmosphere is the goal,
so students respect each other.
Maintaining a Positive Attitude
Addressing diverse learning styles can be a struggle, especially for new

teachers. Teachers know their attitudes greatly impact the class’ beliefs and actions.
Teachers should not waver from their positive approaches and different techniques in
teaching.
If an activity is not going well and students are not learning the
material, it is acceptable to change the format without changing the topic. For
instance, if a science class was comparing different types of mirrors with pictures
from the Internet, it may behove you to bring in actual mirrors. Be open with
students and explain that to learn better, different ideas are sometimes needed.
Show students throughout the year that as they cooperate with activities, they will be
rewarded with more freedom. When introducing a unit, provide students with a list of
possibilities for vocabulary, summarization and note-taking. Allow them an investment
and choice in their activities.
An array of learning styles brings many options for both students and
teachers. Students will learn from their peers while teachers will grow their portfolios
and abilities. A willingness to explore different activities with a positive attitude will
help teachers along the way.

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EVALUATION
EVALUATION

1. Cite at least one far-reaching implication of embracing student diversity. Expound

your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________2. Formulate
your own pedagogy in handling individual differences. If necessary, cite a real-life
scenario in which the classroom manager addresses individual differences and
handles the context efficiently.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Howard Gardner presented the concept of Multiple Intelligences in his book
“Frames of Mind”. Among the types of Intelligence presented, which type would your
Intelligence fall? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Aside from what has been presented in this Chapter, what do you think are other
benefits of having diverse students in a classroom?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Reflect the ways upon which you can manage

student diversity . Use the schema you have gained in this
chapter as a basis of your introspection.

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REFERENCES
REFERENCES
How Diversity Affects the Classroom. Available:

https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/graduate-students/resources-graduate-student-teachers/diversity-
classroom
Domains of Individual Differences. Available:

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/difference/5-main-causes-of-individual-differences/6027
https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/styles/page_header_media_large/public/102017/iStock_000
024577847_Double.jpg?itok=8KR5kMBN&timestamp=1508250294
Domains of Individual Differences. Available :

Sexual Orientattion. Available:

https://hisdearlychildhood.wordpress.com/snapshot-of-a-kindergarten-student
Individual differences. Available :

https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/psychology/individual-differences-psychology/individual-
differences-types-causes-and-role-psychology/2557
Tips in promoting individual differences. Available:

https://www.nde-ed.org/TeachingResources/ClassroomTips/Diversity.htm
Individual styles of learning and thinking. Available :

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationalpsychology/chapter/individual- styles-of-learning-
and-thinking/
Learning Styles. Available:

https://teach.com/what/teachers-know/learning-styles/
Types of Intelligence Inforgraphic. Available:

Types of Intelligence. Available:

Exceptional Children. Available:

https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/exceptional-children
Strategies for teaching diverse learning styles. Available:

https://www.brighthubeducation.com/teaching-methods-tips/74906-strategies-for-teaching-to-
diverse-learning-styles/

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PRE-TEST
PRE-TEST
Direction: Encircle the best answer.
1.Which of the following situations best illustrates the social learning
theory approach to motivation?
A. Arrange students in small groups for problem solving
B. Encourage positive interpersonal relations among students
C. Praise students whose behavior may be imitated by classmates
D. Present unique and challenging ideas that are discrepant with students’ current
beliefs
2.There is no learned behavior which is relatively permanent chiefly
because?
A. Individual outgrows most what he earlier learned
B. The effect one’s past learning is lost before the learning occurs
C. Past experiences are easily replaced by new experience
D. Behavior changes brought about by learning are constantly modified by
subsequent experiences
3. A person who has had painful experiences at the dentist’s office may
become fearful at the mere sight of the dentist’s office. Which theory
explains this?
A. Generalization C. Operant Conditioning
B. Classical conditioning D. Attribution Theory
4. Zeke exhibits fear response to freely roaming dogs but does not show
fear when a dog is on a leash or confined to a pen. Which conditioning
process is illustrated?
A. Discrimination C. Generalization
B. Extiction D. Acquisition
5. A mother gives her son his favorite snack every time the boy cleans up
his room. Afterwards, the boy cleans his room everyday in anticipation of
the snack. Which theory is illustrated?
A. Operant conditioning C. Associative learning
B. Social Learning Theory D. Pavlovian conditioning
6. You are convinced that whenever a student performs a desired behavior,
provide reinforcement and soon the student learns to perform the behavior
on her own. On which principle is your conviction based?
A. Cognitivism C. Constructivism
B. Behaviorism D. Environmetalism
7. Thorndike’s Law of Effect States that a connection between stimulus and
response is strengthened when the consequence is______.
A.Repeated C. Pleasurable
B. Negative D. Positive
CHAPTER 4 _______________________________BEHAVIORISM 61
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MODULE 4
Behaviourism
“A failure is not always a mistake, it may simply be the best one can do
under the circumstances. The real mistake is to stop trying.
- B.F. Skinner
LESSON OUTCOMES

