460 Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 102 (1991) 460-469

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

[CH]

Sub-aerial denudation of passive margins" regional elevation

versus local relief models

M . A . Surnmerfield
Macrogeomorphology Research Group, Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XP, UK
Received April 18, 1990; revised version accepted August 22, 1990

ABSTRACT

Variations in denudation rates, which are an important factor in the modification of the sub-aerial topography of passive
margins, have frequently been modelled as being proportionate to regional elevation. To be valid, this assumption requires
that mean slope gradient and the related property of local relief show a strong positive relationship to regional elevation since
slope angle is a primary determinant of denudation rate, Analysis of the relationships between these variables based on the
1 : 250,000 scale topographic map coverage of southern Africa demonstrates that regional (modal) elevation explains only 0.5%
of the variance in mean sine slope gradient and only 0.14% of the variance in local relief (measured over 15' x 15' areas).
These results demonstrate that regional elevation cannot be used to predict denudation rates for passive margins, such as those
of southern Africa, where a dissected coastal zone is separated from a high interior plateau by a major escarpment. On the
basis of a previous regression analysis relating local relief to sediment and solute transport by rivers the data for southern
Africa indicate denudation rates of > 80 m Ma-1 over much of the coastal zone and < 20 m Ma-1 across most of the
elevated interior. Extrapolation of these results over geological time, however, necessitates either assumptions about the local
relief of palaeotopography or independent evidence of long-term denudation rates.

1. Introduction tional unloading can apparently itself give rise to

Studies of passive margins have traditionally
focused on the tectonic and thermal aspects of
rifting and on the associated offshore sedimentary
record which has proved so valuable in recon-
structing rifting histories and evaluating tectonic
models. Recently, however, there has been a grow-
ing appreciation of the importance of the sub-
aerial morphology of passive margins because of
the constraints that topography can place on
mechanisms of continental rifting [1-5] Neverthe-
less, the topography of passive margins is not
simply a reflection of tectonic processes since,
where sub-aerially exposed, they will be subject to
at least some degree of modification by denuda-
tional processes. Consequently, an understanding
of the spatial and temporal patterns of denudation
which characterize passive margins is critical if
their morphology is to be correctly interpreted in
relation to tectonic models. The denudation of
passive margins is also of considerable importance
because flexural isostasy in response to denuda-
significant topographic effects along older margins
if there is a sustained difference in denudation
rates across the margin [6].
In quantifying the effects of denudation it is
clearly important to use models which replicate, at
least in broad terms, the morphological evolution
of real passive margins, but developing such mod-
els is problematic. This is partly because of the
inherent variability in the initial topography
formed by rift-related tectonics and the wide range
of climatic, lithological and relief factors which
can affect the subsequent modification of passive
margin morphology by denudational processes.
There is, however, the additional problem of the
lack of empirical data documenting spatial varia-
tions in denudation rates over time scales which
encompass passive margin evolution. This is in
stark contrast to the detailed record of the subsi-
dence behaviour of the distal zone of passive
margins provided by offshore sedimentary se-
quences.
In the relatively few studies in which denuda-

