UNIVERSIDADE LICUNGO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING COURSE

TIMÓTEO JOÃO ARAÚJO

BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

Beira

2023
 TIMÓTEO JOÃO ARAÚJO

BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

Essay submitted to the Licentiate in English Language

Teaching Course of the Faculty of Education, as a
requirement for the attainment of the title of Licentiate
in English Language Teaching

Beira

2023
Table of content

1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................1

2 Bilingualism and Multilingualism............................................................................................2

2.1 The concepts of Bilingualism and multilingualism...........................................................2

2.1.1 Bilingualism....................................................................................................................2

2.1.2 Multilingualism...............................................................................................................3

2.2 Types of bilingualism........................................................................................................3

2.3 Factors that contribute to Bilingualism and Multilingualism............................................4

2.4 Benefits of bilingualism.....................................................................................................6

3 Bilingualism in Education........................................................................................................8

3.1 Advantages........................................................................................................................8

3.1.1 Improved Cognitive Development..................................................................................8

3.1.2 Improved Language Skills..............................................................................................8

3.1.3 Cultural Awareness........................................................................................................9

3.1.4 Enhanced Executive Functioning.................................................................................10

3.2 Disadvantages..................................................................................................................10

3.2.1 Language Proficiency Gap...........................................................................................10

3.2.2 Code-switching Challenges..........................................................................................11

3.2.3 Initial Language Delay.................................................................................................11

3.2.4 Cultural Identity Navigation.........................................................................................11

3.2.5 Increased Cognitive Load.............................................................................................11

4 Bilingual education policy in Mozambique............................................................................11

5 Models and programmes of bilingual education....................................................................13

6 Relevance of bilingual education programmes in Mozambique............................................15

7 Reasons for introducing the bilingual education in Mozambique..........................................16

8 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................18
6 References...............................................................................................................................19
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1 Introduction

Bilingualism, the ability to speak and understand two languages, is a fascinating

phenomenon that has gained significant attention in recent years. It encompasses various
concepts, such as simultaneous bilingualism (where individuals acquire two languages from
birth) and sequential bilingualism (where individuals learn a second language after acquiring
their first language). The benefits of bilingualism are extensive. Research suggests that
bilingual individuals often demonstrate enhanced cognitive abilities, such as improved
problem-solving skills, multitasking abilities, and mental flexibility. They also tend to have
stronger communication skills, including better listening and speaking proficiency in both
languages. Moreover, bilingualism fosters cultural awareness and appreciation, allowing
individuals to navigate diverse social contexts with ease.

However, when it comes to bilingualism in education, there are positive and negative
aspects to consider. On the positive side, bilingual education can provide numerous
advantages. It promotes academic achievement by allowing students to access a broader range
of resources and opportunities. It also fosters cross-cultural understanding and empathy
among students from different linguistic backgrounds.

Yet, challenges may arise in implementing bilingual education programs. Some

negative aspects include potential difficulties in balancing instructional time between
languages, ensuring equal proficiency in both languages, and addressing potential language
dominance or preference among students. Additionally, there may be limited resources or
support for bilingual education initiatives.

In this discussion, we will explore these various dimensions of bilingualism and delve
into its impact on educational settings. By examining the concepts, benefits, as well as the
positive and negative aspects of bilingualism in education, we can gain a deeper
understanding of how bilingualism influences individuals and educational systems.
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2 Bilingualism and Multilingualism

In this section we explore the concepts, types, factors and the benefits of being
bilingual.

2.1 The concepts of Bilingualism and multilingualism

Bilingualism is an easy word to understand if we break it down into its constituent

parts: (i) Bi - refers to two; and (ii) Lingualism - refers to languages.

2.1.1 Bilingualism

Bilingualism refers to the coexistence of two language systems in a person or

community's communication. Following the same line of thought, Weinreich, (1968, p.1)
defines bilingual is a person who involved in alternately using two languages. In this case, it
can be said that before someone being stated as bilingual speaker, of course, he has to master
two languages. Mastering two languages enables him to use two languages alternately. That is
to say that in one situation he uses one language, and in the other situation he uses the other
language. Therefore, he, then, can be stated as a person involved in what is called as
bilingualism, the practice of alternately using two languages. Furthermore, Mackey as cited in
Fishman (1971, p.555) “bilingualism is the alternate use of two or more languages by the
same individual.”