• Tackle the varied concepts under behaviorism
• Cite examples under different Behavioral Learning Theories
• Identify the people behind the Learning Theories
• Show Appreciation of the numerous product of Educational research
CCONTENT
I. Direction: Identify what is being asks by the statements below. Write your
answer on the blank provided before each number.
__________ 1. He is known as the forerunner of the theory of Connectionism.

__________ 2. What theory influenced the theory of Connectionism?
__________ 3. It claims that New Behavior is learned through association of two stimulus.
__________ 4. What is the other term for Purposive behaviorism?
__________ 5. It is a type of operant from the environment that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
___________6. This is one of the mediational processes which refers to the ability to perform
the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
___________7. It is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens
(secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).
___________8. Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.This a
principle of what theory?
___________9. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is ____.
__________ 10. It strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds
rewarding.
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LESSON 1 : THE BEHAVIORISTS PERSPECTIVE
Behaviorism roots can be trace back from the Well-known theory of
Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorists definition of Learning is quite
different from that of cognitivists or even constructivists. Behaviorists view Learning as
a product of associating stimulus and responses resulting to a change in behaviour.
For them, learning is manifested through observable behaviours. Thus, if someone
can’t show what he/ she has learned then learning didn’t occur at all. They believe
that environment plays a vital role in influencing learning. Furthermore, they believe
that individuals are born with a Blank Slate. Meaning, a child is born with a zero
knowledge. This notion of learning resulted to what known today as spoon feeding.
Being a sage on the stage, educators before tend to fill the gaps in every student’s
mind without providing the learners the opportunity to learn on their own.
LESSON 2: THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Pavlovian Conditioning named after its discoverer Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
is simply the learning of a new behaviour by associating two stimulus. In his
experiment he uses a dog to test the possibility of creating a conditioned response
through associating an unconditioned stimulus to a previously neutral stimulus which
later become a conditioned stimulus and triggers a conditioned response to occur.
They key concepts of classical conditioning are stimulus and responses. While stimulus
is defined as anything that elicits a response, Response is defined as a result of being
triggered by a stimulus.
Types of Stimuli and Responses by Vinney(2020)

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/classical-conditioning-definition-examples-
4424672
Each of the stimuli and responses in classical conditioning is referred to by specific
terms that can be illustrated with reference to Pavlov’s experiments.
¥ The presentation of food to the dog is referred to as the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) because the dog’s response to the food occurs naturally.
¥ The light or bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) because the dog must learn
to associate it with the desired response.
¥ Salivation in response to the food is called the unconditioned
response (UCR) because it’s an innate reflex.
¥ Salivation to the light or bell is the conditioned response (CR) because the
dog learns to associate that response with the conditioned stimulus.
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LESSON 2 : THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Pavlov’s Dogs lifted from https://www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-
pavlov.html
In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did
Nobel prize-winning work on digestion[2]. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’
digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.”
While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it.
Pavlov’s dogs,
restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they
had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over
time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even
presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise
produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.
Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various
stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory
stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s
dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the
food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the
dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the
salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation
response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some
consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of
the rest of his career further exploring this finding.
In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell
is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of
salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.
Figure 1.0 Pavlov’s Experiment:Stages of Conditioning