0012-821X/91/$03.50 © 1991 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

SUB-AERIAL DENUDATION OF PASSIVE MARGINS
tion has been specifically incorporated into
tectonic models of passive margin development it
has usually been assumed to be a simple function
of regional elevation [3,7-10]. By analyzing the
relationships between regional elevation, relief and
mean slope gradient I demonstrate here that this
assumption is invalid for the passive margins of
southern Africa and is also unlikely to be ap-
propriate for other morphologically similar mar-
gins. I also argue that the marked spatial discon-
tinuity in denudation rates which apparently char-
acterizes many passive margins is much more ade-
quately modelled as a function of local relief rather
than regional elevation.
2. Terminology
Several investigations of passive margin tecton-
ics, along with' m a n y other studies which consider
denudation in relation to tectonics, reveal consid-
erable confusion over the terminology employed
to describe morphological variables. More specifi-
cally, in some cases there is an apparent confusion
about, the meaning of the terms relief and eleva-
tion, with some researchers apparently regarding
them as synonymous [11,12]. Given that the dis-
tinction between these terms is critical to an un-
derstanding of the relationships between topogra-
phy and denudation rates it is important that they
are clearly defined.
Elevation refers to altitude above a given datum
(usually mean sea level), whereas relief refers to a
difference in elevation at a particular horizontal
scale. Where the average elevation over an area
rather than a point elevation is being referred to,
the term regional eleoation is appropriate. The
term relief is sometimes used loosely to describe
the difference in elevation between interfluves and
valley bottoms. When referring to a difference
between m a x i m u m and minimum elevation over a
small, specifically defined area the term local relief
should be used. The term denudation is also pre-
ferred to erosion in describing the transfer of
material from continent to ocean since, by includ-
ing mass movement and solute transport as well as
sediment removal, the former encompasses the
totality of exogenic processes that lead to a lower-
ing of the ground surface.
461
3. Regional elevation denudation models
Regional elevation denudation models are de-
scribed by:
E, = EI)~ e - t
where E t is elevation at time t, E 1 is initial
elevation, t is time since denudation began and )~
is a denudational (decay) constant. Various de-
nudational (erosional) constants have been used
depending on the assumed long-term rate of de-
nudation.
Although some researchers acknowledge that
mathematical convenience is a major reason for
employing the assumption in geophysical models
that denudation rates are proportional to regional
elevation [8,13], others have attempted to justify
its use on empirical grounds. Scheidegger [14,
p.132], for instance, has suggested that precipita-
tion increases with height in some areas, although
present process measurements indicate that total
precipitation alone is not a critical determinant of
denudation rates [15]. Withjack [16], on the other
hand, has pointed to the positive relationship be-
tween relief and denudation rates, and has gone
on to infer a similar relationship with respect to
regional elevation on the basis that areas of high
elevation are generally associated with areas of
high relief. In other cases the assumed relationship
between regional elevation and relief seems to be
based on a misunderstanding of empirical studies
examining the association between relief and de-
nudation rates. Pitman and Golovchenko [7], for
instance, have interpreted the work of Ahnert [17]
as indicating that denudation rates are propor-
tional to regional elevation, although this study
actually established a relationship between de-
nudation rate and mean relief (estimated from
local relief over 20 x 20 km sample areas).
Numerous theoretical and empirical studies
have demonstrated that denudation rates (at least
for fluvial systems) are highly dependent on slope
and channel gradient [15,18,19]. Moreover, as
Ahnert [17] has shown, mean slope gradient is
strongly correlated with local relief (at the 20 x 20
km scale). If, in turn, it could be demonstrated
that local relief and regional elevation are also
closely related then the assumption that denuda-
tion rates are proportional to regional elevation
would be supported. Surprisingly, given the m a n y
462 M.A. SUMMERFIELD

studies that have implicitly made this assumption,
there has been no previous attempt to assess rela-
tionships between regional elevation, mean slope
gradient and local relief at the sub-continental
scale relevant to geophysical studies.
4. Analysis and results
A high-quality, photogrammetrically compiled
topographic map coverage makes southern Africa
an excellent location for evaluating the relation-

16E 20E 24E 28E 32E

22S

268

30S

34S

16E 20E 24E 28E 32E

2500 -< 3000

I
2000 -< 2500
1500 -< 2000
1000 -< 1500 0 100 200 300 400 500
I J ± J
500 -< 1000
km
0 -< 500
I_ Oceans / Areas outside coverage

Fig. 1. C o o r d i n a t e p l o t o f m o d a l e l e v a t i o n (m) f o r s o u t h e r n A f r i c a .
SUB-AERIAL DENUDATION OF PASSIVE MARGINS 463

ships between these morphological variables in a
passive margin setting. The morphology of much
of the region is also typical of a number of other
passive margins and their hinterlands being char-
acterized by a dissected coastal zone separated
from an elevated continental interior by a major
escarpment [20,21]. The 1:250,000 topographic
maps of the Directorate of Surveys and Mapping
of South Africa (which also covers Lesotho and
the bordering regions of adjacent territories) were
used. This map series has a contour interval of 50
m with an estimated minimum accuracy of less

16E 20E 24E 28E ;32E

22S

26S

30S

34S

16E 20E ~4E 28E 32E

1500 +
1000 -< 1500
500 -< 1000
250 -< 500 I
100 -< E50 0 100 200 300 400 500
L • 2 I I
50 -< 100 km
0-< 50
~Oceans / Areas outside coverage i

Fig. 2. C o o r d i n a t e plot of local relief (m) for s o u t h e r n Africa.