Mozambique is a multilingual and multicultural country; apart from Portuguese which

is the official language, and the Asian languages all the other language are spoken in
Mozambique belong to the Bantu group. These are indigenous language and constitute the
major languages stratum. According to Guthrie (1967, p.71), the Bantu languages of
Mozambique fall into four zones. Namely: Swahili zone. Yao zone: Makonde, Makua,
Lomwe, and Cwabo. Shona Zone: Tsonga, Shangana, Ronga, Tswa. Zone Nyanja: Nsenga
and Sena.
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2.1.2 Multilingualism

Li (2008, p.4) defined a multilingualism individual as “anyone who can communicate

in more than one language, be it active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through
listening and reading”. A well-known definition of multilingualism is given by Luke (2012,
p.12): “the ability of societies, institutions, groups and individuals to engage, on a regular
basis, with more than one language in their day-to-day lives.”

Bilingualism falls under the wider label of 'Multilingualism', which is the use of more
than one language. For that reason, someone who is bilingual could also be referred to as
being multilingual.

Bilingualism is a term that can also be used to refer to the use of more than two
languages (for example 3, 4, or more languages), however, it primarily refers to two
languages (as the name implies).

2.2 Types of bilingualism

a) Simultaneous or compound bilingualism: learning two languages as “first

languages”. De Houwer (2005, p.28) refers to infants who are exposed to two languages from
birth; so, these will become simultaneous bilinguals. For instance Mozambique is far possible
to find mixed marriage with children whose their parents are not from the same province or
country; therefore, they are married and live together. For example, a father is from Maputo,
whereas, a mother is from Tete, so their children can learn both of their parents’ mother
tongues and Portuguese from birth. McLaughlin (1984, p.50) maintains that when a child
learns two languages simultaneously it is inappropriate to talk about the child's first and
second languages. Both languages are in effect first languages, although one may dominate in
certain situations or with certain people. For McLauglin, simultaneous bilingualism could
occur at any age less than a cut-off age of three years. Therefore, a 2 years old Portuguese
speaking child who moves to Australia and begins to acquire English would be considered to
be acquiring both languages simultaneously.

b) Receptive bilingualism: being able to understand two languages but express

oneself find only one. Children who had high exposure to a second language throughout their
lives, but have had little opportunity to use the language would fall in this category (Saragih,
2002).
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In some parts of Mozambique there students who speak more mother tongue than
Portuguese, whenever they get in the class being to get her with their teachers they face
problems to speak Portuguese clearly; besides, they are asked a question in Portuguese, but
they answer in their local languages although they understand. This type of bilingualism
gathers students who are passive bilinguals, because they understand a certain language, but
they cannot speak.

For example, in Mozambique English is taught from grade 6 to grade 12, however,
many students understand English and whatever an English teacher says, but they cannot
express themselves in English; accordingly, students express in Portuguese.

c) Sequential bilingualism: learning one language after already established a first

language. According to McLaughlin (1984, p.49), this is the tuition for all those who become
bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual earlier in life. In this type of
bilingualism, sometimes is called co-ordinate bilinguals and it shows us that some one knows
the L1 and through their intrinsic, extrinsic or integrative motivations they learn L2 at school
or learning it from social agent.

In Mozambique there are companies which provide Educational Leave for their
workers to study what they want, not only that, but also there might be carrier gaper is a kind
of mission that the company sends a worker to do something abroad where English is spoken;
therefore, this person needs English as a lingua franca merely for an effective
communication.

For example, there are some companies in Beira such as Navalis; Boloré; Chigolo;
RMG and Cornelder from Port, these companies oblige all the workers to whom have
contracts to speak English, so the workers study at Language Institute and at Barsilay
Linguistic Service all the workers study there and being paid their school fees by the
company.