Source : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/classical-conditioning/
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LESSON 2 : THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
ü GENERALIZATION
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency of an individual to respond similarly to
any other stimulus similar to the conditioned one.
ü EXTINCTION
The consistency of conditioning is a vital part in maintaining the conditioned
response. Absence of the conditioning process for a long time might convert a
conditioned stimulus to its original form which is a neutral stimulus,thus, the extinction
of the conditioned response.
ü SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Pavlov was able to prove that a conditioned response that was once vanished
due to the absence of conditioning can be recovered by conducting the same
conditioning process.
ü DISCRIMNATION
Continuous withdrawal and setting back of the conditioning process might help
an individual develop Discrimination. Discrimination happens when an individual can
already distinguish the difference of almost identical stimulus resulting to different
responses evoked from these almost identical stimulus.
JOHN WATSON’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
In 1912, John B. Watson extended Pavlov’s study by putting an 11-month old

baby named albert under study. He conducted experiment by first presenting a white
rat(Neutral Stimulus) to the infant. At the first sight of the rat, Albert made no
response. Watson then tried to develop a new behaviour by associating an
unconditioned stimulus( loud noise) to the previously neutral stimulus( white rat).
Originally Albert fears loud noise but not the white rat. However, continuous
association of the two resulted to Albert generating a fear to White rat as well. The
product of watson’s research implies that conditioning can cause phobias to human.
He famously quoted "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of
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LESSON 2: THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors”
(Watson, 1924, p. 104).
LESSON 3: CONNECTIONISM written by Richard Culatta(2020) lifted from

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/connectionism/
Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework
of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between
stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or
weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R
theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to dominate
others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was
that learning could be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable
internal states.
Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect –
responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be
strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of readiness –
a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in
annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise – connections become strengthened
with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of
the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a
rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the
presence of identical elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e.,
transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept
of “belongingness” was introduced; connections are more readily established if the
person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles).
Another concept introduced was “polarity” which specifies that connections occur
more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the opposite.
Thorndike also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the
connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.
Application
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for
animals and humans. Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his
theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading
(Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult
learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).
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LESSON 3: CONNECTIONISM written by Richard Culatta(2020) lifted from

Example
The classic example of Thorndike’s S-R theory was a cat learning to
escape from a “puzzle box” by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and
error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the
door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of
affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise specifies that the connection was
established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) and was
rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness).
Principles
ü Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)

ü A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).
ü Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
ü Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
LESSON 4: B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning by Saul Mcleod(2018) lifted from

https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work

was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior
that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior
followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Skinner introduced
a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends
to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-
or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals
which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.
1. Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor
decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
2. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
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LLESSON 4: B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning by Saul Mcleod(2018) lifted

from https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
3. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a

behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been
affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of
behaviors and learned from their consequences.
For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief
consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out
with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely
to repeat the behavior.
If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned,
suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly
have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.
Positive Reinforcement
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry
rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved
about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food
pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of
being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever
ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a
consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5
each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to
repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your
homework.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior.
This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse
stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement
strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your
teacher 100 Php. You will complete your homework to avoid paying 100 Php, thus
strengthening the behaviour of completing your homework.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his
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Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it
some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the
lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats
quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the
action again and again.
In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by
turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to
press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the
electric current being switched on.
These two learned responses are known as Escape

Learning and Avoidance Learning.
Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is
designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive
event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant
stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding
stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable
behavior. here are many problems with using punishment, such as:
ü Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when
punishment is no longer present.
ü Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with
problems.
ü Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
ü Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what
to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Imagine a rat in a “Skinner box.” In operant conditioning, if no food
pellet is delivered immediately after the lever is pressed then after several attempts
the rat stops pressing the lever (how long would someone continue to go to work if
their employer stopped paying them?). The behavior has been extinguished.
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Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of

reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster
and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that
this had effects on
1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever
(i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon
the rat gave up).
Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the
slowest rate of extinction (i.e., people will go on repeating the behavior for the
longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio reinforcement. The type of
reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement.
(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior
occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery
is shut off.
Response rate is SLOW
Extinction rate is FAST
(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number
of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g.,
after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words
spelled correctly.
Response rate is FAST
Extinction rate is MEDIUM
(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement
One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least
one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another
example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered
(providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off.
Response rate is MEDIUM
Extinction rate is MEDIUM
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(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For
examples gambling or fishing.
Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability)
(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement
Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given
after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes.
An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times.
Extinction rate is SLOW
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on
operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing
environmental events that are related to a person's behavior. For example, the
reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones.
This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior,
for example, is basically bribery.
There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary
reinforcement is when a reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary
reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior because it leads to a
primary reinforcer. Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy
and behavior shaping.
Token Economy
Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced
with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary
reinforcers).
Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers,
etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. For
example, teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children
stickers to reward good behavior.
Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing
psychiatric patients. However, the patients can become over reliant on the tokens,
making it difficult for them to adjust to society once they leave prison, hospital, etc.
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Staff implementing a token economy programme have a lot of power. It is