464 M.A. SUMMERFIELD

than 20 m. For ease of data collection a latitude- resulting data were converted to sine values since
longitude grid was used since, at the relatively low the force of gravity acting on slopes is propor-
latitude of southern Africa, the resulting latitudi- tional to the sine of the slope gradient [17].
nal variation in grid area is relatively small. A Figure 1 maps modal elevation and reveals the
1 5 ' × 15' grid was selected which produces grid steady westward decline in regional elevation from
dimensions ranging from - 2 3 × 27 km at lati- a m a x i m u m in the vicinity of the (underplated?
tude 35°S to - 2 6 × 2 7 km at latitude 22°S. [2,23]) Lesotho Highlands in the southeast. Super-
These dimensions are therefore comparable to the imposed on this sub-continental scale trend is a
20 × 20 km sample areas used by Ahnert [17]. narrow coastal zone of low elevation. Around 50%
Modal elevation, local relief and mean slope of the whole region covered lies between eleva-
gradient were estimated for each of 2132 15' × 15' tions of 1000 and 2000 m, and only 20% (entirely
areas. Modal elevation was used to characterize confined to the coastal zone) is below 500 m.
regional elevation and local relief was derived Local relief shows a more complex pattern but in
from the difference between the m a x i m u m and general the highest values occur around the margin,
minimum estimated elevation in each grid area. especially in the Lesotho Highlands and in parts
Mean slope gradient was determined after the of the Cape Fold Belt flanking the south coast
method of Wentworth [22]. The frequency of con- (Fig. 2). The lowest values outside the small area
tour crossings per unit length of transect was of the Mozambique coastal plain included in the
measured over four orientations ( N - S , E - W , study area are found in the interior, particularly in
N W - S E and N E - S W ) in order to minimize bias the north across the southern margin of the
due to preferential orientation of topography. The Kalahari Basin.

Local Relief (m)

2400

2200

2000
+
+

1800 + +
+
+ ÷
+
++ + ÷

++ + +
÷
1600 + ** *
+ +
÷ + + + + + +
+ +
+ • + ++
¢ + +÷ ÷. * +~+
1400 + ~+ +
÷+ +
+
*
+ ÷
*+ +
÷ +÷ + + + + ÷ ~ + +
• , + ÷~+ + + +, ~* * ++ +
+ + +
1200 ,+ ~ * ~ + +

÷ *** ++ 2 +*
÷,+ ++ + + ÷ ~ .+
1000 + ~ ++ ÷+*+ ** + ~ , +÷ ++~ **~, + + ~
~+*+ +÷~ + + +, % + ,+*+ +* + ÷ + + +++ ++÷+ * +
+ ++** ~+* ** + +

÷ + ++ ~ + .~iL..~ ~ .~ :~ + + + ~+~++ +* .

400 *+ + +*+ + t+ + +

200 t~
+
.+
0 , .* ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0.025 0.05 0,075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25 0.275 0.3 0.325 0.35 0.375
Sine Slope

Fig. 3. S c a t t e r g r a m of sine slope ( x ) a g a i n s t local relief ( y ) . E q u a t i o n of the regression h n e is y = 4597.24x + 152.74. The regression
line does n o t pass t h r o u g h the origin because of a slight c u r v i l i n e a r t r e n d in the relationship.
SUB-AERIAL DENUDATION OF PASSIVE MARGINS 465

Mean slope gradient (sine slope) shows a very originally much larger basalt plateau which has
similar spatial distribution to local relief and this been reduced to its present size by escarpment
results in a close relationship between the two retreat. It is now deeply dissected by the head-
variables (Fig. 3) evident in the product moment water tributaries of the Orange River and at the
correlation coefficient (p) of 0.870. If modal scale used here it has a high local relief which is
elevation is plotted against mean slope gradient, not typical of the much more extensively exposed
however, an extremely low correlation is produced underlying Karoo sedimentary sequences lying to
(p = 0.071) with only 0.50% of the variance in sine the west.
slope being explained by modal elevation (Fig. 4).
Similarly the obvious spatial mis-match evident in 5. Discussion
Figs. 1 and 2 is reflected by a similarly low corre-
lation between modal elevation and local relief Given the dependence of denudation rates on
(p = 0.037; variance in local relief explained = local relief and mean slope gradient, the absence
0.14%) (Fig. 5). of a relationship between modal elevation and
The tendency for high modal elevation ( > 2000 either mean slope gradient or local relief estab-
m) to be associated with both high sine slope and lished in this study clearly demonstrates that at
local relief which is apparent in Figs. 4 and 5 can the sub-continental scale denudation rates are not
be accounted for by the particular morphology of proportional to regional elevation in southern
the region covered. Significant areas over 2000 m Africa. Morphological similarities between the
in the study area are confined to the Lesotho passive margins of southern Africa and other
Highlands. This is a small erosional remnant of an elevated passive margins such as eastern Australia,