2.3 Factors that contribute to Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Bilingualism and multilingualism may result from various factors or reasons. A

primary cause of bilingualism, according to Joseph (1982, p.13) is extensive language contact.
Language contact refers to the interaction that takes place between speakers who speak
different languages or language varieties. In the case of bilingualism, we're talking about
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speakers who speak different languages within this wider umbrella; there are many
circumstances that can lead to extensive language contact between speakers of different
languages, such as:

a) Having parents of different nationalities who speak two different languages

(presumably speaking a shared language as well). This would mean that the child grows up
exposed to both languages, therefore learning both as they develop.

b) Moving to a country where the language is something other than a person's native
tongue. Freeland (1991, p. 43) agrees that this would immerse the person in the new language
in many different modes including hearing it spoken by the native people of that country,
seeing it written on signs and in public places, and possibly having it taught in school or
language lessons.

c) Requiring learning a second language for business purposes. A person working for
an international company might be required to learn a second language in order to
communicate effectively with colleagues or clients from other countries.

d) Having a personal desire or motivation to learn a second language. “Learning a

language is not just a linguistic endeavour; it is also a cognitive one” (Freeland, 1991, p.45).
Many people enjoy learning languages as a means of not only broadening their
communicative ability, but also a means of expanding their cognitive prowess.

Other reasons why someone might become bilingual:

a) Demographic factors - in some countries, different communities speak different

languages (for example, Mozambique is home to many different languages including Sena,
Ndau, Changana, Chope and others). In order to facilitate everyday communication between
different language speakers within a single country, it is necessary for people to learn a
common language. This could mean learning a second language, or even a third.

b) Increased cultural awareness - because culture and language are often so closely
linked, being able to speak more than one language could give the speaker greater cultural
insight and understanding (McLaughlin, 1984, p.55). For example, if a child is born to
Portuguese parents, has grown up in England, but speaks both Portuguese and English
fluently, their understanding and awareness of their Portuguese heritage may be a lot stronger
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than if they only spoke English. This child would likely have solid cultural awareness of both
their Portuguese roots and British culture, as a result of being bilingual.

c) Competitiveness in the job market - as we have now seen, languages play an

important role in business and professional settings. Being bilingual presents people with an
advantage over their monolingual competitors, and sets them apart as being able to reach
more colleagues and clients.

d) Creative expression - bilingual people have the unique ability to mix the best parts
of the languages they speak. With a bit of creative code-switching, bilingual people are able to
pack more punch into their discourse by adding impactful words in different languages.
McLaughlin (1984, p. 56) states that sometimes idiomatic language and other kinds of phrases
in one language do not translate well into others. Being bilingual enables the speaker to still
use these evocative words and phrases without having to dilute their meaning by translating.

2.4 Benefits of bilingualism

According to various scholars who discuss about the topic on study, for example
(Freeland, 1991; Holmes, 2000; Luke, 2012 and others), there are many benefits of being
bilingual:

a) Cognitive benefits

 Bilingual individuals often exhibit improved executive functions, such as better

attention control and task-switching abilities.

 Learning and using multiple languages can enhance problem-solving skills, as

it requires mental flexibility and the ability to think creatively.

 Bilingual children have been found to have higher scores in tests measuring
cognitive abilities compared to monolingual children.

b) Job opportunities

 In today's globalized world, many companies operate internationally and seek

employees who can communicate effectively with clients, partners, and
colleagues from different language backgrounds.
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 Bilingual individuals may have an advantage in industries such as tourism,

international business, translation and interpretation, diplomacy, and customer
service.

c) Communication skills

 Bilingualism allows individuals to connect with people from different cultures

and communities.

 It facilitates effective communication in diverse settings, such as when

travelling abroad or working with multicultural teams.

 Being able to speak multiple languages can foster understanding and build
bridges between people of different linguistic backgrounds.

d) Cultural awareness

 Learning another language provides insights into the customs, traditions,

literature, and history of another culture.

 Bilingual individuals can engage more deeply with different communities and
appreciate diverse perspectives.

 They can participate in cultural events, read literature in its original language,
and understand nuances that may be lost in translation.

e) Academic advantages

 Bilingualism allows people to study abroad, for example, from Mozambique to

England.

 Bilingualism has been associated with improved academic performance across

various subjects.

 It enhances metalinguistic awareness, which is the ability to think about

language itself, leading to better reading comprehension and writing skills.

 Bilingual students may have a greater understanding of grammar and language

structure, which can transfer to improved language skills overall.
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3 Bilingualism in Education

We will explore the benefits and disadvantages of bilingualism in early childhood

education and examine the research that supports these findings.