important that staff do not favor or ignore certain individuals if the programme is to
work. Therefore, staff need to be trained to give tokens fairly and consistently even
when there are shift changes such as in prisons or in a psychiatric hospital.
Behavior Shaping
¥ A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of
behavior shaping through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the
principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex
behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to
encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each
time. To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward
should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.
According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can
be explained as a product of this type of successive approximation.
Educational Applications
¥ In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to
issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is
very relevant to shaping skill performance.
¥ A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance,
e.g., compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio
produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby
initially reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the
performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only
exceptional outcomes are reinforced.
¥ For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in
class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their
answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their
answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised.
¥ Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be
extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced
by having attention drawn to them). This is not an easy task, as the teacher
may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.
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• Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it

is important to vary the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is
maintained. This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she
thinks too much about the way to behave.
LESSON 5: NEO-BEHAVIORISM lifted from

https://science.jrank.org/pages/8448/Behaviorism-Neobehaviorism-1930-1955.html
Neobehaviorism is a school of thought that posits that the study of

learning and a focus on rigorous objective observational methods form the key to
scientific psychology. Neobehaviorism is the second phase of behaviorism, which was
closely associated with B.F. Skinner, Clark Hull and Edward C. Tolman.
In contrast to behaviorists, neobehaviorists tried to formalize behavioral
laws and drew influence from positivists including Herbert Feigl, Otto Neurath and
Rudolf Carnap. These logical positivists believed that anything that could not be
proven through science via physical observations was nonsense or metaphysics.
Knowledge must be built by observations and verified by observations.
Hull is considered the most ambitious of the neobehaviorists, and he is
largely credited with constructing the formal theory of behavior. He founded the law
of stimulus generalization that stated that a response could be received by
unconventional stimulus if the stimulus was associated with a stimulus that caused a
response.
Skinner, who published his ideas in several works, argued that science
was based entirely in observation and that hypotheses and theories had little to do
with it. He believed that behavior could be controlled and shape through
reinforcements or rewards. Skinner's philosophies were used during the mid-20th
century in psychiatric institutions and penal facilities.
LESSON 6:Sign Learning (E. Tolman) written by Richard Culatta(2020) lifted from
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/sign-theory/
Tolman’s theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is often

considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory. According to
Tolman’s theory of sign learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e.,
learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. Tolman emphasized the organized
aspect of learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple
one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the
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LESSON 6:Sign Learning (E. Tolman) written by Richard Culatta(2020) lifted from
incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room
into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map,
indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines
what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.” (Tolman, 1948, p192)
Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: (1) approach learning, (2)
escape learning, (3) avoidance learning, (4) choice-point learning, and (5) latent
learning. All forms of learning depend upon means-end readiness, i.e., goal-oriented
behavior, mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal
or environmental variables.
Tolman’s version of behaviorism emphasized the relationships between stimuli
rather than stimulus-response (Tolman, 1922). According to Tolman, a new stimulus
(the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate)
through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish
learning. For this reason, Tolman’s theory was closer to the connectionist
framework of Thorndike than the drive reduction theory of drive reduction theory of
Hull or other behaviorists.
Application
Although Tolman intended his theory to apply to human learning,

almost all of his research was done with rats and mazes. Tolman (1942) examines
motivation towards war, but this work is not directly related to his learning theory.
Example
Much of Tolman’s research was done in the context of place learning. In
the most famous experiments, one group of rats was placed at random starting
locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of
rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same
pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same
location performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that
they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns.
Principles
1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
2. Learning often involves the use of environmental factors to achieve a goal (e.g.,
means-ends-analysis)
3. Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
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LESSON 7: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY written by McLeod, S. A. (2016, Febuary

05) lifted from: Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the

behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
However, he adds two important ideas:
Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational
learning.
Observational Learning
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.
This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded
by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s
TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide
examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and
anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models)
and encode their behavior. At a later time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior
they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender
appropriate’ or not, but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that
a child will reproduce the behavior that its society deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it
perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior
modeled by people of the same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it
imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s
behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue
performing the behavior.
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a
kind girl you are,” this is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will
repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child
wants approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but
feeling happy about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will
behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because it desires approval.
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Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the
reinforcement offered externally does not match with an individual's needs.
Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important factor is that it will
usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.
Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other
people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by
observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a
younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior is
more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities
seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of models with whom they identify.
These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or
could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a
particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves
taking on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values,beliefs and attitudes of the person
with whom you are identifying.
The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to
the Freudian term related to the Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve
internalizing or adopting another person’s behavior. However, during the Oedipus
complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with Social
Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other
person.
Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of
behaviors being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single
behavior.
MEDIATIONAL PROCESS
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning
theory (i.e., behaviorism) and the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on
how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information
processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its
consequences.
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Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were
at work. These mental factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to
determine whether a new response is acquired.
Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and
imitate it. There is some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called
mediational processes. This occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and
imitating it or not (response)
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior.