Sine Slope
0.375

0.35
÷ +
0.325 + ÷

÷ ÷
÷
0.3 ÷

÷ + ÷ ÷ +
÷
0.275 ÷
+ +
+
+
+
+ + ++
+
÷ + + ÷ ~ + + +

0.25 + :~ +
+
÷
+
+
÷
÷ + ÷ + ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
+
+ ÷
0.225 +
÷
+
:~ +
+
+ + ÷
+
÷
+ +
+
~t
÷ ÷ + + :[ +
0.2 * + * i ÷!c +;~ , +
÷ + +
$ ÷ ÷
+ + ~, + ++÷ ÷ ~÷ @
0.175 + * ÷ + ;t * ÷ ~ +

+ $ ÷ t

0.15 , ÷ 4'I
, * +* ÷ ÷ :t .~ .. # ÷ :~ * ÷ t +

+
+ * .~ $ * I÷ :~ . + $÷ * # ++
Q.125 , ÷÷ +_ ,

0.1
; + ÷t
*i+**
÷÷+.÷+
÷ +'*÷~|*:~t.* ÷÷ ~ + + ÷ ÷
+ ÷ ~+ +*
0.075 "--{,, ! ÷ f , %, +
+
**~
~
*.
~ .~
i;l++.,
o
÷* !÷ ;
o ÷ ~

0 200
•

400
,

800
,

800
I..' H,1a
. . ,.,

1000 1200
,

1400 1600 IB00 2000 2200 24-00 28'00 3000

Modal Elevation (m)
Fig. 4. Scattergram of modal elevation against sine slope.
466 M.A. SUMMERFIELD

~cal Relxet ( m )
2200

2000

1800 ' , + +
+ +
÷ +
+
+ +
¢ +
1600 ~ +
+
+ + 4-
++ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
1400 ~ ÷ +
4- + +
+ + + ÷ + ÷
+ + ÷
+
+

+ + +~ +
+ + ÷ + +

1ooo " ..,. * ' ÷'I; " +

+

800
+ + I + + +

i , I'~i
+ + @ ~" t + +

200 ~: t , ** ~*~+ , +' , +

~ + +~ + + +

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Moda] E l e v a t i o n ( m )
F i g . 5. S c a t t e r g r a m o f m o d a l e l e v a t i o n a g a i n s t l o c a l relief.

eastern South America and the flanks of the Red meaningful denudation rates requires detailed and
Sea strongly suggest that this conclusion is of reliable stream load records from non-anthro-
general significance. pogenically affected catchments with allowances
The high correlation established here between being made for climatic and lithological variabil-
mean slope gradient and local relief supports the ity. This is problematic for southern Africa be-
earlier finding of Ahnert [17] and indicates that cause of the obvious anthropogenic modification
local relief measured over limited areas can be of denudation rates in some areas [24,25] and the
used as a surrogate topographic index of erosive possible impact of the mobilisation of Quaternary
potential at the regional scale. This is an im- sediments [26]. Nonetheless, it is interesting to
portant finding because the estimation of mean apply the general relationship established by
slope gradient at the regional scale is extremely Ahnert [17] in order to gain an approximate idea
time consuming and can only be determined where of how natural denudation rates m a y vary over
high-quality topographic maps are available. Lo- southern Africa. He has in fact suggested various
cal relief by contrast can be easily measured from regression equations based on different assump-
topographic maps and can also be readily de- tions about relative rates of stream incision and
termined from m a x i m u m and minimum elevation interfluve lowering, but taking the basic relation-
values contained in global topographic databases. ship d = 0.1535 h, where h is mean local relief (m)
If local relief is an adequate surrogate measure and d is denudation rate ( m m k a - ] ) , gives the
of mean slope gradient what is the relationship denudation rates m a p p e d in Fig. 6. This plot
between local relief and denudation rate? Accu- indicates a marked contrast between high denuda-
rate calibration of local relief-denudation rate tion rates ( > 80 m M a ~) in the coastal zone
models for the purposes of estimating geologically which reach a m a x i m u m along the Great Escarp-
SUB-AERIAL DENUDATION OF PASSIVE MARGINS 467

ment and the Cape Fold Belt, and low rates ( < 20
m Ma -1) over much of the high interior plateau.
The mean local relief for all 15' × 15' areas is 461
m and this gives an overall mean denudation rate
of 71 mm ka-1. This figure is comparable to the
rate of 55 mm ka -1 which can be calculated from
the mean sediment yield data of Rooseboom and
Harmse [26] for the upper Orange Basin.
Although this analysis has indicated probable
spatial variations in present-day patterns of de-

1rE 20E 24E 28E 32E

22S

26S

30S

34S

16E 20E 24E 28E 32E

200 -< 340

160 -< 200
120 -< 160
80 - < 1 2 0
40 - < 80 0 lO0 200 300 400 500
] I L J
20 - < 40
10 - < 2 0 km