3.1 Advantages

3.1.1 Improved Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to the process by which children acquire and improve
upon their thinking, problem-solving, and learning abilities. Bilingualism has been found to
have a positive impact on cognitive development in children (Bialystok, 2017). Bilingual
children have improved cognitive flexibility, which allows them to switch between tasks and
perspectives more easily (Bialystok, 2011, p.34). Bilingual children also tend to have a better
working memory, which allows them to hold and process information more efficiently
(Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008). Additionally, bilingualism has been linked to improved attention
and inhibitory control, which are important skills for academic success (Bialystok & Martin,
2004). Bilingualism in early childhood education can have significant benefits for cognitive
development in children.

3.1.2 Improved Language Skills

Bilingualism improves language skills in children. Bilingual children have better

language proficiency in both of their languages compared to monolingual children (Bialystok,
2001). Bilingual children have also been found to have a larger vocabulary and better
grammar than monolingual children (Barac & Bialystok, 2012). Furthermore, exposure to two
languages from an early age has been linked to better reading and writing skills in children.
Bilingualism in early childhood education can have significant benefits for language
development in children, which can improve their academic success and communication skills
in the future.

Bilingualism improves language skills in children in several ways:

 First, when children are exposed to two languages from an early age, they are
better able to distinguish between different sounds and recognize patterns in
language, which improves their phonological awareness (Bialystok, 2007).
This can lead to better pronunciation and articulation of words.
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 Second, learning two languages simultaneously requires children to use

different language systems and cognitive processes, which can strengthen their
executive function and working memory (Barac & Bialystok, 2012). Executive
function refers to a set of mental processes that are responsible for planning,
organizing, and regulating behaviour, and working memory involve the ability
to hold and manipulate information in the mind. Both of these skills are
important for language learning and academic success.

 Finally, bilingualism can also lead to a deeper understanding and appreciation

of language and culture. When children learn two languages, they are exposed
to different cultural norms, traditions, and beliefs, which can broaden their
perspectives and enhance their ability to communicate and connect with people
from diverse backgrounds. Overall, exposure to two languages in early
childhood education can have a positive impact on language skills, cognitive
development, and cultural awareness in children.

3.1.3 Cultural Awareness

Bilingualism has also been found to increase cultural awareness in children. When
children learn a second language, they are also exposed to different cultures, traditions, and
ways of life. This exposure can broaden their perspectives and help them appreciate and
understand different cultures.

Bilingualism can increase cross-cultural understanding and communication. Bilingual

individuals are often more sensitive to cultural differences and more open-minded towards
different perspectives, which can help them communicate and connect with people from
diverse backgrounds (Gao, 2010). Furthermore, bilingualism can also promote positive
attitudes towards language and culture. Bilingual children are often proud of their ability to
speak multiple languages and are more likely to have positive attitudes towards their heritage
culture and the culture of others (Garcia & Wei, 2014). This can lead to a greater appreciation
for cultural diversity and an increased sense of belonging in multicultural communities.

Overall, exposure to different languages and cultures in early childhood education

through bilingualism can have a positive impact on cultural awareness in children, which can
help them become more empathetic, accepting, and respectful towards others.
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3.1.4 Enhanced Executive Functioning

Bilingualism has also been found to enhance executive functioning in children.

Executive functioning refers to a set of cognitive processes that are responsible for planning,
organizing, and regulating behaviour. These skills are critical for academic success and are
linked to better outcomes in adulthood, such as higher income and better health.

Bilingualism can improve executive functioning in children, such as attention control,

inhibition, and working memory (Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008; Bialystok & Craik, 2010).
Bilingual children have been found to have better attention control, which means they are
better able to focus on relevant information and ignore distractions. They also have a better
inhibition skill, which means they are better able to control their impulses and delay
gratification. Finally, bilingual children have a better working memory, which means they are
better able to hold and manipulate information in their minds.

These improvements in executive functioning are thought to be the result of the

cognitive demands required by bilingualism. When children learn two languages
simultaneously, they must constantly switch between languages and inhibit the influence of
one language while using the other. This constant mental juggling requires them to use their
executive functioning skills, which can enhance these skills over time.

Therefore, bilingualism in early childhood education can provide children with a

valuable cognitive advantage that can help them succeed in school and life.