For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many
behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is
therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences others imitating it.
Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may
be noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is
important therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by
the observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those
cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a
memory to refer to.
Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would
like to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our
physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we
cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not.
Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing
on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt
to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.
Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and
punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived
rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be
more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen
to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.
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EVALUATION
EVALUATION

1. What is the implication of the behavioral theories in Educational System? Choose

one theory as a basis of your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What are the benefits of theoretical practice in today’s modern society?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Formulate your pedagogy in teaching using the four mediational processes as your
backbone. You may choose the subject and topic that you want. Answer here can
exceed five sentences.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Direction:
Write a synthesis paper of this module
bearing the title “Behaviorism and Neo-behaviorism”. Refer
to the “Instruction to the user” part of this module for the
Format and Schedule of Submission.
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REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Behavioral Perspective. Available :

https://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/learning/theories/
Pavlov’s dog. Available:

https://www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html
Cynthia Vinney(2020): What is Classical Conditioning? Avaiable:

https://www.thoughtco.com/classical-conditioning-definition-examples-4424672
Mcleod(2018):Operant Conditioning(B.F. Skinner) .Available:

Richard Culatta(2020): Connectionism(E.Thorndike).Available :

Richard Culatta(2020): Sign Learning (E. Tolman).Available:

McLeod, S. A. (2016, Febuary 05). Bandura - social learning theory. Simply Psychology.Available:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
MODULE 3 _______________________________STUDENT DIVERSITY 79


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Module in EDUC 201 Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

BS Education (Tarlac State University)

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VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier

VISION Tarlac State University commits to promote and sustain the

E – xcellence and Enhanced Competence

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COURSE: EDUC 201-FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

DR. MELLANY G. MASANGKAY

DR. MA.THERESA A. ACOSTA

DR. LEODIVINA P. TAGAMA

DR. ROSALINA C. GARCIA

MISS ROSE ANN TUBAY

INSTRUCTION TO THE USERS

Chapter I. Theories of Development

I. Review of Theories of Development.............................................................4

II. The Nature of Learning……………………………………………………………………… .6

Chapter II. Dimensions of Learner - Centered Learning

Developmental and Socio-cultural Dimensions of learning……………………16

Defining key terms related to social constructivism

How children think and learn………………................................................23

Chapter III. Student Diversity

Individual differences in Learning……………………………………………………...35

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Chapter IV . Behaviorist Perspective…………………………………………63

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_____ 2. “Healthy children will not fear life if B. Lev Vygotsky

_____3. “ Right action tends to be defined in c. Sigmund Freud

_____4. “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats D. Jean Piaget

_____5. “ What a child can do in cooperation E. Erik Erickson

MODULE 1 _______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1

“Learning is creation, not consumption. Knowledge is something a learner

_______________1. Learning is a long-term change.

CHAPTER 1 _______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 2

1. Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior

CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 3

LESSON 1: REVIEW OF THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

The ideas of the theories, Freud, Erickson, Piaget, Vygotsky and

CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 4

LESSON 1: REVIEW OF THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 5

LESSON 2: NATURE OF LEARNING

1. Gardener Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to

2. Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the

2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind of

4. Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning. Every day

5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour influenced by

CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 6

LESSON 2: NATURE OF LEARNING

7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and practice. It

9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth and

Moreover, learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change

Learning is a relatively permanent change in one’s behavior as result of

CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 7

LESSON 2: NATURE OF LEARNING

1. Change. Learning involves change in knowledge and behavior. Psychologists

Behavioral theorist maintain that learning consists of changes in behavior,

3. Previous experience. Learning results from previous experience. Therefore,

LESSON 3: TYPES OF LEARNING

a. Motor Learning. It is a form learning for one to maintain and go through

CHAPTER 1 ______________________THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 8

LESSON 3: TYPES OF LEARNING