0 - < 10
O c e a n s / Areas oulside coverage

Fig. 6. Coordinate plot of variations in estimated denudation rate (mm ka-1) f o r southern Africa constructed by calculating for each
15" × 15' area rates based on local relief estimated from the relationship derived by Ahnert [17] between denudation rate and mean
local relief for mid-latitude drainage basins.
468
n u d a t i o n , care m u s t be t a k e n in the l o n g - t e r m
e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f these results. T h e extent to which
this k i n d o f m o d e l is a p p l i c a b l e over geological
time scales d e p e n d s o n the degree to which we can
m a k e r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the m a g n i -
tude of local relief a s s o c i a t e d with different
p a l a e o t o p o g r a p h i e s . S o m e researchers, for in-
stance, r e g a r d the G r e a t E s c a r p m e n t in s o u t h e r n
A f r i c a as a p r i m a r y m o r p h o l o g i c a l feature d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d to the b r e a k - u p of G o n d w a n a [27], a n d
this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has also b e e n a p p l i e d to o t h e r
passive m a r g i n s [20]. If this view is correct it
w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to infer spatial changes in local
relief over time in r e s p o n s e to e s c a r p m e n t retreat.
R e c e n t results f r o m a p a t i t e fission track analysis,
however, d o n o t s u p p o r t a simple m o d e l of escarp-
m e n t retreat b e c a u s e they i n d i c a t e significant
p o s t - r i f t i n g d e n u d a t i o n , at least locally, i n l a n d of
the p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n o f the G r e a t E s c a r p m e n t [28].
C l e a r l y the d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n of d e n u d a t i o n
m o d e l s b a s e d on local relief to the q u a n t i f i c a t i o n
of rates a n d p a t t e r n s o f passive m a r g i n d e n u d a -
tion over geological time m u s t b e c o m p a t i b l e with
fission track d a t a as well as o t h e r types o f e s t i m a t e
b a s e d on, for instance, offshore s e d i m e n t v o l u m e s
[29].
6. Conclusions
T h e assertion that d e n u d a t i o n rates are p r o p o r -
tional to regional e l e v a t i o n rests on the a s s u m p -
tion that m e a n slope g r a d i e n t a n d local relief are
s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d with elevation. A n a l y s i s of the
r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n m e a n slope gradient, local
relief a n d m o d a l e l e v a t i o n in s o u t h e r n A f r i c a indi-
cates that d e n u d a t i o n rates c a n n o t be m o d e l l e d as
a f u n c t i o n of regional elevation in this, a n d o t h e r
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y similar, passive m a r g i n settings.
Previous studies have d e m o n s t r a t e d that d e n u d a -
tion rates a r e s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d to m e a n slope gradi-
ent a n d local relief, b u t in s o u t h e r n A f r i c a b o t h
these t o p o g r a p h i c variables show an e x t r e m e l y
w e a k c o r r e l a t i o n with regional elevation. D e n u d a -
tion o f passive margins, such as those o f s o u t h e r n
Africa, which are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a dissected
c o a s t a l zone s e p a r a t e d f r o m a high i n t e r i o r p l a t e a u
b y a r e t r e a t i n g e s c a r p m e n t , are m u c h m o r e ade-
q u a t e l y m o d e l l e d in terms of local relief. F o r
s o u t h e r n A f r i c a this a p p r o a c h suggests p r e s e n t
d e n u d a t i o n rates o f > 80 m M a - I in the coastal
M.A. SUMMERFIELD
zone a n d < 20 m M a - I over m u c h o f the i n t e r i o r
plateau. E x t r a p o l a t i o n of these rates over geologi-
cal time, however, requires a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the
m a g n i t u d e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of local relief associ-
a t e d with p a r t i c u l a r p a l a e o t o p o g r a p h i e s , o r inde-
p e n d e n t evidence of l o n g - t e r m d e n u d a t i o n rates,
such as that which c o u l d b e p r o v i d e d b y fission
t r a c k data.
Acknowledgements
1 w o u l d like to t h a n k A n n e T a l b o t a n d C r a i g
Y o u n g for their assistance in d a t a c o m p i l a t i o n ,
a n d M i k e A d a m who also g e n e r a t e d the G i m m s
m a p plots. I a m also e x t r e m e l y grateful to F r a n k
A h n e r t for his review of the d r a f t version o f the
p a p e r . This research was s u p p o r t e d b y N E R C a n d
T e x a c o Inc. a n d c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t e n u r e of a
S u p p o r t R e s e a r c h F e l l o w s h i p f r o m the R o y a l
Society of E d i n b u r g h .
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