3.2 Disadvantages

Barac & Bialystok (2012) state that although bilingualism is important in education,
bilingual children can also face some challenges:

3.2.1 Language Proficiency Gap

- A bilingual individual may have a stronger command of their native language but
struggle with vocabulary and grammar in the second language.

- They might hesitate or make errors when expressing complex ideas in the less
proficient language.
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3.2.2 Code-switching Challenges

- During a conversation, a bilingual person may unintentionally mix words or phrases

from both languages, causing confusion for the listener.

- They might find it challenging to maintain a consistent language choice in different

social or professional settings.

3.2.3 Initial Language Delay

- A bilingual child might start speaking later than monolingual children due to the
simultaneous acquisition of two languages.

- They may initially have a smaller vocabulary in each language compared to their
monolingual peers.

3.2.4 Cultural Identity Navigation

- Bilingual individuals may struggle with finding a balance between two cultural
identities and feeling fully accepted by both communities.

- They might face pressure to conform to cultural expectations from both sides,
leading to identity conflicts.

3.2.5 Increased Cognitive Load

- Switching between languages can be mentally taxing, especially when engaging in

tasks that require concentration and quick thinking.

- Bilingual individuals may experience cognitive fatigue after extended periods of

code-switching or language switching.

4 Bilingual education policy in Mozambique

During the colonial era with the exception of some schools held by the protestant
churches among them the Sweden Mission, education was exclusively provided in Portuguese
(Ngoenha 2000). With the proclamation of the Independence in 1975 the government adopted
the one-language and one nation ideology keeping Portuguese as the exclusive medium of
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instruction as we have discussed previously. In 1983 a draft paper from the Secretary of State
suggested the establishment of a Mozambican language policy that should aim at optimal
bilingualism. (Kaplan and Baldauf 2004) This sparked discussions around the possibility of
an introduction of a bilingual education in Mozambique. Lack of resources and the political
instability lived in the country by then might have delayed the implementation of this project.
It was only in 1993 that, Mozambique introduced, for the first time ever, a Pilot Bilingual
Education Project in Gaza and Tete, putting an end to the exclusive use of Portuguese as the
only medium of instruction in the country (Henriksen 2010) Since then efforts were made to
expand bilingual education still at the piloting phase throughout the country. It is for this
reason that in 2003 the number of provinces piloting this system of education increased.

Today there are 16 schools throughout the country administrating a bilingual

education. According to the reports published so far on the outcomes of the bilingual
education the experience has provided successful. Teachers and education stakeholders
involved in the bilingual education recurrently report that learners in bilingual education show
higher levels of motivation, class participation and academic performance when compared to
their counterparts undergoing the monolingual education. We could then say that the
objectives of the bilingual education as outlined below are being met. The above information
seems to contradict the findings we came up with in a study we carried out in a school in Gaza
province where the results of a test showed that students who go through the bilingual
education when they go to grade 7 face problems in writing. As a matter of evidence, they use
the letter k instead of c in the writing of the word Carla; they have problems in using the letter
and other accents. In other subjects students under the bilingual education system seemed to
have better results though the differences were not all that significant. The main aims of the
Bilingual Education Program were to contribute to the improvement of the quality of basic
education in Mozambique. It is supported by international research and practice pointing to
the academic and cognitive advantages of the use of the mother tongue in initial schooling
(UNESCO 1953; Benson 1997; Trudell 2008).” Henriksen 2010 Although we have this
positive reports with regards to the implementation of the bilingual education, parents and
other stakeholders, teachers included are rather sceptical about the outcomes of the bilingual
education. When one talks to teachers directly involved in bilingual education may have too
perceptions; (1) they have not fully understood the philosophy behind the bilingual education
or (2) there is a lot about the implementation of bilingual education that is not published in the
reports. We heard, though from sources yet to prove, that parents who have their children
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attending bilingual education have been pressing the school administration to have them in the
monolingual education, at least in one school in Niassa province and two schools in Gaza,
simply because they do not believe in this education system and find that their children are
being left behind. These things are hardly ever reported. Should this be true, then we might be
analysing an instrumentalized system of education. Henriksen (2010) suggested that one of
the major limitations of her study was that she only analyzed the attitude of children in
schools in the southern part of the country. We feel the same limitation because the two main
sources we had access to in our discussion were studies made in the southern part of the
country. As the author puts it, due to the linguistic diversity which is more marked in the
northern part of the country, the attitude people have to bilingual education may be different
from the one in the southern part of Mozambique. Besides, due to the massive presence of the
Portuguese in the central part of Mozambique particularly in Sofala and Zambezia which is
seen by the numbers of religious infrastructures built and the presence of different companies,
the process of assimilation was taken positively there. We would like to see if the same
attitudes to bilingual education are shared by these peoples.

5 Models and programmes of bilingual education

The concepts modals of bilingual education and programmes of bilingual education

are most often than not used interchangeably. However, some sociolinguist among them
drawing on Trueba (1979), Hornberger (1991) (cited in Chimbutane 2009, p.28) posit that
there is a difference between bilingual education model and programme types. They suggest
that models are temples for programmes. For the purpose of this paper we are looking at the
two concepts rather interchangeably. In other words, we will make no significant distinction
between the two concepts.

Henriksen (2010) suggests that there are basically two main models of bilingual
education; the maintenance model and the transitional model. She then posits that we can
consider a third model which is the enrichment bilingual education. In her opinion, these
models can be divided into the strong form of bilingual education which includes the
immersion, maintenance or heritage language model, two-way or dual language and
mainstream bilingual education. The weak form of bilingual education comprises the
transitional bilingualism, the submersion or the structured immersion, the segregationist and
the separatist models. Chimbutane (2009) argues that there are three models of bilingual
 1

education (transitional, maintenance and enrichment) and two bilingual education programme
types (two-way or dual language programme and immersion).

According to Edwards (2005) there are five types of bilingual education models
(immersion, submersion, addictive bilingual education, subtractive bilingual education,
primary and secondary bilingual education. We can suggest that each of the models and
programme types of bilingual education discussed by the three sociolinguists above has its
procedures and objectives as illustrated in the table below. We noticed that while Henriksen
(2010) prefers to use the term minority-group and majority group language to refer to
languages used by the dominated community and languages used by the dominating
communities, Chimbutane (2009) uses the concepts lower-status and higher-status languages.

Model and Description Objectives (Aims

Programme type to…)

Maintenance/Heritage Pupils from low- Strengthen lower-

Language Model status language are taught status pupils‟ culture
in their first language and identity and affirm the right
dominant, second language of ethnolinguistic groups.
with emphasis on the first Foster bilingualism and
language biliteracy in L2. Fosters
language shift and cultural
assimilation

Transitional Model Pupils of lower- Foster proficiency

status language are initially and academic achievement
taught in their L1 and then in L2.Replace the home or
through a L2 minority language entirely
by the majority language.

Enrichment Model A L2 does not Develop and extend

replace L1 but it is added to a lower-status language,
enable the user to function cultural pluralism and social
adequately in the second
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language autonomy

Immersion Pupils from a higher- Capitalize on young

Programme status language learn a children’s language-learning
lower-status language in abilities, relative
addition to their language unselfconsciousness and
attitudinal openness. Foster
bilingualism and
biculturalism

6 Relevance of bilingual education programmes in Mozambique

The 21st century world is marked with globalization, regional integration, free market
and people’s geographical mobility as a result of technological advancements and the
improvement of means of transport, communication and people’s life style. Besides, the
communication facilities have greatly improved so much that regardless of where people are
found they can communicate with others all over the world. Consequently, there is more
interaction between users of different language than ever. Crystal (2010) suggests that around
90% of Africans can speak more than one language; their mother tongue, other local
languages and a good number of them the national official language. In Mozambique, with
the exception of Maputo city and some urban location, people are from their childhood
exposed to more than one language, their mother tongue and Portuguese. In such a linguistic
diverse society and high rates of bilingualism it is nearly undeniable that any system of
education should take these differences into account. Therefore the feasibility of the old held
one-language education ought to be questioned. According to Mozambique’s National
Institute for Statistics only 39.6% of Mozambicans can speak Portuguese. Strictly advocating
for the exclusive use of Portuguese as the medium of instruction would mean breaking the
linguistic rights of 60.4% of Mozambicans. A part from this, scientific research has
consistently shown that children learn better when taught in the language they have greater
proficiency. The use of the child’s most fluent language which is in Africa most often than not
their mother tongue fosters children self-esteem and stimulates their cognitive development.
Artigal (1995, p.179) (qtd. in Henriksen (2010, p.85) argues that “proficiency in the family
language is a sine qua non prerequisite for any child’s linguistic, cognitive and academic
 1

development.” Besides this, the use of one’s mother tongue in education particularly in the
first years of schooling would foster the development of children self-esteem, awareness of
their identity and would make the learning more relevant to their lives. The exclusive use of a
foreign language in education may breed a sense of alienation and frustration for learners
whose command is still far from the desirable. Coming back to Ngoenha (2000) question,
“to what society should schools prepare the children? To a globalised competitive society or
to a more conservative and traditional society marked by strong sense of identity?” and then
taking into account the quest of efficiency and authenticity raised by Fishman (1968) (qtd. in
Kaplan and Baldauf 2004), it may not be as easy as one may think it is to set an appropriate
language policy, particularly because the world is changing so rapidly and it is quite difficult
to predict what the future will bring to us. In our opinion there is a need of striking a balance
between the two.

7 Reasons for introducing the bilingual education in Mozambique

According to Herinksen (2009, p.1), in 1993, Mozambique introduced, for the first
time ever, a Pilot Bilingual Education Project, putting an end to the exclusive use of
Portuguese as the only medium of instruction in the country. It should be highlighted that,
similarly to many other post-colonial states, at the time of the country’s independence from
Portugal, in 1975, Mozambique also adopted the ex-colonial language as the only official
language. Being the country’s official language meant that Portuguese was not only the sole
language for the conduction of business and administration in the public domain, but also that
it had hegemony2 as the only medium of instruction, from the primary school to the
university level.

The introduction of the Bilingual Education Program was mainly aimed at

contributing to the improvement of the quality of basic education in Mozambique,
acknowledging that Portuguese is not the mother tongue of the majority of Mozambican
children. And it is certainly supported by international research and practice pointing to the
academic and cognitive advantages of the use of the mother tongue in initial schooling
(UNESCO 1953; Benson 1997; Trudell 2008).

Many studies have argued that Mother Tongue Education is essential for initial
instruction and literacy. For instance, UNESCO (2003, p.31) claims that
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- Every pupil should begin his (or her) formal education in his (or her) mother tongue;

- adult illiterates should make their first steps to literacy through their mother tongue,
passing on to a second language if they desire and are able;

- If a given locality has a variety of languages, ways and means should be sought to
arrange instruction groups by mother tongue;

- if mixed groups are unavoidable, instruction should be in the language which gives
the least hardship to the bulk of the pupils, and special help should be given those who do not
speak the language of instruction.
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8 Conclusion

In conclusion, bilingualism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that offers

numerous benefits across cognitive, linguistic, and cultural domains. The cognitive
advantages of bilingualism, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and mental flexibility,
can have far-reaching implications for individuals throughout their lives. Additionally,
bilingual individuals possess improved communication skills, allowing them to navigate
diverse social contexts with ease and engage in meaningful cross-cultural interactions. When
considering bilingualism in education, it becomes evident that bilingual education programs
have the potential to provide significant advantages. Students who participate in such
programs often demonstrate higher academic achievement and have access to a broader range
of resources and opportunities. Moreover, bilingual education fosters inclusivity and cross-
cultural understanding among students from different linguistic backgrounds, promoting a
more harmonious and interconnected society.

However, implementing bilingual education programs can present challenges.

Balancing instructional time between languages, ensuring equal proficiency in both
languages, and addressing potential language dominance or preference among students
require careful planning and resources. It is crucial to provide adequate support and
professional development for educators involved in bilingual education to maximize its
effectiveness.

Despite these challenges, understanding the positive aspects of bilingualism in

education allows us to strive towards creating inclusive and effective educational
environments. By embracing the unique linguistic and cultural backgrounds of students, we
can harness the power of bilingualism to foster academic success, cultural appreciation, and
global citizenship.

In conclusion, bilingualism in education holds great potential for individuals and

society as a whole. By recognizing the concepts, benefits, as well as the positive and negative
aspects of bilingualism, we can work towards creating educational systems that celebrate
diversity and empower students to thrive in an increasingly interconnected world
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